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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY APPLIED DESIGN

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AND FINE ART

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

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PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-I (BCE 3105)

TOPIC III- ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTE WATER QUALITY
TOPIC 3- ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTE WATER QUALITY
3.1. INTRODUCTION

· The availability of a water supply adequate in terms of both quantity and quality is
essential to human existence.

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· Early people recognized the importance of water from a quantity viewpoint.

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· Civilization developed around water bodies that could support agriculture and

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transportation as well as provide drinking water.

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· Recognition of the importance of water quality developed more slowly.

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· Early humans could judge water quality only through the physical senses of: sight,

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taste, and smell, not until the biological, chemical, and medical sciences developed,

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where methods available to measure water quality and to determine its effects on
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human health and well-being were made possible.

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· In 1854, Dr. John Snow, a public-health worker in London, noted a high correlation
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between cholera cases and consumption of water from a well on Broad Street. Not
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only was cholera running rampant in the neighborhood around the well, but
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outbreaks of the disease in other parts of the city could be traced to individuals who
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had had occasion to drink from the Broad Street well. Although the proof was
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conclusive by modern epidemiology standards, the evidence was not accepted by

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Snow’s contemporaries. It is alleged that he physically removed the pump handle to

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prevent use of the contaminated water, thus abating the epidemic.

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· Advances in the germ theory of disease were made by Pasteur and others in the late
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nineteenth century, and by 1900 the concept of waterborne disease was well
accepted.

· The development of the science of water chemistry roughly paralleled that of water
micro-biology.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · Many of the chemicals used in industrial processes and agriculture have been
identified in water. However, the effort to identify other chemical compounds which
may already be found in trace quantities in many water supplies and to determine
their effects to human health was only recently begun.

· It is likely that new analytical techniques will be developed that will identify

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compounds not yet known to exist in water, and it is conceivable that these

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materials will also be linked to human health.

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· Thus, the science of water quality will remain a challenge for engineers and

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scientists for years to come.

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· Like all sciences, the science of water quality has developed its own terminology

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and the means of quantifying these terms.

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· The purpose of this unit is to introduce the modern concepts of water quality, how
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the nature and extent of contaminants in water are measured and expressed along
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with the sources of various contaminants that find their way into water and the
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environmental implications of their measurements.

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3.2. PHYSICAL WATER AND WASTE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

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Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the

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senses of sight, touch, taste or smell.

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· Suspended solids, turbidity, color, taste and odor and temperature fall in this
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category.
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3.2.1. SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolved forms. Although some
dissolved solids may be perceived by the physical senses, they fall more appropriately
under the category of chemical parameters.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
3.2.1.1. Sources

Solids suspended in water may consist of:

· Inorganic (Inorganic solids such as clay, silt, and other soil constituents are
common in surface water).

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· organic particles (Organic solids such as plant fibers and biological solids such as

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algal cells and bacteria are also common in surface water).

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·

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immiscible liquids.

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These suspended solids are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive action

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of water flowing over surfaces. Because off the filtering capacity of the soil, suspended

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material is seldom a constituent of groundwater.

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Other suspended material may result from human use of the water. Domestic wastewater W
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usually contains large quantities of suspended solids that are mostly organic in nature.
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Industrial use of water may result in a wide variety of suspended impurities of either
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organic or inorganic nature. Immiscible liquids such as oils and greases are often
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constituents of wastewater.
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3.2.1.2. Impacts
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Suspended material may be objectionable in water for several reasons.

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· It is aesthetically displeasing.
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· It provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.

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· The Organic suspended solids may biodegrade, resulting in objectionable

by-products.

· Biologically active (live) suspended solids may include disease-causing organisms

as well as organisms such as toxin-producing strains of algae.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
3.2.1.3. Measurement

· There are several tests available for measuring solids.

· Most are gravimetric tests involving the mass of residues.

· The total solids test quantifies all the solids in the water-suspended and dissolved,

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organic and inorganic.

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· This parameter is measured by evaporating a sample to dryness and weighing the

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residue.

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·

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The total quantity of residue is expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/ L) on a

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dry-mass-of-solids basis.

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· A drying temperature slightly above boiling (104) is sufficient to drive off the liquid

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and the water adsorbed to the surface of the particles, while a temperature of about W
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180is necessary to evaporate the occluded water.

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· Most suspended solids can be removed from water by filtration.

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· Thus, the fraction of the solids in a water sample can be approximated by:
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· Filtering the water through a filter bed of pore size 0.4-1.2 µm,
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·
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Drying the residue and filter to a constant weight at 104 °C (± 1 °C).

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· And determining the mass of the residue retained on the filter.

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Note:
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The volume of water to be filtered should be 1,000 ml or that volume which gives the dried
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mass of between 2.5 and 200 mg.

The results of this suspended solid test are also expressed as dry mass per volume
(milligrams per liter).

· Once samples have been dried and measured, the organic content of both total and
suspended solids can be determined by firing the residues at 600 °C for 1 hr. The

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 organic fraction of the residues will be converted to carbon dioxide, water vapor,
and other gases and will escape. The remaining material will represent the
in-organic, or fixed residue.

· When organic suspended solids are being measured, a filter made of glass fiber or
some other material that will not decompose at the elevated temperature must be

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used.

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3.2.1.4. Use

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Suspended solids, where such material is likely to be organic and/or biological in nature,

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are an important parameter of wastewater. The suspended-solids parameter is used to:

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· Measure the quality of the wastewater influent.

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· Monitor several treatment processes.
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· To measure the quality of the effluent.

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EPA has set a maximum suspended-solids standard of 30 mg/L for most treated
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wastewater discharges.
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Worked Example No.1

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A filterable residue analysis is run on a sample of water as follows. Prior to filtering, the
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crucible and filter pad are kept overnight in the drying oven, cooled and the dry mass (tare
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mass) of the pair was determined to be 54.352 g. Two hundred and fifty milliliters of the
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sample is drawn through a filter pad contained in the porous-bottom crucible. The crucible
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and filter pad are then placed in a drying oven at 104 °C, and dried until a constant mass of
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54.389 g is reached. Determine the suspended solids concentration of the sample.

Solution

Part 1. Determine the mass of solids removed.

Tare mass + solids = 54.389 g

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
- Tare mass = 54.352 g

Mass of solids = 0.037 g

= 37 mg

Part 2. Determine the concentration of the solids.

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=

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=

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= 148 mg/L

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3.2.2. TURBIDITY

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· A direct measurement of suspended solids is not usually performed on samples

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from natural bodies of water or on potable (drinkable) water supplies.
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· The nature of the solids in these waters and the secondary effects they produce are
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more important than the actual quantity. For such waters a test for turbidity is
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commonly used.
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· Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by

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suspended material in water.

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· Because absorption and scattering are influenced by both size and surface
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characteristics of the suspended material, turbidity is not a direct quantitative

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measurement of suspended solids. For example, one small pebble in a glass of

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water would produce virtually no turbidity. If this pebble were crushed into
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thousands of particles of colloidal size, a measurable turbidity would result, even

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though the mass of solids had not changed.

3.2.2.1. Sources

Most turbidity in surface waters results from:

· The erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock fragments

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · Metal oxides from the soil

· Vegetable fibers and

· Microorganisms may also contribute to turbidity.

Household and industrial wastewaters may contain a wide variety of turbidity-producing

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material such as soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that

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result in turbidity.

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Although turbidity measurements are not commonly run on wastewater, discharges of

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wastewaters may increase the turbidity of natural bodies of water.

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3.2.2.2. Impacts

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When turbid water in a small;

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· Transparent container, such as a drinking glass is held up to the light, an
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aesthetically displeasing opaqueness or “milky” coloration is apparent.

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· The colloidal materials associated with turbidity provides adsorption sites for
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chemicals that may be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors and for
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biological organisms that may be harmful

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· Disinfection of turbid waters is difficult because of the adsorptive characteristics

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of some colloids and because the solids may partially shield organisms from the
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disinfectant.
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In natural water bodies, turbidity may:

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· Impart a brown or other color to water depending on the light absorbing properties
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of the solids.

· Interfere with light penetration and photosynthetic reactions in streams and lakes.

· Accumulation of turbidity causing particles in porous streambeds results in

sediment deposits that can adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
3.2.2.3. Measurement

· Turbidity is measured photometrically by determining the percentage of light of a

given intensity that is either absorbed or scattered.

· The original measuring apparatus, called a Jackson turbidity meter/Jackson

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Turbidimeter was based on light absorption and employed a long tube and

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standardized candle.

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· The candle was placed beneath the glass tube that was then housed in a black

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metal sheath so that the light from the candle could only be seen from above the

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apparatus. The water sample was then poured slowly into the tube until the lighted

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candle was no longer visible, i.e., complete absorption had occurred as in fig 3.1.

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The glass tube was calibrated with readings for turbidity produced by suspensions

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of silica dioxide (SiO2), with one Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) being equal to the W
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turbidity produced by 1 mg of SiO2 in 1 liter of distilled water.

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Fig. 3.1: Jackson Turbidimeter

· In recent years, this awkward apparatus has been replaced by aturbidity meter in
which a standardized electric bulb produces a light that is then directed through a
small sample vial.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · In the absorption mode, a photometer measures the light intensity on the side of the
vial opposite from the light source, while in the scattering mode, a photometer
measures the light intensity at a 90angle from the light source.

· Although most turbidity meters in use today work on the scattering principle,
turbidity caused by dark substances that absorb rather than reflect light should be

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measured by the absorption technique.

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· Formazin, a chemical compound, provides more reproducible standards than SiO2

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and has replaced it as a reference.

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· Turbidity meter readings are now expressed asformazin turbidity units or FTUs . The

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term nephelometry turbidity unit (NTU) is often used to indicate that the test was

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run according to the scattering principle.

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3.2.2.4. Use
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Turbidity measurements are normally made on “clean” waters as opposed to wastewaters.

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Natural waters may have turbidities ranging from a few FTUs to several hundred. EPA
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drinking water standards specify a maximum of 1 FTU, while the American Water Works
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Association has set 0.1 FTU as its goal for drinking water.
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3.2.3. COLOR
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· Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances.
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· Water whose color is partly due to suspended material is said to haveapparent

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color .
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· Color contributed by dissolved solids that remain after the removal of suspended
material is known astrue color.

3.2.3.1. Sources

After contact with organic debris such as leaves, conifer needles, weeds, or wood, water
picks up tannins, humic acid, and humate sand and takes on yellowish-brown hues. Iron

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
oxides cause reddish water, and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water.
Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and paper production, food
processing, chemical production, and mining, refining, and slaughterhouse operations may
add substantial coloration to water in receiving streams.

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3.2.3.2. Impacts

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Colored water is:

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· Not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. In fact, given a choice,

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consumers tend to choose clear, non-colored water of otherwise poorer quality

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over treated potable water supplies with an objectionable color.
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· Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, papermaking, beverage

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manufacturing, dairy production and other food processing, and textile and plastic
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production. Thus, the color of water affects its marketability for both domestic and
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industrial use.
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· While true color is not usually considered unsanitary or unsafe, the organic
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compounds causing true color may exert a chlorine demand and thereby seriously
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reduce the effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant.

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· Perhaps more important are the products formed by the combination of chlorine
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with some color producing organics. Phenolic compounds, common constituents

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of vegetative decay products, produce very objectionable taste and odor

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compounds with chlorine.

· Additionally, some compounds of naturally occurring organic acids and chlorine are
either known to be or are suspected of being carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).

3.2.3.3. Measurement

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · Although several methods of color measurement are available, methodsinvolving
comparison with standardized colored materials are most often used .

· Color comparison tubes containing a series of standards may be used for direct
comparison or water samples that have been filtered to remove apparent color.

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· Results are expressed in true color units (TCUs) where one unit is equivalent to the

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color produced by 1 mg/l of platinum in the form of chloroplatinate ions.

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· For colors other than yellowish-brown hues. especially for colored waters originating

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from industrial waste effluents, special spectrophotometric techniques are usually

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employed.

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· In fieldwork, instruments employing colored glass disks that are calibrated to the

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color standards are often used. Because biological and physical changes occurring

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during storage may affect color, samples should be tested within 24 hr. of collection
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while being preserved at 4 °C.

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3.2.3.4. Use
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· Color is not a parameter usually included in wastewater analysis.

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· In potable water analysis; the common practice is to measure only the true color
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produced by organic acid resulting from decaying vegetation in the water.

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· The resulting value can be taken as an indirect measurement of humic substances

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in the water.

3.2.4. TASTE AND ODOR

The terms taste and odor are themselves definitive of this parameter. Because the
sensations of taste and smell are closely related and often confused, a wide variety of
tastes and odors may be attributed to water by consumers. Substances that produce an
ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
odor in water will almost invariably impart taste as well. The converse is not true, as there
are many mineral substances that produce taste but no odor.

3.2.4.1. Sources

Many substances with which water comes into contact in nature or during human use may

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impart perceptible taste and odor. These include:

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· Minerals,

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·

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Metals,

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·

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Salts from the soil,

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· End products from biological reactions, and

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· constituents of wastewater.

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ü Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odor.

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ü Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while metallic salts may give a salty
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or bitter taste.
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ü Organic material, on the other hand, is likely to produce both taste and odor.
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ü A multitude of organic chemicals may cause taste and odor problems in water, with
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petroleum-based products being prime offenders.

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ü Biological decomposition of organics may also result in taste and odor producing
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liquids and gases in water, principal among these are the reduced products of sulfur
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that impart a “rotten egg" taste and odor. Also, certain species of algae secret an
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oily substance that may result in both taste and odor.

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ü The combination of two or more substances, neither of which would produce taste
or odor by itself, may sometimes result in taste and odor problems. This synergistic
effect was noted earlier in the case of organics and chlorine.

3.2.4.2. Impacts

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 ü Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons.
Because water is thought of as tasteless and odorless, the consumer associates
taste and odor with contamination and may prefer to use a tasteless, odorless water
that might actually pose more of a health threat.

ü Odors produced by organic substances may pose more than a problem of simple

M
Y
aesthetics since some of those substances may be carcinogenic.

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3.2.4.3. Measurements

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ü Direct measurement of materials that produce tastes and odors can be made if the

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A
causative agents are known.

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ü Several types of analysis are available for measuring taste-producing inorganics.

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ü Measurement of taste and odor causing organics can be made using gas or liquid
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chromatography. Because chromatographic analysis is time consuming and

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requires expensive equipment, it is not routinely performed on water samples, but

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should be done if problem organics are suspected.

D
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ü However, because of the synergism noted earlier, quantifying the sources does not
A
R

necessarily quantify the nature or Intensity of taste and odor.

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A

ü Quantitative tests that employ thehuman senses of taste and smell can be used for
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this purpose.
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ü An example is the test for the threshold odor number (TON).

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ü Varying amounts of odorous water are poured into containers and diluted with
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enough odor-free distilled water to make a 200-mL mixture.

ü An assembled panel of five to ten “noses” is used to determine the mixture in which
the odor is just barely detectable to the sense of smell.

ü The TON of that sample is then calculated, using the formula

TON =
ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
Where:

A is the volume of odorous water (mL) and

B is the volume of odor free water required to produce a 200-m L mixture.

Threshold odor numbers corresponding to various sample volumes are shown in Table 3.1

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below. A similar test can be used to quantify taste, or the panel can simply rate the water

Y
B
qualitatively on an “acceptability” scale.

B
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Table 3.1 Threshold odor numbers corresponding to sample volume diluted to 200 ml

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T
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Sample volume (A), ml TON

A
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200 1.0

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R
E
175 1.1

T
A
W

150 1.3
E
T

125 1.6
S
A
W

100 2.0
D
N
A

75 2.7
R
E

67 3.0
T
A
W

50 4.0
F
O
S

40 5.0
T
C
E

25 8.0
P
S

10 20.0
A

2 100.0

1 200

3.2.4.4. Use
ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
Although odors can be a problem with wastewater, the taste and odor parameter is only
associated with potable water. EPA does not have a maximum standard for TON. A
maximum TON of 3 has been recommended by the Public Health Service and serves as a
guideline rather than a legal standard.

3.2.5. TEMPERATURE

M
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B
ü Temperature is not used to evaluate directly either potable water or wastewater.

B
O
ü It is however, one of the most important parameters in natural surface water

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systems.

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ü The temperature of surface waters governs to a large extent the biological species

U
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present and their rates of activity.

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ü Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that occur in natural water
A
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systems.
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S

ü Temperature also has a pronounced effect on the solubilities of gases in water.

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D
N
A

3.2.5.1. Sources
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T

· The temperature of natural water systems responds to many factors, the ambient
A
W

temperature (temperature of the surrounding atmosphere) being the most universal.

F
O
S

· Generally, shallow bodies of water are more affected by ambient temperatures than
T
C

are deeper bodies.

E
P
S

· The use of water for dissipation of waste heat in industry and the subsequent
A

discharge of the heated water may result in dramatic though perhaps localized
temperature changes in receiving streams.

· Removal of forest canopies and irrigation return flows can also result in increased
stream temperature.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
3.2.5.2. Impacts

· Cooler waters usually have a wider diversity of biological species.

· At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity. i.e., utilization of food supplies,
growth, reproduction, etc., is slower. If the temperature is increased, biological

M
activity increases. An increase of 10 is usually sufficient to double the biological

Y
B
activity, if essential nutrients are present. At elevated temperatures and increased

B
O
metabolic rates, organisms that are more efficient at food utilization and

T
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Y
reproduction flourish, while other species decline and perhaps are eliminated

T
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altogether.

A
U
Q
· Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water and can become a problem

R
E
when cell cluster into algae mats. Natural secretion of oil by the mats and the decay

T
A
products of dead algae cells can result to taste and odor problems. W
E
T

· Higher-order species such as fish, are dramatically affected by temperature and by

S
A

dissolved oxygen levels which are functions of temperatures. Game fish generally
W
D

require cooler temperatures and higher dissolved oxygen levels.

N
A
R

· Temperature changes affect the reaction rates and solubility levels.

E
T

·
A

The solubility of gases on the other hand, decreases at elevated temperatures.

W
F

Because biological oxidation of organics in streams and impoundments is

O
S

dependent on an adequate supply of dissolved oxygen, decrease in oxygen

T
C

solubility is undesirable.
E
P
S

· Temperature also affects other physical properties of water. The viscosity of water
A

increases with decreasing temperature. The maximum density of water occurs at 4

°C, and density decreases on either side of that temperature, a unique phenomenon
among liquids.

· Both temperature and density have a subtle effect on planktonic microorganisms in

natural water systems.
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MICHAEL AGWE

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3.3. CHEMICAL WATER AND WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Water has been called theuniversal solvent ,and chemical parameters are related to the
solvent capabilities of water . Some of the chemical parameters of interest in water quality
management are:

M
· Total dissolved solids,

Y
B
· Alkalinity,

B
O
T
·

-
Hardness,

Y
T
I
·

L
Fluorides,

A
U
· Metals,

Q
R
E
· Organics and

T
A
W

· Nutrients.
E
T
S
A
W

3.3.1. TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

D
N
A

The material remaining in the water after filtration for the suspended-solids is considered
R
E

to be dissolved. This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water and
T
A

constitutes a part of total solids discussed earlier.

W
F
O

3.3.1.1. Sources
S
T
C

Dissolved material results from the solvent action of water on solids, liquids, and gases.
E
P

Like suspended material, dissolved substances may be organic or inorganic in nature.

S
A

Inorganic substances which may be dissolved in water include:

· Minerals,

· Metals and

· Gases.

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Water may come in contact with these substances in the atmosphere, on surfaces, and
within the soil. The common organic dissolved constituents of water are:

· Materials from the decay products of vegetation, from organic chemicals, and from
the organic gases.

M
The solvent capability of water makes it an ideal means by which waste products can be

Y
B
carried away from industrial sites and homes.

B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
3.3.1.2. Impacts

L
A
U
Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. Dissolved minerals, gases and

Q
R
organic constituents may:

E
T
A
· Produce aesthetically displeasing color, tastes and odors. W
E

· Some chemicals may be toxic and some of the dissolved organic constituents have
T
S

been shown to be carcinogenic.

A
W
D

· Quite often, two or more dissolved substances especially organic substances and
N
A

members of the halogen group will combine to form a compound whose

R
E

characteristics are more objectionable than those of either of the original materials.
T
A
W

Not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For example, essentially pure,
F
O

distilled water has a flat taste. Additionally, water has an equilibrium state with respect to
S
T

dissolved constituents. An undersaturated water will be “aggressive” and will more readily
C
E
P

dissolve materials with which it comes in contact. Readily dissolvable material is

S
A

sometimes added to a relatively pure water to reduce its tendency to dissolve pipes and
plumbing.

3.3.1.3. Measurement

· A direct measurement of total dissolved solids can be made by evaporating to

dryness a sample of water which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids.

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 · The remaining residue is weighed and represents the total dissolved solids (TDS) in
the water.

· The TDS is expressed as milligrams per liter on a dry-mass basis.

The organic and inorganic fractions can be determined by firing the residue at 600 as

M
discussed earlier.

Y
B
· An approximate analysis for TDS is often made by determining the electrical

B
O
conductivity of the water.

T
-
Y
T
I
· The ability of a water to conduct electricity known as thespecific conductance , is a

L
A
function of its ionic strength. Specific conductance is measured by a conductivity

U
Q
meter employing the Wheatstone bridge principle.

R
E
T
· The standard procedure is to measure the conductivity in a cubic-centimeter field at
A
W

25 °C and express the results in milli siemens per meter (mS/ m). Unfortunately,
E
T

specific conductance and concentration of TDS are not related on a one-to-one

S
A
W

basis.
D
N

· Only ionized substances contribute to specific conductance. Organic molecules and

A
R

compounds that dissolve without ionizing are not measured.

E
T
A

· Additionally, the magnitude of the specific conductance is influenced by the valence

W
F

of the ions in solution, their mobility, and relative numbers. The temperature also
O
S

has an important effect, with specific conductance increasing as the water

T
C

temperature increases.
E
P
S

· Conversion of units to milligrams per liter or milli-equivalents per liter must be

A

made by use of an appropriate constant. A multiplier ranging from 0.055 to 0.09 is

used to convert milli siemens to milligrams per liter.

· To use specific conductance as a quantitative test, sufficient analysis for filterable

residue must be run to determine the conversion factor. For this reason, specific

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 conductance is most often used in a qualitative sense to monitor changes in TDS
occurring in natural streams or treatment processes.

3.3.1.4. Use

· Because no distinction among the constituents is made. the TDS parameter is

M
included in the analysis of water and wastewater only as a gross measurement of

Y
B
the dissolved material.

B
O
· While this is often sufficient for wastewaters, it is frequently desirable to know more

T
-
Y
about the composition of the solids in water that is intended for use in potable

T
I
L
A
supplies, agriculture and some industrial processes.

U
Q
· When this is the case: tests for several of the ionic constituents of the TDS are

R
E
made.

T
A
W
E
T
S

3.3.2. ALKALINITY
A
W
D

Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen
N
A

ions. Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids.

R
E

3.3.2.1. Sources
T
A
W

2- -
Constituents of alkalinity in natural water systems include CO3 (Carbonates), HCO3
F
O

- - -
(Bi-carbonates), OH (Hydroxides), HSiO3 (Hydrogen silicate ion), H2BO3 (Di-hydrogen
S
T

2- - -
Borate ion), HPO4 (Hydrogen Phosphate ion), H2PO4 (Di-hydrogen Phosphate ion), HS
C
E
P

(Bi-sulphide), and NH3O (Ammonia oxide). These compounds result from the dissolution
S
A

of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere,phosphates may also originate from
detergents in wastewater discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural
land. Hydrogen sulfide and ammonia may be products of microbial decomposition of
organic material.
- 2-
By far the most common constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate (HCO3 ), carbonate (CO3

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 -
), and hydroxide (OH ). In addition to their mineral origin, these substances can originate
from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product of microbial
decomposition of organic material. The relative quantities of the alkalinity species are pH
dependent and these relationships are shown graphically below.

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W
E
T
S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W

Fig. 3.2. Alkalinity species vs. pH. Values are calculated for water at 25 °C containing a
F
O

total alkalinity of 100 mg/l as CaCO3. Source: Sawyer and McCarty.

S
T

3.3.2.2. Impacts
C
E
P

In large quantities, alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water . The principal objection to
S
A

alkaline water, however, is the reactions that can occur between alkalinity and certain
cations in the water. The resultant precipitate can foul pipes and other water-systems
appurtenances.

3.3.2.3. Measurement
ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
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Alkalinity measurements are made by titrating the water with an acid and determining the
hydrogen equivalent. Alkalinity is then expressed as milligrams per liter of CaCO3. If 0.02 N
H2SO4 is used in the titration using indicators such as: methyl orange, bromocresol green,
or bromocresol green–methyl red indicators, then 1 ml of the acid will neutralize 1 mg of
alkalinity as CaCO3. Hydrogen ions from the acid react with the alkalinity according to the

M
Y
following equations:

B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
If acid is added slowly to water and the pH is recorded for each addition, a titration curve

E
T
similar to that shown in Fig. 3.2 below is obtained, of particular significance are the
A
W

inflection points in the curve that occur at approximately pH 8.3 and pH 4.5.
E
T
S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

Fig. 3.3. Alkalinity titration curve

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · The conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate is essentially complete at pH 8.3.
However, because bicarbonate is also an alkalinity species, an equal amount of acid
must be added to complete the neutralization. Thus, the neutralization of carbonate
is only one half complete at pH 8.3.

· Because the conversion of hydroxide to water is virtually complete at pH 8.3 (see

M
Y
Fig. 3.2), all of the hydroxide and one half of the carbonate have been measured at

B
B
pH 8.3.

O
T
-
Y
· At pH 4.5 all of the bicarbonate has been converted to carbonic acid, including the

T
I
L
bicarbonate resulting from the reaction of the acid and carbonate.

A
U
Q
· Thus, the amount of acid required to titrate a sample to pH 4.5 is equivalent to the

R
E
total alkalinity of the water. This point is illustrated in the following example.

T
A
W

Worked example No. 2

E
T

A 200 ml sample of water has an initial pH of 10. Thirty milliliters of 0.02 N H2SO4 is
S
A
W

required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5. What is the total alkalinity of the water in
D
N

milligrams per liter as CaCO3?

A
R

Solution
E
T
A

Because each milligram of 0.02 N H2SO4 will neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity, there is 30 mg of

W
F

alkalinity in the 200 ml sample. Therefore, the concentration of alkalinity expressed as

O
S

milligrams per liter will be:

T
C
E

=150 mg/l
P
S
A

If the volume of acid needed to reach the 8.3 endpoint is known, the species of alkalinity
can also be determined. Because all of the hydroxide and one-half of the carbonate have
been neutralized at pH 8.3, the acid required to lower the pH from 8.3 to 4.5 must measure
the other one-half of the carbonate, plus all of the original bicarbonate. If P is the amount
of acid required to reach pH 8.3 and M is the total quantity of acid required to reach 4.5,

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
the following generalizations concerning the forms of alkalinity can be made:

If

P = M, all alkalinity is OH-

P = , all alkalinity is CO32-

M
Y
P = 0 (i.e., initial pH is below 8.3), all alkalinity is HCO3-

B
B
P , predominant species are CO32- and HCO3-

O
T
-
Y
P , predominant species are OH- and CO32-

T
I
L
A
In observing the pH dependency of the species in Fig. 3.1, it is noted that the quantity of

U
Q
OH- becomes insignificant at pH less than about 9.0. Without introducing significant error,

R
E
it can be assumed that the OH- of samples with pH less than 9.0 is insignificant. The CO32-

T
A
would then be measured by 2P and the HCO3- would be measured by the remainder (M -
W
E

2P). One method of calculating the quantities of each species is illustrated in the following
T
S

example.
A
W
D

Worked Example No. 3

N
A
R

Determine the species, and the quantity of each species of alkalinity in the example above
E
T

if the 8.3 equivalence point is reached at 11 ml of acid.

A
W
F

Solution
O
S

-
1. Determine the [OH (aq)]
T
C
E

-
PH + pOH =14
P
S
A

-
Since initial PH =10, pOH =4
- -
From pOH = -log10 [OH (aq)]
- pOH-
Therefore [OH (aq)] =10 -
-4
= 10

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MICHAEL AGWE

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 = 0.0001 mol/L

2. Calculate the Hydroxide alkalinity

= [OH- (aq)] × CaCO3 alkalinity equivalent

From 1mol/L of [OH- (aq)] being equivalent to 50,000 of alkalinity as CaCO3

M
Y
0.0001 mol/L [OH- (aq)] would be equivalent to:

B
B
= [0.0001] × 50,000 CaCO3

O
T
-
Y
= 5 Mg/L of CaCO3

T
I
L
A
U
Q
3. Five milliliters of acid would be required to measure the OH- in a 1-L sample.

R
E
T
However, this sample is only 200 ml, so the necessary volume of acid is:
A
W

1,000 ml of water sample=5 ml of acid

E
T
S

1 ml of water sample = ml of acid

A
W
D

200 ml of sample used = ×200 ml of acid

N
A

Volume of acid required to neutralizeOH - = 1.0 ml

R
E
T
A
W
F

-
4. If 1 ml of acid measures the OH , then 10 ml of acid measures one-half of the
O
S

carbonates and 10 more will be required to measure the remaining one-half of the
T
C

2- -
CO3 , leaving 9 ml (30-10-10-1=9) to measure the HCO (See Fig. 3.2) Thus, the
E
P

quantity of each species is as follows.

S
A

-
OH (calculated from pH) =5 mg/l
2-
CO3 = = 100 mg/l
-
HCO3 = = 45 mg/l

Total alkalinity = 150 mg/l

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3.3.2.4. Use

Alkalinity measurements are often included in the analysis of natural waters to determine
their buffering capacity. It is also used frequently as a process control variable in water
and wastewater treatment. Maximum levels of alkalinity have not been set by EPA for
drinking water or for wastewater discharges.

M
Y
B
3.3.3. HARDNESS

B
O
Hardness is defined as theconcentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution . At

T
-
Y
supersaturated conditions, the hardness cations will react with anions in the water to form

T
I
L
A
a solid precipitate. Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness and non-carbonate

U
Q
hardness, depending upon the anion with which it associates . The hardness that is

R
E
equivalent to the alkalinity is termed carbonate hardness, with any remaining hardness

T
A
being called noncarbonate hardness . W
E
T

Carbonate hardness is sensitive to heat and precipitates readily at high temperatures.

S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E

3.3.3.1. Sources
T
A
W

The multivalent metallic ions most abundant in natural waters are calcium and magnesium.
F
O

2+, 2+ 2+
Others may include iron and manganese in their reduced (Fe Mn , strontium Sr , and
S
T

3+
Aluminum Al ). The latter are usually found in much smaller quantities than calcium and
C
E

magnesium and for practical purposes, hardness may be represented by the sum of the
P
S

calcium and magnesium ions.

A

3.3.3.2. Impacts

Soap consumption by hard waters represents an economic loss to the water users.
Sodium soaps react with multivalent metallic cations to form a precipitate, losing their

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
surfactant properties. A typical divalent cation reaction is:

Soap Precipitate

Lathering does not occur until all of the hardness ions are precipitated, at which point the

M
Y
water has been “softened” by the soap. The precipitate formed by hardness and soap

B
B
adheres to surfaces of tubs, sinks, and dishwashers and may stain clothing, dishes, and

O
T
-
other items. Residues of the hardness-soap precipitate may remain in the pores, so that

Y
T
I
skin may feel rough and uncomfortable. In recent years these problems have been largely

L
A
U
alleviated by the development of soaps and detergents that do not react with hardness.

Q
R
Boiler scale, the result of the carbonate hardness precipitate may cause considerable

E
T
economic loss through fouling of water heaters and hot-water pipes.
A
W
E

Changes in pH in the water distribution systems may also result in deposits of precipitates.
T
S

Bicarbonates begin to convert to the less soluble carbonates at pH values above 9.0.
A
W
D

Magnesium hardness, particularly is associated with the sulfate ion, has laxative effect on
N
A

persons unaccustomed to it. Magnesium concentrations of less than 50 mg/l are desirable
R
E

in potable waters, although many public water supplies exceed this amount. Calcium
T
A
W

hardness presents no public health problem. In fact: hard water is apparently beneficial to
F
O

the human cardiovascular system.

S
T

3.3.3.3. Measurement
C
E
P

Hardness can be measured by using spectrophotometric techniques or chemical titration

S
A

to determine the quantity of calcium and magnesium ions in a given sample. Hardness can
be measured directly by titration with ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) using
eriochrome black T (EBT) as an indicator. EBT reacts with the divalent metallic cations
forming a complex that is red in color.

The EDTA replaces the EBT in the complex, and when the replacement is complete, the

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
solution changes from red to blue. If a 0.01 M EDTA is used, 1.0 ml of the titrant measures
1.0 mg of hardness as CaCO3.

3.3.3.4. Use

Analysis for hardness is commonly made on natural waters and on waters intended for

M
potable supplies and for certain industrial uses. Hardness may range from practically zero

Y
B
to several hundreds or even several thousand parts per million. Although acceptability

B
O
levels vary according to a consumer’s acclimation to hardness, a generally accepted

T
-
Y
classification is as follows:

T
I
L
A
Soft 50 mg/l as CaCO3

U
Q
Moderately hard 50-150 mg/l as CaCO3

R
E
T
Hard 150-300 mg/l as CaCO3
A
W
E

Very hard 300 mg/l as CaCO3

T
S

The Public Health Service standards recommend a maximum of 500 mg/l of hardness in
A
W
D

drinking water. A maximum limit is not set by the EPA standards.

N
A

3.3.4. FLUORIDE
R
E
T

Generally associated in nature with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks. Fluoride
A
W

is seldom found in appreciable quantities in surface waters and appears in groundwater in

F
O

only a few geographical regions. Fluoride is toxic to humans and other animals in large
S
T

quantities, while small concentrations can be beneficial.

C
E
P

Concentrations of approximately 1.0 mg/l in drinking water help to prevent dental cavities
S
A

in children. During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride combines chemically with tooth
enamel, resulting in harder and stronger teeth that are more resistant to decay. Fluoride is
often added to drinking water supplies if sufficient quantities for good dental formation
are not naturally present.

Excessive intake of fluoride can result in discoloration of teeth. Noticeable discoloration,

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
called mottling is relatively common when fluoride concentrations in drinking water exceed
2.0 mg/l but is rare when concentrations are less than 1.5 mg/l. Adult teeth are not
affected by fluoride, although both the benefits and liabilities of fluoride during
tooth-formation years carryover in to adulthood.

Excessive dosages of fluoride can also result in bone fluorosis and other skeletal

M
Y
abnormalities. Concentrations of less than 5 mg/l in drinking water are not likely to cause

B
B
bone fluorosis or related problems, and some water supplies-are known to have somewhat

O
T
-
higher fluoride concentrations with no discernible problem other than severe mottling of

Y
T
I
teeth. On the assumption that people drink more water in warmer climates, EPA

L
A
U
drinking-water standards base upper limits for fluoride on ambient temperatures.

Q
R
3.3.5. METALS

E
T
A
All metals are soluble to some extent in water. While excessive amounts of any metal may W
E

present health hazards, only those metals that are harmful in relatively small amounts are
T
S

commonly labeled toxic, other metals fall into the nontoxic group.
A
W
D

Sources of metals in natural waters include dissolution from natural deposits and
N
A

discharges of domestic, industrial or agricultural wastewaters.

R
E
T

Measurement of metals in water is usually made by atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

A
W
F

3.3.5.1. Nontoxic Metals

O
S

In addition to the hardness ions, calcium and magnesium, other nontoxic metals
T
C

commonly found in water include: sodium, iron, manganese, aluminum, copper and zinc.
E
P
S

Sodium by far the most common nontoxic metal found in natural waters, is abundant in the
A

earth’s crust and is highly reactive with other elements. The salts of sodium are very
soluble in water. Excessive concentrations cause a bitter taste in water and are health
hazard to cardiac and kidney patients. Sodium is also corrosive to metal surfaces and in
large concentrations, is toxic to plants.

Iron and manganese quite frequently occur together and present no health hazard at
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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
concentrations normally found in natural waters, however iron and manganese in very
small quantities usually cause color problems. Iron concentrations of 0.3 mg/l and
manganese concentrations of 0.05 mg/l can cause color problems. Additionally, some
bacteria use iron and manganese compounds for energy source, and the resulting slime
growth may produce taste and odor problems.

M
Y
3.3.5.2. Toxic Metals

B
B
O
As noted earlier, toxic metals are harmful to humans and other organisms in small

T
-
Y
quantities. Toxic metals that may be dissolved in water include arsenic, barium, cadmium,

T
I
L
chromium, lead, mercury and silver. Cumulative toxins such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and

A
U
mercury are particularly hazardous. These metals are concentrated by the food chain,

Q
R
thereby posing the greatest danger to organisms. Fortunately, toxic metals are present in

E
T
A
only minute quantities in most natural water systems. Although natural sources of all the W
E

toxic metals exist, significant concentration in water can usually be traced to mining,
T
S

industrial, or agricultural sources.

A
W
D
N
A

3.3.6. ORGANICS
R
E
T

Many organic materials are soluble in water. Organics in natural water systems may come
A
W

from natural sources or may result from human activities. Most natural organics consist of
F
O

the decay products of organic solids, while synthetic organics are usually the result of
S
T

wastewater discharges or agricultural practices. Dissolved organics in water are usually

C
E
P

divided into two broad categories: biodegradable

S
A

and nonbiodegradable (refractory).

3.3.6.1. Biodegradable Organics

Biodegradable organics consists of organics that can be utilized for food by naturally
occurring microorganisms within a reasonable length of time. In dissolved form, these
materials usually consist ofstarches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes and esters .
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They may be the end product of the initial microbial decomposition of plant or animal
tissue, or they may result from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges. Although
some of these materialscan cause color, taste, and odor problems , the principal problem
associated with biodegradable organics is asecondary effect resulting from the action of
microorganisms on these substances.

M
Y
Microbial utilization of dissolved organics can be accompanied by oxidation(addition of

B
B
oxygen to, or the deletion of hydrogen from elements of the organic molecule) or by

O
T
-
reduction(addition of hydrogen to, or deletion of oxygen from elements of the organic

Y
T
I
molecule) . Although it is possible for the two processes to occur simultaneously, the

L
A
U
oxidation process is by far more efficient and is pre

Q
R
dominant when oxygen is available. In aerobic (oxygen-present) environments, the end

E
T
A
products of microbial decomposition of organics are stable and acceptable compounds, W
E

meanwhile Anaerobic (oxygen-absent) decomposition results in unstable and

T
S

objectionable end products. Should oxygen later become available, anaerobic end
A
W

products will be oxidized to aerobic end products. The oxygen-demanding nature of

D
N

biodegradable organics is of utmost importance in natural water systems.

A
R
E

When oxygen utilization occurs more rapidly than oxygen can be replenished by transfer
T
A

from the atmosphere, anaerobic conditions that severely affect the ecology of the system
W
F

will result.
O
S
T

The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial utilization of organics is called the
C
E

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The BOD is measured by determining the oxygen
P
S

consumed from a sample placed in an air-tight container and kept in a controlled

A

environment for a preselected period of time. In the standard test:

· A 300 ml BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated at 20 °C for 5 days. Light
must be excluded from the incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce
oxygen in the bottle.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 · Because the saturation concentration for oxygen in water at 20 °C is approximately
9 mg/l. dilution of the sample with BOD free, oxygen-saturated water is necessary to
measure BOD values greater than just a few milligrams per liter.

· The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by:

M
BOD =

Y
B
Where DOs and DOf are the initial and final dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/l) and P is

B
O
the decimal fraction of the sample in the 300 ml bottle

T
-
Y
T
I
Ranges of BOD covered by various dilutions are shown in Table 3.2 These values assume

L
A
an initial dissolved-oxygen concentration of 9 mg/l in the mixture with a minimum of 2 and

U
Q
a maximum of 7 mg/ L of O2 being consumed. Calculations of BODs from this testing

R
E
procedure are illustrated in the following example.

T
A
W

Table 3.2. Ranges of BOD values covered by various dilutions

E
T
S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

Source: Sawyer and McCarty

Worked Example No. 4.

The BOD of a wastewater is suspected to range from 50 to 200 mg/l. Three dilutions are
prepared to cover this range. The procedure is the same in each case. First the sample is
placed in the standard BOD bottle and is then diluted to 300 ml with organic free,

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
oxygen-saturated water. The initial dissolved oxygen is determined and the bottles tightly
stoppered and placed in the incubator at 20 °C for 5 days, after which the dissolved oxygen
is again determined.

Solution

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W

If the third value is disregarded (the final DO being less than 2.0 mg/l), the average BOD of
E
T

the wastewater is 140 mg/l, i.e.,

S
A
W

Most natural water and municipal wastewaters will have a population of microorganisms
D
N

that will consume the organics. In sterile waters, microorganisms must be added and the
A
R

BOD of the material containing the organisms must be determined and subtracted from
E
T

the total BOD of the mixture, the presence of toxic materials in the water will invalidate the
A
W

BOD results.
F
O
S

The BOD5 only represents the oxygen consumed in 5 days. The total BOD or BOD for any
T
C

other time period can be determined provided additional information is known or obtained.
E
P

The rate at which organics are utilized by microorganisms is assumed to be a first order
S
A

reaction: that is, the rate at which organics are utilized is proportional to the amount of
organics available. Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
Where Lt, is the oxygen equivalent of the organics at time t, and k is a reaction Constant.
The units of L, are milligrams per liter, and the units of k are d-1.

The above equation can be rearranged and integrated as follows:

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W

The term Lo in this equation represents the total oxygen equivalent of the organics at time
E
T

=0, while Lt, represents the amount remaining at time t, and decays exponentially with time,
S
A

as shown in Fig. 3.4 below.

W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 Fig. 3.4. BOD and oxygen equivalent relationships

The oxygen equivalent remaining is not the parameter of primary importance.

However, the amount of oxygen used in the consumption of the organics, the BOD can be
found from the Lt value. If Lo is the oxygen equivalent of the total mass of organics, then

M
the difference between the value Lo and L, is the oxygen equivalent consumed or the BOD

Y
B
exerted. Mathematically

B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
Where yt represents the BODt of the water. The value of yt, approaches Lo asymptotically,

T
A
W

indicating that the total or ultimate, BOD (yu) is equal to the initial oxygen equivalent of the
E

water Lo.
T
S
A

The above equation for yt represents the BOD exerted by the carbon component of the
W
D

organic compounds. Other components of organics, such as nitrogen and sulfur, may also
N
A

be oxidized by microorganisms, resulting in an oxygen demand.

R
E
T

The value of k determines the speed of the BOD reaction without influencing the
A
W

-1
magnitude of the ultimate BOD. Numerical values of k range from about 0.1 to 0.5 d
F
O

depending on the nature of the organic molecules. Simple compounds such as sugars and
S
T
C

starches are easily utilized by the microorganisms and have a high k rate, while complex
E
P

molecules such as phenols are difficult to assimilate and have low k values.
S
A

The value of k for any given organic compound is temperature-dependent. Because

microorganisms are more active at higher temperatures. the value of k increases with
increasing temperatures. The change in k can be approximated by:
T-20
KT =K20

A value of 1.047 for is often used although is known to vary somewhat with temperature
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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
ranges.

Table 3.3. Typical values of k and yu for various waters

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
Worked Example No.5
A
W
E

The BOD5 of a wastewater is determined to be 150 mg/l at 20. The value of k is known to
T
S

be 0.23 per day (d-1). What would the BOD8 be if the test were run at 15?
A
W
D

Solution
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

3.3.6.2. Nonbiodegradable Organics

Some organic materials are resistant to biological degradation. Tannic and lignic Acids,
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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
cellulose and phenols are often found in natural water systems. These constituents of
woody plants biodegrade so slowly that they are usually considered refractory. Molecules
with exceptionally strong bonds (some of the polysaccharides) and ringed structures
(benzene) are essentially nonbiodegradable.

An example is the detergent compound alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) which with its

M
Y
benzene ring, does not biodegrade. Being a surfactant, ABS causes frothing and foaming in

B
B
wastewater treatment plants and increases turbidity by stabilizing colloidal suspensions.

O
T
-
This problem was largely alleviated when detergent manufacturers switched to a linear

Y
T
I
alkyl sulfonate (LAS) compound, which is biodegradable. Many of the organics associated

L
A
U
with petroleum, with its refining and processing also contain benzene and are essentially

Q
R
nonbiodegradable.

E
T
A
Some organics are nonbiodegradable because they are toxic to organisms. These include W
E

the organic pesticides, some industrial chemicals, and hydrocarbon compounds that have
T
S

combined with chlorine.

A
W
D

Pesticides, including insecticides and herbicides, have found wide spread use in modern
N
A

society in both urban and agricultural settings. Poor application practices and subsequent
R
E

wash-off by rainfall and runoff may result in contamination of surface streams.

T
A
W

Measurement of nonbiodegradable organics is usually by the chemical oxygen demand

F
O

(COD) test. Nonbiodegradable organics may also be estimated from a total organic carbon
S
T

(TOC) analysis. Both COD and TOC measure the biodegradable fraction of the organics, so
C
E

the BOD must be subtracted from the COD or TOC to quantify the nonbiodegradable
P
S

organics. Specific organic compounds can be identified and quantified through analysis by
A

gas chromatography.

3.3.7. NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and reproduction of plants and animals,
and aquatic species depend on the surrounding water to provide their nutrients. Although a

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
wide variety of minerals and trace elements can be classified as nutrients, those required
in most abundance by aquatic species are carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. Carbon is
readily available from many sources. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, alkalinity and
decay products of organic matter all supply carbon to the aquatic system. In most cases,
nitrogen and phosphorus are the nutrients that are the limiting factors in aquatic plant

M
Y
growth.

B
B
3.3.7.1. Nitrogen

O
T
-
Y
Nitrogen gas (N2) is the primary component of the earth’s atmosphere and is extremely

T
I
L
stable. It will react with oxygen under high-energy conditions (electrical discharges or

A
U
flame incineration) to form nitrogen oxides. Although a few biological species are able to

Q
R
oxidize nitrogen gas, nitrogen in the aquatic environment is derived primarily from sources

E
T
A
other than atmospheric nitrogen. W
E

Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins, chlorophyll, and many other biological compounds.

T
S

Upon the death of plants or animals, complex organic matter is broken down to simple
A
W
D

forms by bacterial decomposition. Proteins, for instance, are converted to amino acids
N
A

(R-CH(NH2)-COOH) and further reduced to ammonia (NH3). If oxygen is present, the

R
E

ammonia is oxidized to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-). The nitrate can then be
T
A

reconstituted into living organic matter by photosynthetic plants.

W
F
O

Other sources of nitrogen in aquatic systems include animal wastes, chemical (particularly
S
T

chemical fertilizers), and wastewater discharges. Nitrogen from these sources may be
C
E

discharged directly into streams or may enter waterways through surface runoff or
P
S

groundwater discharge. Nitrogen compounds can be oxidized to nitrate by soil bacteria

A

and may be carried into the groundwater by percolating water. Once in the aquifer, nitrates
move freely with the groundwater flow. Groundwater contamination by nitrogen from
animal, feed lots and septic tank drain fields has been recorded in numerous instances.

In addition to the over enrichment problems alluded to earlier, nitrogen can have other

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
serious consequences. Ammonia is a gas at temperatures and pressures normally found
in natural water systems. The gas (NH3) exists in equilibrium with the aqueous ionic form
called ammonium (NH4+).

M
The hydroxyl ion concentration of the water and thus the pH controls the relative

Y
B
abundance of each species. Oxidation of NH3 and NH4+ to nitrate and on to nitrate by

B
O
aquatic microbes results in an additional biochemical oxygen demand.

T
-
Y
T
I
Nitrate poisoning in infant animals, including humans, can cause serious problems and

L
A
even death. Apparently, the lower acidity in an infant’s intestinal tract permits growth of

U
Q
nitrate reducing bacteria that convert the nitrate to nitrite which is then absorbed into the

R
E
bloodstream. Nitrite has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than does oxygen and thus

T
A
W

replaces oxygen in the blood complex. The body is denied essential oxygen and in extreme
E
T

cases, the victim suffocates. Because oxygen starvation results in a bluish discoloration of
S
A

the body, nitrate poisoning has been referred to as the “blue baby” syndrome. Once the
W
D

flora of the intestinal tract has fully developed, usually after the age of 6 months, nitrate
N
A

conversion to nitrite and subsequent methemoglobinemia from drinking water is seldom a

R
E

problem. Fortunately, the natural oxidation of nitrite to nitrate occurs quickly so that
T
A
W

significant quantities of nitrites are not found in natural waters.

F
O

Tests for nitrogen forms in water commonly include analysis for ammonia (including both
S
T

ammonia and ammonium), nitrate and organic nitrogen. The results of the analyses are
C
E

usually expressed as milligrams per liter of the particular species as nitrogen.Tests for
P
S
A

ammonium and organic nitrogen are more common on wastewater and other polluted
waters, while the test for nitrate is the most common on clean water samples and treated
wastewaters.

3.3.7.2. Phosphorus
3-
Phosphorus appears exclusively as phosphate (PO4 ) in aquatic environments. There are

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
several forms of phosphate, including orthophosphate, condensed phosphates (pyro-,
meta-, and poly phosphates) and organically bound phosphates. These may be insoluble or
particulate form or may be constituents of plant or animal tissue. Like nitrogen,
phosphates pass through the cycles of decomposition and photosynthesis.

Phosphate is a constituent of soils and is used extensively in fertilizer to replace and /or

M
Y
supplement natural quantities on agricultural lands. Phosphate is also a constituent of

B
B
animal waste and may become incorporated into the soil in grazing and feeding areas.

O
T
-
Runoff from agricultural areas is a major contributor to phosphate in surface waters. The

Y
T
I
tendency for phosphate to adsorb to soil particles

L
A
U
limits its movement in soil moisture and ground water, but results in its transport into

Q
R
surface waters by erosion.

E
T
A
Municipal wastewater is another major source of phosphate in surface water. Condensed W
E

phosphates are used extensively as builders in detergents, and organic phosphates are
T
S

constituents of body waste and food residue. Other sources include industrial waste in
A
W
D

which phosphate compounds are used for such purposes as boiler water conditioning.
N
A

While phosphates are nontoxic and do not represent a direct health threat to human or
R
E

other organisms, they do represent a serious indirect threat to water quality. As noted
T
A
W

earlier, phosphate is often the limiting nutrient in surface waters.

F
O

When the available supply is increased, rapid growth of aquatic plants usually results, with
S
T

severe consequences. Phosphate can also interfere with water treatment processes.
C
E
P

Concentrations as low as 0.2 mg/ l interfere with the chemical coagulation of turbidity.
S
A

Phosphates are measured colorimetrically. Ortho phosphates can be measured directly

while condensed forms must be converted to orthophosphate by acid hydrolyzation and
organic phosphates must be converted to orthophosphates by acid digestion. Results of
the analysis are reported as milligrams per liter of phosphate as phosphorus. Careful
handling of samples prior to analysis is crucial. For example, acid washed glass bottles

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
should be used for sampling, as bottles washed in phosphate detergent may contaminate
samples.

3.4. BIOLOGICAL WATER-QUALITY PARAMETERS

Water may serve as a medium in which thousands of biological species spend part if not

M
their entire life cycle. Aquatic organisms range in sizes from the smallest single-cell

Y
B
micro-organisms to the largest fish. All members of the biological community are to some

B
O
extent water quality parameters, because their presence or absence may indicate in

T
-
Y
general terms the characteristic of a given body of water. As an example, the general

T
I
L
quality of water in a trout stream would be expected to exceed that of a stream in which

A
U
the predominant species of fish is carp. Similarly, abundant algal populations are

Q
R
associated with a water rich in nutrients. Biologists often use a species-diversity index

E
T
A
(related to the number of species and the relative abundance of organisms in each W
E

species) as a qualitative parameter for streams and lakes. A body of water hosting large
T
S

numbers of species with well-balanced numbers of individuals is considered to be a

A
W

healthy system. Based on their known tolerance for a given pollutant, certain organisms
D
N

can be used as indicators of the presence of pollutants.

A
R
E

3.4.1. Pathogens
T
A
W

From the perspective of human use and consumption, the most important biological
F
O

organisms in water are pathogens, those organisms capable of infecting, or of transmitting

S
T

diseases to, humans. These organisms are not native to aquatic systems and usually
C
E

require an animal host for growth and reproduction. They can, however, be transported by
P
S

natural water systems, thus becoming a temporary member of the aquatic community.
A

Many species of pathogens are able to survive in water and maintain their infectious
capabilities for significant periods of time.

These waterborne pathogens include species of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths
(parasitic worms). The characteristics of the primary water borne pathogens are listed in

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
Table 3.4 below

Table 3.4 Common Waterborne Pathogens

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W
E
T
S
A
W
D
N

3.4.1.1. Pathogen Indicators

A
R
E

Analysis of water for all the known pathogens would be a very time-consuming and
T
A

expensive proposition. Tests for specific pathogens are usually made only when there is a
W
F

reason to suspect that those particular organisms are present.

O
S
T

At other times, the purity of water is checked using indicator organisms. An indicator
C
E

organism is one whose presence presumes that contamination has occurred and suggests
P
S

the nature and extent of the contaminant(s). The ideal pathogen indicator would:
A

· Be applicable to all types of water.

· Always be present when pathogens are present.

· Always be absent when pathogens are absent.

· Lend itself to routine quantitative testing procedures without interference from or

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 confusion of results because of extraneous organisms and

· For the safety of laboratory personnel, not be a pathogen itself.

Most of the waterborne pathogens are introduced through fecal contamination of water.
Thus, any organism native to the intestinal tract of humans and meeting the above criteria

M
would be a good indicator organism. The organisms most nearly meeting these

Y
B
requirements belong to the fecal coliform group. Composed of several strains of bacteria,

B
O
principal of which is Escherichia coli , these organisms are found exclusively in the

T
-
Y
intestinal tract of warm -blooded animals and are excreted in large numbers with feces.

T
I
L
Fecal coliform organisms are nonpathogenic and are believed to have a longer survival

A
U
time outside the animal body than most pathogens. Because the direct rate of fecal

Q
R
coliform is logarithmic, the number of surviving organisms may be an indication of the

E
T
A
time lase since contamination. W
E

There are other coliform groups which flourish outside the intestinal tract of animals.
T
S

These organisms are native to the soil and decaying vegetation and are often found in
A
W
D

water that was in recent contact with these materials. Because the life cycles of some
N
A

pathogens (particularly helminths) may include periods in the soil, this group of coliform
R
E

organisms also serves as an Indicator of pathogens.

T
A
W

It is the usual practice in many countries including US to use thetotal coliform group
F
O

(those of both fecal and nonfecal origin) as indicators of the sanitary quality of drinking
S
T

water, while the indicator of choice for wastewater effluents is thefecal coliform group .
C
E

Relatively simple tests have been devised to determine the presence of coliform bacteria
P
S

in water and to enumerate the quantity. The tests for total coliform organisms employ
A

slightly different culture media and lower incubation temperatures than those used to
identify fecal coliform organisms.

The membrane filter technique, a technique popular with environmental engineers gives a
direct count of coliform bacteria. In this test, a portion of the sample is filtered through a

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
membrane, the pores of which do not exceed 0.45 m. Bacteria are retained on the filter
that is then placed on selective media to promote the growth of coliform bacteria while
inhibiting growth of other species. The membrane and media are incubated at the
appropriate temperature for 24 h, allowing coliform bacteria to grow into visible colonies
that are then counted. The results are represented in numbers of organisms per 100 ml of

M
Y
water.

B
B
An alternative method often preferred by micro biologists is the multiple tube fermentation

O
T
-
test. Coliform organisms are known to ferment lactose with one of the end products being

Y
T
I
a gas. A broth containing lactose and other substances which inhibit non-coliform

L
A
U
organisms is placed in a series of test tubes which are then inoculated with a decimal

Q
R
fraction of 1 ml (100, 10, 1.0, 0. 1, 0.0 1, etc.).

E
T
A
These tubes are incubated at the appropriate temperature and inspected for development W
E

of gas. This first stage of the procedure is called the presumptive test and tubes with gas
T
S

development are presumed to have coliforms present. A similar test, called the
A
W

confirmatory test, is then set up to confirm the presence of coliform organisms. A

D
N

schematic of this process is shown in Fig. 3.4. A statistical method is used in conjunction
A
R

with Table 3.4 to determine the most probable number (M P N) of coliform bacteria in 100
E
T

ml o f the water sample.

A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W
E
T
S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C
E
P
S
A

Fig. 3.5. Procedure for running total coliform analysis by the multiple tube fermentation
method

Source: Standard methods

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 Table 3.4 MPN index and 95% confidence limits for various combinations of positive
results when five tubes are used per dilution (10 ml, 1.0 ml, 0.1 ml)

M
Y
B
B
O
T
-
Y
T
I
L
A
U
Q
R
E
T
A
W
E
T
S
A
W
D
N
A
R
E
T
A
W
F
O
S
T
C

Source: Smith
E
P

Worked out Example: Determining the most probable number of coliforms. A standard
S
A

multiple tube fermentation test is run on a sample of water from a surface stream. The
results of the analysis for the confirmed test are shown below.

Size of sample, ml No. positive No. negative

10 4 1

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MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug
 1 2 3

0.1 1 4

0.01 1 4

0.001 0 5

M
Y
Solution

B
B
· Select a series where three tubes each have positive results (not necessary, but

O
T
-
recommended): use sample sizes 10, 1.0. and 0.1.

Y
T
I
L
· Enter table 3.4 with the number of positive tubes out of five (4, 2, 1): The

A
U
corresponding MPN is 26 with range of 9- 78 organisms per 100 ml possible at a 95

Q
R
percent confidence level.

E
T
A
Alternate Solution
W
E
T

· Select sample sizes 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01

S
A
W

· From table 3.4, the corresponding MPN is 9 and the 95 percent confidence range is
D
N

2 through 21.
A
R

· Because the series of samples used is one- tenth of the 10.0, 1.0, and 0.1 sample
E
T
A

sizes used in the table, multiply the values by 10. Therefore, the MPN of the sample
W
F

is 90 organisms per 100 ml and the 95 percent confidence range is 20 to 210.

O
S

Sampling techniques and subsequent handling of the samples are extremely important
T
C

because samples can easily be contaminated. It should be emphasized again that

E
P
S

pathogens are not identified by the coliform test. The presence of coliform organisms in
A

water does, however indicate that some portion of the water has recently contacted soil or
decaying vegetation or has been through the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animal. The
assumption must then be that pathogens may have accompanied the coliform bacteria.

ASPECTS OF WATER AND WASTEWATER QUALITY-PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II LECTURE NOTES BY TOBBY
MICHAEL AGWE

tmagwe@kab.ac.ug