FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY APPLIED DESIGN AND

FINE ART

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023/2024, SEMESTER ONE

PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-I (BCE 3105)

TOPIC IV- ON SITE SANITATION

 TOPIC 4- ON SITE SANITATION

4.1. INTRODUCTION

“Sanitation” refers to all conditions that affect health, especially with regards to dirt and infection
and specifically to the drainage and disposal of sewage and refuse from houses (The Concise
Oxford Dictionary).

At its first meeting in 1950, the WHO Expert Committee on Environmental Sanitation defined
environmental sanitation as including the control of community water supplies, excrete and
wastewater disposal, refuse disposal, vectors of disease, housing conditions, food supplies and
handling, atmospheric conditions, and the safety of the working environment.

There has been considerable awareness of community water supply needs, but the problems of
excrete and wastewater collection and disposal have received less attention. In order to focus
attention on these problems, “Sanitation” became used and understood by people worldwide to refer
only to excrete and wastewater collection and disposal. A WHO Study Group in 1986 formally
adopted this meaning by defining sanitation as “the means of collecting and disposing of excrete
and community liquid wastes in a hygienic way so as not to endanger the health of individuals
and the community as a whole” (WHO, 1987a).

Hygienic collection and disposal that does not endanger health should be the underlying objective
of all sanitation programmes.

The areas that are not served by piped sewer systems can adopt on-site systems. The treatment can be
either on-site or off-site like in the case of septage management. These are interim measures till a
decentralised or a full sewerage system is implemented.

Unlike off-site centralized treatment (sewerage), on-site sewage treatment features individual and
distributed treatment. The on-site treatment system includes a wide range of facilities, such as a basic
sanitation facility like:

 A pit latrine,
 A simple sewage treatment system that consists of a septic tank and a soak pit for anaerobic
treatment, and other advanced facilities that treat sewage by sophisticated methods.

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The on-site sanitation system treats sewage near the source. Accordingly, on site sanitation uses
various kinds of treatment technologies according to treatment scale and the surrounding conditions.
Sludge generated in each on-site treatment facility is collected and treated separately.

4.2. NON-WATER BONE ON-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

4.2.1. Traditional Pit Latrines

The historical pit latrines are rather rudimentary on-site sanitation facilities at least serving to contain
the spread of faecal organisms from the night soil and bringing about interactions between soil
organisms and feacal organisms in the pit.
This consists of a slab over a pit which may be 2 m or more in depth. The slab should be firmly
supported on all sides and raised above the surrounding ground so that surface water cannot enter the
pit. If the sides of the pit are liable to collapse, they should be lined. A squat hole in the slab or a seat
is provided so that the excrete fall directly into the pit.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost Considerable fly nuisance (and mosquito
nuisance if the pit is wet) unless there is a tight-
fitting cover over the squat hole when the
latrine is not in use.
Can be built by the householder Bad smell.
Does not require water for operations Has potential to pollute ground water
Easily understood Requires large area either to sink another pit
when the one in use is full or for emptying the
used one.
Easy to operate and maintain Requires soil type which can easily absorbs
Can be built using local materials and leachates generated in the pit.
technologies
Can be improved incrementally over time

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 Fig 4.1. Schematic Diagram of a Traditional Pit Latrine
4.2.2. Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines

Fly and odour nuisance may be substantially reduced if the pit is ventilated by a pipe extending
above the latrine roof, with fly-proof netting across the top. The inside of the superstructure should
be kept dark with ventilators fixed at the higher elevation of the latrine. Such latrines are known as
ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost Additional cost of providing vent pipes and flies
Can be built by the householder trap capping.
Does not require water for operations Has potential to pollute ground water
Easily understood Requires large area either to sink another pit
when the one in use is full or for emptying the
used one.
Easy to operate and maintain Requires soil type which can easily absorbs
Can be built using local materials and leachates generated in the pit.
technologies
Can be improved incrementally over time
Reduced fly nuisance Need to keep interior dark
Reduced odour nuisance Doesn’t control mosquitoes

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 Fig 4.2. Schematic Diagram of a Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine
4.2.3. Compost Latrines (ECOSAN)

In this latrine, excrete fall into a watertight tank to which ash or vegetable matter is added. If the
moisture content and chemical balance are controlled, the mixture will decompose to form a good
soil conditioner in about four months. Pathogens are killed in the dry alkaline compost, which can be
removed for application to the land as a fertilizer.

There are two types of composting latrine: in one, compost is produced continuously, and in the
other, two containers are used to produce it in batches.

4.2.3.1. Batch Composting Toilets

These toilet systems rely upon the natural process of anaerobic composting to degrade the human
waste. Double-vault composting (DVC) toilets are the most common types of batch composting
toilets. They include two adjacent pits used alternately for every four to six months. Once a pit
becomes half to three-fourths full, it is filled with ash, grass and other household organic refuse such

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as kitchen wastes, food wastes, paper wastes, etc. to absorb excess moisture in the pit and then
covered with soil.
The anaerobic composting process that occurs in these pits require several months to complete. Vault
ventilation reduces odor and fly nuisance. By keeping the squatting plate clean, DVC toilets can be
made so as not to pose any significant health risks. After a period of five to six months necessary for
the die-off of a majority of pathogens, the compost can be removed and can be used as a fertilizer or
as a soil conditioner. DVC toilets are suitable where:
 Users take sufficient care in the maintenance of the toilet;
 Sufficient organic filling materials such as ash, saw dust, grass or vegetable wastes are
available;
 Users are not averse to handling the composted material;
 There is opportunity for local use for the humus produced.

4.2.3.2. Continuous Composting Toilets

In continuous composting toilets or the “Multrum” toilets (after the Swedish design), the composting
pit, which is immediately below the squatting plate, has a sloping floor with inverted U- or V-shaped
channels suspended above it to promote aerobic conditions in the chamber. Household organic
wastes such as kitchen wastes, cardboard, grass etc., also can be added to the pit to obtain necessary
carbon nitrogen ratios for better composting.
Moisture requires to be carefully controlled at around 40 to 60%. In some designs, arrangements are
provided for entry of outside air to promote aerobic conditions inside the composting chamber. Use
of bulky materials such as straw or grass also help to this end. The composting material slowly
moves down the sloping floor to a humus vault kept at the end for collection. The compost needs to
be removed regularly for disposal.

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 Fig. 4.3 (a) Prototype of a composting toilet

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-the-prototype-composting-
toilet_fig2_321653601

Fig. 4.3 (b) Composting Toilet which separates Urine from Faeces
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Composting-toilet-which-separate-faeces-and-urine-
Karak-and-Bhattacharyya-15_fig4_304614772

4.2.4. REED’S ODORLESS EARTH CLOSET-ROEC

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Reed’s Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC) is an alternative design for a VIP latrine. The pit in this type
of latrine is completely offset from the squatting platform and the excreta fall into the pit through a
chute attached to the platform. Hence, the pit can be constructed for longer design period. Usually,
the design lifetime for this kind of sanitation arrangement is around fifteen to twenty years. It also
has a vent pipe to control fly and odor nuisance.

A disadvantage with ROEC is that in the absence of flushing or cleaning, the chute gets easily fouled
with excreta. In spite of this disadvantage, it is preferable to the VIP latrines for the following
reasons:
 It can be designed for longer life period;
 Since the pit is completely offset, there is no fear of collapse of the pit and possible danger to
the users;
 The pit contents will be invisible, and emptying the pit will be easy and hence can be
constructed with permanent superstructure

Fig. 4.4. Reed’s Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC)

4.3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR NON-WATER BONE LATRINES

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  As a general rule, pits should be designed to last as long as possible. Pits designed to last 25-
30 years are not uncommon and a design life of 15-20 years is perfectly reasonable.
 If the maximum possible design life is less than ten years, serious consideration should be
given to using an alternating double-pit system. In such systems the pits must have a
minimum life of two years.
 Pit can be of any shape; square or rectangular linings are easier to construct mean while at
greater depths, the circular shape is structurally more stable and able to carry additional
loading.
 Pits are generally 1-1.5 m wide or in diameter.
 The superstructure design is irrelevant to the operation of the latrine but crucial to the
acceptability of the latrine to the user.
 The cover slab should be raised at least 150 mm above the surrounding ground to divert
surface water away from the pit.
 For VIP; The vent pipe should extend at least 50 cm above the latrine superstructure except
where the latter has a conical roof, in which case the pipe should extend as high as the apex.
 For pour flush; the short length of small-diameter pipe or covered channel should be laid at a
minimum gradient of 1 in 30.
 for pour flush; PVC, concrete or clay pipes, 100 mm in diameter, are often used, but the
diameter may be the same as the water seal (usually 65-85 mm).
 For pour flush; Pipes or channels should project at least 100 mm into the pit.
 For pour flush; as little as 1.5 liters has been recorded as necessary for each flush, but usually
considerably more than this is required.

4.4. WATER BONE ON-SITE SANITATION SYSTEMS

4.4.1. Aqua Privy

An aqua privy consists essentially of a squatting platform that is situated directly on a fully lined
tank that discharges the liquid fraction to an adjacent soak away pit as shown in the figure below.

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 Fig. 4.5. An aqua privy with a soak away pit

The squatting plate is attached with a drop pipe of 100 or 150 mm diameter and the bottom end of
this pipe is kept about 10 to 15 cm below the water level in the collection tank.

 This creates a simple water seal between the squatting platform and the contents of the tank.
 It also prevents nuisance due to flies and odor.

A small vent pipe also is incorporated in the design to expel gases produced in the tank. It is
important that the tank be completely watertight so that the water seal is not tampered due to leakage
of water outside the tank. The excreta are directly deposited into the tank and undergo anaerobic
decomposition. The collection tanks are designed normally for two to three years, after which the
tank needs to be de-sludged. The liquid fraction that overflows from the tank needs to be discharged
through a soak pit or soak drain. Maintenance of the water seal has always been a problem in aqua
privies, when insufficient water is used to balance the water losses from the tank. A simple
modification of the conventional aqua privy, in which the household sullage also can be added to the
tank can overcome this disadvantage. The sullage helps to readily maintain the water seal. This will
obviously increase the quantity of discharge from the tank requiring a larger soak away capacity to
absorb excess flows. This modified version is called a “self-topping aqua privy.”

Major advantages of the “self- topping aqua privies” are:

 They can be located inside the house;

 They are odor and fly free;
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  Health risks are minimal.

The main disadvantages are:

 They are relatively costlier than other toilet systems;

 High level of skill requirement for construction;
 Pits are to be emptied regularly which may require municipal involvement;
 Significant amount of water is required for maintenance of the system.
4.4.2. Vaults

In some areas, watertight tanks called vaults are built under or close to latrines to store excrete until
they are removed by hand (using buckets or similar receptacles) or by vacuum tanker. Similarly,
household sewage may be stored in larger tanks called cesspits, which are usually emptied by
vacuum tankers. Vaults or cesspits may be emptied when they are nearly full or on a regular basis.

Fig. 4.6. Schematic of a Vault

Advantages Disadvantages

Satisfactory for users where there is a reliable Irregular collection can lead to tanks
and safe collection service overflowing

High construction and collection costs

Removal by hand has even greater health risks

than bucket system

Efficient infrastructure required

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4.4.3. Septic Tanks

A septic tank may be defined as a primary sedimentation tank, with a longer detention period (12-36
hours) and with extra provisions for anaerobic digestion of settled sludge, removing between 60-70%
of the dissolved mater from feacal waste.

Effluents from septic tanks is sufficiently foul in nature, and will have to be disposed either for sub-
surface irrigation or in cess-pools or soak pits, or to be treated in trickling filters before disposing it
of. The system works well where the soil is permeable and not liable to flooding or waterlogging,
provided the sludge is removed at appropriate intervals to ensure that it does not occupy too great a
proportion of the tank capacity.

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 Fig. 4.7. Schematic of a Septic Tank

If only water closets are connected to the septic tank, the sewage flow will be about 40-70
litres/capita /day, but when sullage is also discharged in to the septic tank, the sewage flow may be as
much as 90-150l/c/d. the rate of accumulation of sludge has been recommended as 30l/c/year.

 A free board of about 0.3-0.5 m may be provided above the top of sewage line in the tank to
help accommodate the scum in the tank.
 Inlet and outlet baffles: The baffles or tees should extend up to top level of the scum (about
20-22 cm) above the top sewage line, but must stop below the soffit of the covering slab (by
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 at least 7.5 cm or so) so as to allow free movement of gases. The inlet should penetrate about
30 cm below the top sewage line and the outlet should penetrate about 40% of the sewage
depth and the outlet invert level should be kept 5-7.5 cm below the inlet invert level.
 Detention period normally varies between 12-36 hours, but generally taken as 24 hours.
 Length to width ratio: length is always taken as 2 or 3 times the width and the width should
not be less than 0.9m and the depth is normally kept between 1.2 to 1.8 m.

Advantages Disadvantages

Gives the users the convenience of a water Permeable soil required

closet

Regular de-sludging required and sludge needs

careful handling

High cost

Only suitable for low-density housing

Reliable and ample piped water required

4.4.4. Pour Flush Toilets

A latrine may be fitted with a trap providing a water seal, which is cleared of faeces by pouring in
sufficient quantities of water to wash the solids into the pit and replenish the water seal. A water seal
prevents flies, mosquitos and odours reaching the latrine from the pit. The pit may be offset from the
latrine by providing a short length of pipe or covered channel from the pan to the pit. The pan of an
offset pour flush latrine is supported by the ground and the latrine may be within or attached to a
house.

Advantages Disadvantages

Low cost Additional cost of providing water trap and pipe for
offsetting the latrine
Latrine can be in house

Pan supported by ground

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Control of flies and mosquitos Unsuitable where solid anal cleaning material is used

Absence of smell in latrine Some limited water supply must be available

Can be upgraded by connection to sewer

when sewerage becomes available

Gives users the convenience of a WC

Contents of pit not visible

Fig 4.8. Schematic Diagram of a Pour Flush Toilet

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