X Study Material Science 2022 - 23 PDF

SCIENCE/X/STUDY MATERIAL/2022-23
AHMEDABAD REGION
STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

STUDY MATERIAL
CLASS –X
SCIENCE
SESSION-2022-23
0
STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

STUDY MATERIAL
:INSPIRATION:
Smt. Shruti Bhargava

Deputy Commissioner
KVS Regional Office Ahmedabad
Smt. Vinita Sharma

Assistant Commissioner
KVS Regional Office Ahmedabad
1
MENTOR
Sh. Jitendra Kumar Daroch

Principal
KV VV Nagar
COMPILATION
Sh. Satveer Singh Mrs. Aditi Agrawal
TGT Science TGT Science
KV ONGC Chandkheda KV No.1 Shahibaug
2
MATERIAL PREPARATION COMMITTEE

S.N CHAPTER NAME OF TEACHER POST KV
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
Mrs. Nidhi Singh TGT (Sci.)
1 EQUATIONS SAC Ahmedabad
AHMEDABAD
Sh. Deepak Pandya PGT CHEM
2 ACIDS ,BASES AND SALT CANTT.
3 METALS AND NON METALS Ms. CHINA AGRAWAL TGT (Sci.) AFS Baroda
4 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS Mr R P Bakolia TGT (Sci.) Dhrangadhra
6 LIFE PROCESSES Mrs. Shakuntala Meena TGT (Sci.) AFS Jamnagar
MR VIJENDER KUMAR
TGT (Sci.) INS Valsura
7 CONTROL AND COORDINATION MEENA
8 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE Sadanand Jangid TGT SC Junagadh
9 HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION Mr. Anil Kumar Arya TGT Sci ONGC Mehsana
LIGHT : REFLECTION AND
PGT PHY Viramgam
10 REFRACTION Mrs. Sneh Lata,
HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL
PGT PHY Dahod
11 WORLD Mr Amit Bainiwal
KV EME
12 ELECTRICITY Mrs Rupal Agnihotri TGT Science BARODA
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC
TGT Sci Rajkot
13 CURRENT Mr. Kamal Singh, TGT
No.1
TGT Sci
15 OUR ENVIRONMENT Mrs Hemlata Bhambhani Ahmedabad
REVIEW COMMITTEE
S.N CHAPTER NAME OF TEACHER POST KV

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
1 EQUATIONS Mrs. Laxmi Rawat TGT(Sci.) KV ONGC
2 ACIDS , BASES AND SALT Cambay
3 METALS AND NON METALS TGT KV CRPF
4 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS Dr Rajiv Kumar SCIENCE Gandhinagar
6 LIFE PROCESSES
7 CONTROL AND COORDINATION TGT KV Ahmedabad
15 OUR ENVIRONMENT Mrs Ishika Patel SCIENCE Cantt
8 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE Mr. JITENDRA PGT KV AFS Baroda
9 HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION BHATNAGAR (BIOLOGY)
LIGHT : REFLECTION AND
10 REFRACTION
PGT PHY
HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL Shri Mahendra KV CRPF
11 WORLD Prasad Dabi Gandhinagar
12 ELECTRICITY
Mr Jitendra Kumar KV Rly
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC PGT(Phy)
Jain Gandhidham
13 CURRENT
1
COURSE STRUCTURE
2
INDEX
CH.NO. PAGE NO
CHAPTER
1 4–6
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
2 7 – 15
ACIDS ,BASES AND SALT
3 16 – 22
METALS AND NON METALS
4 23 – 31
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
5 32 – 42
LIFE PROCESSES
6 43 – 49
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
7 50 – 61
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
8 62 – 65
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
9 66 – 80
LIGHT : REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
10 HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL 81 – 85
WORLD
11 86 – 91
ELECTRICITY
12 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC 92 – 99
CURRENT
13 100 – 107
OUR ENVIRONMENT
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CHAPTER 1.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Chemical Reaction: –Whenever a chemical change occurs we can say that a chemical reaction has
taken place
e.g. – Food gets digested in our body.
– Rusting of iron.
Chemical Equation:– A chemical reaction can be expressed symbolically by using chemical equations.
e.g. Magnesium is burnt into air to form Magnesium Oxide .This can be represented as:
Mg + O2  MgO
 We can observe or recognize a chemical reaction by observing change in state, color, by

evolution of gas or by change in temperature.
 Physical state of the reactant and products are mentioned to make chemical reactions more
informative. e.g. We use (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (s) for solid and (aq.) for aqueous.
Balancing a Chemical Equation: – We balance a chemical equation so that no. of atoms of each
element involved in the reaction remain same at the reactant and product side. It satisfies Law of
Conservation of mass which states that the mass can neither be created nor destroyed but is
transformed from one form to another.
e.g.- Fe + H2O  Fe3O4 + H2 can be written as a balanced equation as:
3 Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
Different types of Chemical Reactions
Combination Reaction:–The reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new single
substance.
e.g. –CaO (s) + H2O (l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq.)
Calcium Oxide Water Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime) is used for white washing. It reacts with CO2 to form CaCO3 and gives a shiny
finish to the walls.
Exothermic Reactions:–Reaction in which heat is released along with the formation of products.
e.g.- CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
– Respiration is also exothermic reaction.
– Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost.
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Decomposition Reactions:– The reaction in which a single substance decomposes to give two or
more substances. Decomposition reactions can be of three types:
Endothermic Reactions – The reactions which require energy and proceed with the absorption of
heat energy are called endothermic reactions.
2NH3 + Heat  N2 + 3H2
Displacement Reaction: The chemical Reaction in which a more reactive element displaces another
element from its solution.
e.g. -Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq.)  FeSO4 + Cu (s)
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The nail becomes brownish in colour and the blue colour of Copper Sulphate solution fades.
Double Displacement Reaction: The reaction in which two different atoms or group of atoms are
mutually exchanged.
e.g.- Na2SO4 + BaCl2  BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl
A white insoluble substance or precipitate of BaSO4 is formed in the above reaction.
Precipitation Reaction – Any reaction that produces a precipitate is called a precipitation reaction.
e.g.- Pb(NO3)2+ 2KI  PbI2 ↓ + 2KNO3
Oxidation : Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
e.g- 2Cu + O2  2CuO
When Copper is heated a black colour appears. If this CuO is reacted with hydrogen gas then again Cu
becomes brown as reverse reaction takes place.
Reduction: Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
Redox Reaction: The reaction in which one reactant gets oxidized while other gets reduced.
Oxidizing agent-Compounds which can give oxygen or remove hydrogen are called oxidizing agent.
An oxidizing agent itself gets reduced in the reaction. In the above reaction CuO is the oxidizing agent
which gets reduced to Cu.
Reducing agent-Compounds or elements which can cause reduction (give hydrogen) are called
Reducing agents. They themselves get oxidized. In the above reaction, H2 is the reducing agent which
gets oxidized to H 2O
6
CHAPTER 2
ACID, BASE AND SALTS
Acid-An acid is a substance which gives H+ ions or H3O+ ions when dissolved in water. Acids are sour in
taste. They change the colour of blue litmus to red.
Based on origin Acids may be :-
Natural acids or organic acids-.

These are obtained from natural sources like lemon juice, orange juice, ant sting (methanoic
acid),Vinegar(Acetic acid)etc
Mineral acids- These are prepared in the laboratory. Examples are Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid,
Nitric acid ,Acetic acid etc
Mineral acids are stronger than organic acids.

Based on their strength acids may be :-
Strong acids-Which completely ionize and produce good amount of H+ ions in water.E.g
HCl,H2SO4,HNO3 etc
Weak acids-Which do not ionize completely and produce less no of H+ ions.E.g Acetic acid(CH3COOH)
,Carbonic acid(H2CO3)
Based on dilution ,acids may be dilute or concentrated.
Dilute Acid: Contains only a small amount of acid and a large amount of water.
Concentrated Acid: Contains a large amount of acid and a small amount of water.
* Acid – Base Indicators – Substances which Indicate the presence of an acid or base in a solution.
* Natural indicators- Litmus is a natural indicator. It is a purple dye extracted from Lichens. Other
examples of natural indicators are Red Cabbage and coloured petals of Petunia and turmeric.
* Olfactory indicators – Show odour changes in acidic or basic media. e.g. onion and clove.
Universal indicator -It shows different colour over the range of pH value from 1 to 14 for a given
solution. Universal indicator is available both in the form of strips and solution. Universal indicator is
the combination of many indicators(dyes)
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*Acid – Base Indicators

S.No. Name of the Indicator Color Change with Acid Color Change with Base
A. Blue litmus solution/paper To red No change

B. Red litmus solution/paper No change To blue
C. Turmeric No change To red
D. Methyl Orange To Red Yellow
E. Phenolphthalein (colorless) No Change Pink
BASES -Base is a substance which releases hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. It is a substance
which is bitter in taste and soapy to touch (e.g. Washing soda, caustic soda and caustic potash). They
change red litmus to blue.
Bases may be strong or weak, concentrated or dilute
Strong bases: - These are bases which ionise completely in aqueous solution eg. NaOH, KOH.
Weak bases: - These are bases which ionise partially in aqueous solution eg. NH4OH, Ca(OH)2.
 Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases

 REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METAL: Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they
react with a metal.
 Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
 Example- Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal.
2HCl + Zn ZnCl2+H2
Hydrogen gas and sodium chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium metal.
2Na + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2
Hydrogen gas and zinc sulphate are formed when zinc metal reacts with sulphuric acid
 Zn + H 2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Test for the evolution of Hydrogen gas(pop test)

When a burning candle is brought near a test tube containing
Hydrogen gas it burns with a ‘Pop’ sound. This test is conducted for examining the presence of hydrogen
gas.
REACTION OF BASE WITH METALS:
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When alkali (base) reacts with metal, it produces salt and hydrogen gas.
Alkali + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Example: Sodium aluminate and hydrogen gas are formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with
Aluminium metal.
2NaOH + 2Al + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 2H2
Sodium hydroxide gives hydrogen gas and sodium zincate when reacts with zinc metal.
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2
REACTION OF ACID WITH HYDROGEN CARBONATES (BICARBONATES):
Acids give carbon dioxide gas, respective salt and water when they react with metal hydrogen
carbonate.
MetalCarbonate + Acid  Salt + Carbondioxide + Water

Na2CO3+2HCl (aq)2NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)
Metal bicarbonate +Acid Salt +Carbon dioxide +Water

NaHCO3+HCl NaCl+ CO2+ H2O
* Lime water Test for evolution of CO2 gas
On passing the CO2 gas evolved through limewater, limewater turns milky
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)CaCO3(s)+ H2O(l)
Limewater White precipitate

On passing excess of CO2, the following reaction takes place
CaCO3(s)+ H2O(l)+ CO2(g)- Ca(HCO3)2
The milky colour of lime water disappears on passing excess of CO 2.This happens because of
formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate. As calcium hydrogen carbonate is soluble in water, thus the
milky colour of solution mixture disappears.
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 NEUTRALISATION REACTION: An acid neutralizes a base when they react with each other and
respective salt and water are formed.
 Acid + Base → Salt + Water
 Since in the reaction between acid and base both neutralize each other, hence it is also known as
neutralization reaction.
NaOH(aq)+HCl(aq)-NaCl (aq)+H2O(l)
 REACTION OF ACID WITH METAL OXIDES: Metal oxides are basic in nature. Thus, when an acid
reacts with a metal oxide both neutralize each other. In this reaction, respective salt and water are
formed.
 Acid + Metal Oxide→ Salt + Water
CuO + HCl - CuCl2 + H2O
Copper oxide Hydrochloric Copper+ Water

acid chloride
Note: Appearance of blue green color of the solution is because of formation of CuCl2.
Metallic oxides are said to be basic oxides because they give salt and water on reacting with acids.
REACTION OF BASE WITH OXIDES OF NON-METALS: Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature. For
example; carbon dioxide is a non-metal oxide. When carbon dioxide is dissolved in water it produces
carbonic acid. Therefore, when a base reacts with non-metal oxide both neutralize each other resulting
in respective salt and water being produced.
Base + Non-metal oxide → Salt + Water
Ca(OH)2+ CO2CaCO3+ H2O
Note: Non-Metallic oxides are said to be acidic in nature because on reacting with a base they produce Salt
and Water.
All acidic solutions conduct electricity
* Acids or bases in a Water Solution
Acids produce H+ions in the presence of water

HCl+H2OH3O++Cl–
(H3O+ – Hydronium ion.)
– H+ion cannot exist alone. It exists as H+(aq.)or(H3O+) hydronium ion.

SCIENCE/X/STUDY MATERIAL/2022-23 10
– H++H2OH3O+
– Bases provide (OH–) ions in the presence of water

– NaOH(s) +H2O - Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water. Common alkalis are:
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide
Note: Alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
*Precaution must be taken while mixing acid or base with water. The acid must always be added to
water with constant stirring as it is highly exothermic reaction.
When an acid or a base is mixed with water they become dilute. This results in the decrease in the
concentration of H3O+or OH–per unit volume in acids and bases respectively.
Strength of an Acid or Base

The strength of acid or base depends upon the hydrogen ion concentration. If the concentration of
hydrogen ion is greater than hydroxide ion, the solution is called acidic. If the concentration of
hydrogen ion is smaller than the hydroxide ion, the solution is called basic. If the concentration of
hydrogen ion is equal to the concentration of hydroxide ion, the solution is called neutral solution.
pH is a scale which quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ion in a solution. The range of pH scale
is between 0 to 14. pH= Potenz in German means power.
This scale measures from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline) 7 means Neutral (water is
Neutral).
pH paper : Is a paper which is used for measuring pH.
Strong Acids give rise to more H+ions. e.g. HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3.
Weak Acids give rise to less H+ions eg.CH3 COOH,H2CO3(Carbonic acid)
Strong Bases – Strong bases give rise to more OH–ions. eg. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Weak Bases: give rise to less OH–ions.eg.NH4OH
Importance of pH in our daily life

Importance of pH in our digestive system: pH level of our body regulates our digestive system. In
case of indigestion our stomach produces acid in a very large quantity because of which we feel pain
and irritation in our stomach. To get relief from this pain antacids are used. These antacids
neutralizes the excess acid and we get relief.
 pH of Acid Rain : When pH of rain water is less than 5.6 it is called Acid Rain. When this acidic rain
flows into rivers these also get acidic, which causes a threat to the survival of aquatic life.
pH of Soil : Plants require a specific range of pH for their healthy growth. If pH of soil of any
particular place is less or more than normal than the farmers add suitable fertilizers to it.
 Our body functions between the range of 7.0 to 7.8 living organisms can survive only in the narrow
range of pH change.
Tooth decay and pH: Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth. Using toothpaste which is generally basic can neutralize the excess
acid and prevent tooth decay.
Bee sting or Nettle sting contains methanoic acid which causes pain and irritation. When we use a
weak base like baking soda on it we get relief.
MORE ABOUT SALTS
. CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT:
 Most of the salts are crystalline solid
Salts may be transparent or opaque
 Most of the salts are soluble in water
 Solution of salts conducts electricity. Salts conduct electricity in their molten state also
 The salt may be salty, sour, sweet or bitter
 Neutral salts are odorless
 Salts can be colourless or coloured
Salts and their derivation

S.No. Name of Salt Formula Derived from base Derived from acid
1. Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 KOH H2SO4
2. Sodium Sulphate Na2SO4 NaOH H2SO4
3. Sodium Chloride NaCl NaOH HCl

4. Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl NH4OH HCl
Note: NaCl and Na2SO4 belong to the family of sodium salts as they have the same radicals.
Similarly NaCl and KCl belong to the family of chloride salts.
Neutral Salts: Strong Acid + Strong base combine to give neutral salt with pH value of 7
e.g. NaCl, CaSO4
Acidic Salts: Strong Acid + weak base combine to give acidic salt with pH value less than 7 eq. NH4Cl,
NH4NO3
Basic Salts: Strong base +weak acid combine to give basic salt with pH value more than 7 e.g.
CaCO3, CH3COONa
Chemicals from Common Salt
*Sodium chloride is called as common salt used in our food. It is derived from seawater.
*Rock Salt has brown coloured large crystals. It is mined like coal.
* Common Salt is an important raw material for many materials of daily use such as.
Sodium hydroxide, Washing Soda, Bleaching Powder.
Sodium Hydroxide
Preparation : Prepared by the method called chlor-alkali.
Called chlor-alkali because we get chlorine and an alkali NaOH in this.
2NaCl(aq)+2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)+Cl2(g)+H2(g)
Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2):-

Chemical name-Calcium oxychloride
Preparation: -Ca(OH)+ Cl2 CaOCl2+H2O
Calcium hydroxide + chlorine  bleaching Powder + Water

Uses - in textile, factories and laundry, used as disinfectant
Baking Soda (NaHCO3):-

Common name–Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Preparation: NaCl+ H2O+CO2+NH3 NH4Cl + NaHCO3
On heating NaHCO3 produces: NaHCO3--Na2CO3+ H2O+ CO2
CO2 produced causes dough to rise and make cakes, pastries spongy.
Uses: In household, ingredients of antacid,
In making baking powder.(By combining baking soda with any weak acid like Tartaric acid to get H+
ions
NaHCO3+H+- CO2+H2O+ Sodium Salt of acid
Washing Soda
Preparation: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen

carbonate obtained by Solvay process.
NaCl + CO 2 + NH 3 + H2O → NH4Cl + NaHCO3
The sodium carbonate obtained in this process is dry. It is called soda ash or anhydrous sodium
carbonate. Washing soda is obtained by rehydration of anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Na2CO3+10H2O-Na2CO3.10H
Since there are 10 water molecules in washing soda, hence it is known as sodium bicarbonate
decahydrate.
Uses:
Used in glass, soap and paper industry.
Cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
Removal of hardness of water.
Manufacturer of borax.
WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION
Many salts contain water molecule and are known as hydrated salts. The water molecule present in salt
is known as water of crystallization.
Examples: COPPER SULPHATE PENTAHYDRATE (CuSO4.5H2O)
Blue colour of copper sulphate is due to presence of 5 molecules of water. When copper sulphate is
heated, it loses water molecules and turns into grey-white colour, which is known as anhydrous copper
sulphate. After adding water; anhydrous copper sulphate becomes blue again.
CuSO4.5H2O + heat → CuSO4
FERROUS SULPHATE HEPTAHYDRATE (FeSO4.7H2O)
The green colour of Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate; commonly known as ferrous sulphate; is due to the
presence of 7 molecules of water in it.
PLASTER OF PARIS [CaSO4.1/2 H2O]
Gypsum also contains water of Crystallization. On heating gypsum at 373k it becomes CaSO4.½H2O is
plaster of Paris. CaSO4.2H2O + Heat → CaSO4.1/2 H2O + 3/2 H2O
After addition of water Plaster of Paris is again converted into gypsum.
CaSO4.1/2H2O + 3/2H2O→CaSO4.2H2O
Plaster of Paris is used in making of toys, designer false ceiling, etc. Doctors use Plaster of Paris to set the
fractured bone.
CHAPTER 3
Metals and Non metals
Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals on the basis of their properties
Physical properties of Metals
Metals are malleable, ductile, sonorous and good conductors of heat and electricity. They possess
high melting and boiling point and have metallic lustre.
Examples- Cu, Mg, Al, Ag, Au etc.
Exceptions among metals-
(A) All metals are solid but mercury is a liquid at room temperature.
(B) Metals have high melting and boiling point, but Gallium and Caesium have very low melting
point. These two metals will melt if you keep them on your palm.
(C) Alkali metals (Li,Na,K) are soft and can be easily cut with a knife. They have low densities and
low melting point.
Physical properties of non metals
Non metals are non-malleable, non-ductile and bad conductors of heat and electricity. They
possess low melting and boiling point.
Examples- C, S, P, N, O etc
Exceptions among non metals-
(A) Non metals are generally solids and gases except bromine which is liquid
(B) Iodine is a lustrous non metal
(C) Diamond is the hardest natural known substance
(D) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity
Chemical Properties of Metals
1. Reaction With Oxygen:
Metals react with air or oxygen to form metal oxide.
Metal + Oxygen --------------- Metal oxide
 4Na + O2 ----------- 2Na2O
 2Mg + O2 -------------> 2 MgO

 2Ca + O2 -------------> 2 CaO
Metal oxides are generally basic in nature as these oxides dissolve in water to form bases.
 Na2O + H2O----------------- 2NaOH

 MgO + H2O -------------- Mg(OH)2
 Copper when heated in air reacts with oxygen to form copper oxide.
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
Similarly aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Metal oxides which reacts with both acids as well as bases to form salts and water are known
as amphoteric oxides .e.g aluminium oxide, zinc oxide
Al2O3 + 6HCl -------------- 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O
Al2O3 + 2 NaOH -------------- 2 NaAlO2 + H2O
ZnO+2HCl-----------------ZnCL2+H2O
ZnO +2NaOH------------Na2ZnO2
2. Reaction with Water
Metals react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas with a lot of heat. For
Example: 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Most reactive metals like Na, K reacts vigorously with water at room temperature and catches fire
due to the evolution of hydrogen gas.
So these metals should be stored in kerosene or paraffin wax to avoid reaction with water vapour
at room temperature.
Metals like magnesium reacts with only boiling water
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + 2H2
However metals like Al, Fe, Zn react with steam
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
[But Aluminium is rendered passive with water or acid because Al reacts with air to form aluminium
oxide. This oxide layer act as protective layer and prevents further reaction reaction]
3. Reaction with Acids:

Metals also reacts with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen. For example, magnesium reacts
with dilute hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen.
Metal + Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Zinc reacts with dilute acid to form ZnSO4 and hydrogen gas
Zn + H2SO4 -------- ZnSO4 + H2
Hydrogen gas is not produced when a metal reacts with nitric acid. It is because nitric acid is a
strong oxidising agent, it oxidises the H2 produced to water and itself gets reduced to any of the
nitrogen oxide (N2O, NO, NO2)
But Mg and Mn react with very dilute nitric acid
Reactivity Series
The series in which metals are arranged in the decreasing order of reactivity, it is known
as Reactivity Series.
Reactivity Series
4. Displacement Reaction:
More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from its salt solution. While a less reactive metal
cannot displace a more reactive metal from it`s salt solution
Metal A +Salt of metal B-----Salt of metal A +Metal B
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Zn + FeSO4 → ZnSO4 + Fe
Mg + ZnSO4 → MgSO4 + Zn
Ag+CuSO4No reaction
Reaction between Metals and Non-Metals

Generally, Metal and non-metal can react together to form ionic compounds.
e.g 2Na + Cl2 -------------- 2NaCl
2Ca + O2 ------------ 2 CaO
Ions-Positively or negatively charged atoms are called ions. Ions are formed because of loss or gain of
electrons.
Ionic Compounds
Compounds formed by ionic bond i.e due to the complete transfer of electrons from a metal to a
non-metal are known as ionic Compounds. Ionic bond is electrostatic attractive force between
oppositely charged ions.
Formation of NaCl, MgCl2 & MgO
(iii)
Properties of Ionic Compounds

 They are generally hard and crystalline solid.
 They have a high melting and boiling point because of strong attractive force between ions.
 They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents such as ether etc.
 They are good conductors of electricity in molten and aqueous solution state but not in solid state.
Because in solid state ions cannot move freely.
Metallurgy: The extraction of metals from their ore and then refining them for use is called
metallurgy
Steps involved in the extraction of metals from ore
A. Enrichment of Ores
The process of removing impurities from the ore. The processes used for removing the
impurities from ore is based on the differences between the physical and chemical properties
of impurities and the ore.
B.Conversion of ore into metal oxide
(a) Roasting: The sulphide ore is converted into oxides by heating in the presence of air.
2 ZnS + 3O2 + heat → 2ZnO + 2SO2
(b) Calcination: The carbonate ores are converted into oxides by heating in absence or limited
supply of air.
ZnCO3+Heat → ZnO + CO2
C. Reduction of Metal Oxide to Metal
(i)Metals that are lower in the reactivity series can be reduced by heating alone.
e.g (a) 2HgS + 3 O2 +Heat → 2 HgO + 2 SO2
(b) 2 HgO +Heat → 2 Hg + O2
(ii) Metals that are in the middle of reactivity series are reduced by heating with carbon.
e.g ZnO + C → Zn + CO
Highly reactive metals also reduce metal oxide with low reactivity.
3 MnO2 +4 Al → 3 Mn + 2 Al2O3 + Heat
(iii) Metals that are high up in the reactivity series are reduced by electrolytic reduction. e.g Na,
Mg and Ca are obtained by electrolysis of their molten chlorides. The metals are deposited at
cathode, whereas, chlorine is liberated at the anode.
At Cathode: Na+ +e- → Na
At Anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
D. Refining
In electrolytic refining :
Impure metal is taken as taken as anode, thin pure metal strip is taken as cathode and water
soluble salt of the metal to be refined is taken as electrolyte.
At Anode: M → Mn+ n + ne-
Impure metal Metal ions in solution
At Cathode: M+n +ne- → M
Metal ions Pure metal in solution
CORROSION OF METALS
CORROSION- The slow attack of atmospheric gases, moisture and acids on the surface of metals
which results in the formation of a new layer of sulphide, carbonate, oxide etc to be formed on the
surface. Corrosion of metals can be prevented by :
Applying oil or grease.
Applying paint.
By galvanization. (Coating with zinc)
By tinning. (Coating with tin)
By electroplating. (Coating a less reactive metal like chromium)
By alloying. (Making alloys
ALLOYS: Alloys are homogenous mixture of two or more than two metals or metals and non-metals
An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements together, at least one of them metal.
The components of alloys cannot be separated using physical means. An alloy is homogeneous and
retains the properties of a metal, even though it may include metalloids or non-metals in its
composition. Example - steel ( iron with non-metallic carbon or silicon respectively).
CHAPTER -4
Carbon And Its Compound
 The atomic number of carbons is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It requires 4 electrons to

achieve the inert gas electronic configuration. It can achieve noble gas configuration, If it were to
lose or gain 4 electrons.
 It could gain four electrons forming C-4 anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons.
 It could lose four electrons forming C+4 cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons.
 Thus, carbon overcomes this problem by sharing of its valence electrons with other carbon
atoms or with atoms of other elements.
Covalent bond
 The bond formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs between two atoms in a molecule is known
as Covalent Bond.
Types of Covalent Bond:

 Single Covalent Bond: When a single pair of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; F2, Cl2, H2, HCl , H2O, CH4, NH3etc.
 Double Covalent Bond: When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule.
For example; O2, CO2 etc.
 Triple Covalent Bond: When three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule.
For example; N2 etc.
ALLOTROPY
Allotropy is defined as the property by which an element can exist in more than one form that are
physically different but chemically similar.
Allotropes of carbon
Carbon exists in three allotropic forms. They are crystalline form (diamond and graphite), amorphous
form (coke,charcoal) and fullerene.
In diamond each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three
dimensional structure , accounting for it’s hardness and rigidity.
In graphite each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane giving
hexagonal layers held together by weak vander Waals forces accounting for softness.
Fullerenes form another type of carbon allotropes. The first one was identified to contain 60 carbon
atoms in the shape of a football. (C-60).
Versatile Nature of Carbon: -
The existence of a large number of organic compounds is due to the following nature of carbon-
 Catenation
 Tetravalent nature.
Catenation
 The self-linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through covalent bonds to form long
straight, branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation.
This property is due to
 The small size of the carbon atom.

 The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms of
other elements.
Tetravalent Nature:
 Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or some
other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple bond.
Homologous Series: A homologous series is a group or a class of organic compounds having similar
structure and similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds differ by a CH2 group.
Characteristics of Homologous Series

 The successive members in homologous series differ by CH unit or 14 mass unit.
2
 Members of a given homologous series have the same functional group.

 All the members of homologous series show similar chemical properties.
 Some examples of such series are Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes etc
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

In general, the names of organic compounds are based on the name of basic carbon chain modified by
a prefix (phrase before) or suffix (phrase after) showing the name of the functional group.
Following steps are used to write the name of an organic compound
Step 1 Count the number of carbon atoms in the given compound and write the root word for it .
Step 2 If the compound is saturated, add suffix ‘ane’ to the root word, but if is unsaturated, add suffix
‘ene’ and ‘yne’ for double and triple bonds respectively.
For example, CH3CH2CH3 contains three C atoms so root word is ‘prop’ and it contains only single
bonds, so suffix used is ‘ane’. Hence, the name of this compound is propane. Similarly, the compound
CH3CH =CH2 is named as propene as here suffix ‘ene’ is used for double bond.
Step 3 If functional group is present in the compound, it is indicated by adding its suffix (which are
given in the table above).
- Prefix ‘iso’ and ‘neo’ represent the presence of one or two carbon atoms respectively as side chain.
- If the functional group is named as a suffix, the final ‘e’ of alkane (or alkene or alkyne) is
substituted by appropriate suffix.
-If the functional group and substituents are not present at first carbon, then their location is
indicated by digits 1,2,3... .
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

1. Combustion: - Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with
the release of heat and light. Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and
light on burning.
a) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light
b) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
c) CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
Further, once carbon and its compounds ignite, they keep on burning without the
requirement of additional energy. That’s why these compounds are used as fuels.
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame due to their complete combustion whereas, unsaturated
hydrocarbons give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke as they do not undergo complete
combustion.
2. Oxidation: -
Carbon compounds can be easily oxidized on combustion. Oxidation is a process of intake of oxygen
and removal of hydrogen. Those substances which are capable of providing oxygen to other
substances are called oxidising agents such as alk. KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7 .
In addition to this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols are converted to
carboxylic acids .
3.Addition reaction: - Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen in the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst to form saturated hydrocarbons.
Eg:- Ethene undergoes addition reaction with hydrogen to form ethane in the presence of nickel or
palladium as catalyst
The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to form saturated hydrocarbons is called

hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is used to convert unsaturated oils and fats to saturated oils and fats
4) Substitution reaction: - Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with halogens to

form substitution products. The reactions in which a reagent substitutes (replaces) an atom or a
group of atoms from the reactant (substrate) are called substitution reactions
Eg :- Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the presence of sunlight to form
substitution products.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)
Some important carbon compounds: -
a) ETHANOL: - C2H5OH (Ethyl alcohol)

b) Properties: -
i) Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a pleasant smell and burning taste.
ii) It is soluble in water.
iii) Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
iv) Ethanol reacts with hot conc. H2SO4 to form ethene and water. Conc. H2SO4 is a dehydrating
agent and removes water from ethanol.
Uses :-
i) Ethanol is used for making alcoholic drinks.
ii) It is used as a solvent.
iii) It is used for making medicines like tincture of iodine, cough syrups, tonics etc.
iv) As an anti-freeze in automobile radiators
2. ETHANOIC ACID :- CH3COOH – Acetic acid

Properties :-
i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste
ii) It is soluble in water.
iii) A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
Reactions of ethanoic acid:
i) Esterification :- Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ester ethyl ethanoate in the presence
of conc. H2SO4 . The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called
esterification
ii) Saponification: - When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, the sodium salt of the
carboxylic acid and the parent alcohol are formed. This reaction is called saponification.
iii) Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
iv ) Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
Soaps and detergents
a) Soaps: - Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids.
Eg:- Sodium stearate – C17H35COONa
b) Structure of soap molecule: - A soap molecule has two parts. A long hydrocarbon part which is
hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and grease and a short ionic part which is hydrophilic
(water attracting) and insoluble in oil and grease.
b) Cleansing action of soap: - When soap is dissolved in water it forms spherical structures called
micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules are arranged radially such that the HC part is
towards the centre and the ionic part is towards the outside. The HC part dissolves the dirt, oil
and grease and forms an emulsion at the centre of the micelles which can be washed away by
water
c) Detergents :- Detergents are long chain sodium salts of sulphonic acids. Soaps do not wash well
with hard water because it forms insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard
water. Detergents wash well with hard water because it does not form insoluble precipitates of
calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.
Differences between soaps and detergents: -

soap Detergent
i) Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Detergents are sodium salt of sulphonic acids.
ii) Soaps clean well in soft water but do detergents clean well with both hard and soft
not clean well in hard water water
Soaps are biodegradable and do not Some detergent are non biodegradable and cause
cause pollution. of pollution.
CHAPTER – 5 LIFE PROCESSES
LIFE PROCESSES
All the vital processes which are required by an organism to survive are called life processes.
Nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion are
important life process. In multicellular organism life processes occur in various specialized body parts
while in unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell
(a) IMPORTANT LIFE PROCESSES

 Nutrition in plants and animals
 Transportation in animals and plants

 Excretion in animals and plants
(b) NUTRITION
 The process, by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called nutrition.
 Nutrition is essential for growth and development of organisms. It also provide energy to do
different work.
 Nutrition is obtained by material called nutrients. Nutrients are macronutrients
(Carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and micronutrients (Minerals and vitamins).
(c) HOW DO LIVING THINGS GET THEIR FOOD?

a- Autotrophic nutrition b- Heterotrophic nutrition
(d) AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic nutrition.
Green plants and blue-green algae make their food by a process called photosynthesis.
(e) PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The process by which plants in presence of pigment chlorophyll, sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
form food and release oxygen is known as photosynthesis. The overall reaction occurring in
photosynthesis is as follows:
(f)EVENTS OCCURING DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Raw material required in photosynthesis Source
CO2 and O2 Atmosphere
Radiation Sunlight
H2O Soil
(g) Some facts
 Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
 Photosynthesis is an oxidation- reduction reaction in which carbon di oxide is reduced to

sugar and water is oxidized.
(h) Chloroplast
Contain main photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll and accessory pigments xanthophyll and
carotenoids.
(i) Stomata
Gaseous exchange and transpiration (loss of water as water vapour ) takes place through minute
pores on the surface of leaves called as stomata. Stomata has a stomatal pore guarded by bean shape
guard cells which regulate opening and closing of stomata.
(j) HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
(k) In this mode of nutrition, an organism is unable to synthesize its own food. It is of following types
(l) 1. Holozoic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism takes in whole food and break it
inside the body. For example, Amoeba,Human beings
(m) 2. Saprophytic nutrition is a nutrition in which organisms feed on dead and decaying matter. For
example, fungi, moulds
(n) 3. Parasitic nutrition is a nutrition in which organism feed on living host. For example, Cuscutta.
In this type of nutrition organism obtain their nutrient from other living organism (parasite) e.g.
Animals or dead and decaying objects (saprophyte) e.g. Fungi like bread moulds, yeast and
mushrooms
(o) NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

 Amoeba captures food with the
(p)
help ofpseudopodia.
 Food vacuole is formed

containing foodparticle.
 Food is digested.
NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Alimentary canal Tube like structure from mouth to anus

Salivary glands 3 pairs, Secrete saliva
Enzymes made of proteins (except ribozyme), break the complex foods in
tosimpler form
Peristaltic movement Rhythmic movement of food in oesophagus (food pipe) toward stomach
Stomach Large sac like structure below food pipe
Gastric gland Present in wall of stomach secrete HCl, Pepsin, Mucus
Small Intestine It is longest, coiled tube and site of complete digestion of food.
Villi Small finger like projections on small intestine, increase the surface area
for absorption
Large intestine Small intestine opens into large intestine .Absorption of water
occurs here.
(q)
(r) HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

(i) Food is crushed and mixed with saliva with the help of teeth and tongue.
(ii) Saliva contains salivary amylase that break down starch.
(iii) By peristaltic movement in oesophagus the food enters stomach.
(iv) In stomach food is mixed with HCl, Protein digesting enzyme pepsin and Mucus HCl, kills the
germs in food as well as provides acidic medium essential for pepsin to work
(v) Mucus protects the inner lining of alimentary canal from the action of HCl.
(vi) Small intestine receives secretions of liver and pancreas through a common duct. It is athe site of
complete digestion of food (carbohydrate, protein and fat)
(vii) Unabsorbed food enters into large intestine for further absorption of water.
(viii) Undigested food is removed from body via anus.
Organ Secretion Role
Liver Bile juice Make medium alkaline for pancreatic juice ..Break the fat
molecules into smaller parts (emulsification)
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Trypsin digests protein. Lipase digests lipid
Wall of small Intestinal juices Proteins to amino acids Carbohydrates to glucose Fat to fatty acid
intestine and glycerol
(s)
(t) DENTAL CARIES (TOOTH DECAY)

It is caused due to acid produced by bacteria. In this enamel softens and may cause dental plaqueand
cavities.
(u) RESPIRATION
Process of breaking down of complex organic material into simpler form with the help of enzymes is
called respiration.
(v) Types of respiration and site

Type Definition Site
Aerobic respiration It occurs in presence of oxygen Cytoplasm and Mitochondria
Anaerobic respiration It occurs in absence of oxygen. Cytoplasm
Fermentation It is a type of anaerobic Cytoplasm

respiration.It occurs in few
microorganisms
(w)
Cytoplasm Fluid part within the cell
Mitochondria Site of energy production in plants and animals (power house of cell)
Pyruvate Intermediate product of respiration
Ethanol A type of alcohol (C2H5OH)
ATP Adenosine tri phosphate, an energy rich compound
(x) PROCESS OF RESPIRATION

(i) Glucose is broken down into pyruvate in cytoplasm of cell.
(ii) In presence of oxygen pyruvate enters into mitochondria and is completely oxidized there to
produce CO2 and energy (ATP).
(iii) In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate partially decomposes and form s-Ethanol in yeast
(fermentation) and Lactic acid in muscle cells
(y) HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

It consists of nostrils, nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli,
diaphragm and ribcage.
i- The inhalation of oxygen and

exhalation of CO2 is known as
breathing. Air is taken into the
body through nostrils.
ii- From nostril air passes through
the pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles and finally
reaches the alveoli.
iii- At alveoli exchange of oxygen and
CO2 takes place with blood vessels
by the process of diffusion.
iv- Oxygen enters into blood vessels
while CO2 enters into alveolar sac.
Both oxygen and CO2 is carried by
iron containing pigment
hemoglobin present in blood.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Blood A type of connective tissue consists of RBC, WBC, Platelets and plasma.
Plasma Fluid portion of blood
Oxygenated blood Blood carrying oxygen
Deoxygenated blood Blood carrying carbon dioxide instead of oxygen
Hemoglobin Iron containing pigment, carries both oxygen and CO2
Heart chambers Atrium and ventricle
Systole Contraction of heart chambers
Diastole Relaxation of heart chambers
Double circulation Blood goes through the heart twice in the same cycle
Arteries Thick walled. elastic, Carry blood away from heart to various organs
Veins Thin walled, carry blood from different organs to the heart
Platelets Helps in blood clotting during injury
Lymph / Tissue fluid Fluid in intercellular space in the tissues. They carry digested and
absorbed fat.
Sphygmomanometer An instrument to measure blood pressure
HUMAN HEART
i- Human heart ---four chambered (two atrium and two ventricles).
Amphibian – three chambered heart, Fish – two chambered heart
ii- These chambers are well separated to avoid mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenatedblood.
iii- Right atrium and right ventricle contain deoxygenated blood while left atrium and left ventricle
contain oxygenated blood.
iv- Atrium and ventricles are separated by valves-a) Tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve
v- Oxygenated blood from lungs enters in left atrium via pulmonary veins. When left atrium
contracts (systole) blood enters the left ventricle. The blood goes from ventricles to different
parts of the body via aorta when left ventricle contracts.
vi- From different part of the body deoxygenated blood is carried back to the right atrium of the
heart by superior and inferior vena cava .
vii- When right atrium contracts the blood enters into right ventricle. The deoxygenated blood goes
to the lungs through pulmonary arteries when right ventricle contracts.
(z) TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Stomata Gaseous exchange, Transpiration (loss of water in the form of vapor)
Xylem Water conduction channels composed of xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids
Transport water and mineral from root to aerial part (unidirectional)
Phloem Transport food from the leaves to all other parts (multidirectional).
EXCRETION
Excretion Removal of harmful metabolic wastes

fromthe body
Kidney Excretory organ of human
Nephron Structural and functional unit of kidney
Urinary bladder Stores urine
Ureter Connects urinary bladder with kidney
Hemodialysis Artificial kidney, a device to remove

nitrogenous waste products (urea, uric
acid)from the blood.
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEING
 The basic filtration unit of the kidneys is known as nephrons. Nephron are the structural and
functional unit of kidneys. They consist of bowman’s capsule(a cup like structure) and renal
tubule. Bowman`s capsule has glomerulus which is a cluster of thin walled capillaries. Blood
coming from Renal artery is filtered by the glomerulus in the Bowman`s capsule which collects
the filtered urine.
 There is reabsorption on glucose, amino acids, salts and water in tubules of nephrons.
 The concentrated urine enters into urinary bladder via ureter and finally pass outside the body
through urethra.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
 Stomata play an important role as it is the site for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
 Some waste products are released in from of resins and gums.

Falling of leave
CH.6 - CONTROL AND COORDINATION
Living organisms respond to various stimuli like heat, light, cold, touch, pressure etc.
Example: Withdrawal of hand on touching a hot object.
Control and Coordination in Animals
It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
(a) Nervous System
(b) Endocrine System
Nervous System: Consists of Brain, Spinal network and a huge network of nerves.
Functions
(i) To receive the information from environment
(ii) To receive the information from various body parts. (Stimuli Response)
(iii) To act accordingly through muscles and glands.
Stimulus: Any change in environment to which the organisms respond is called stimulus. E.g.,
touching a hot plate.
Response: The reaction of our body to a stimulus. E.g., withdrawal of our hand on touching hot
plate.
Coordination- The working together of various organs of the body of an organism in a proper
manner to produce appropriate reaction to a stimulus is called coordination.
Receptors: These are specialized tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the
environment.
Receptors are sense Organs
Neuron: It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system. Neurons (also known as nerve
cells and nerve fibers) are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system that function to process
and transmit information. In vertebrate animals, neurons are the core components of the brain,
spinal cord and peripheral nerves. The primary components of the neuron are the soma (cell body),
the axon (a long slender projection that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body),
dendrites (tree-like structures that receive messages from other neurons), and synapses (specialized
junctions between neurons).
The axon (nerve fibre) transmits electrical signals from the cell body. The dendrites are branching
fibres that receive electrical signals from other neurons. The shape of a neuron is determined by the
job it does.
Synapse: The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the
dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.
REFLEX ACTION
Reflex action is an automatic response of the body to a stimulus. e.g., withdrawal of hand, knee jerk
etc. on touching a hot plate.
Reflex arc: The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc.
Voluntary means it is under the control of a person (e.g., writing)
Involuntary means it is not under the control of a person. (e.g., heartbeat)
Mechanism of Reflex action: A reflex mechanism involves a receptor organ, an effector organ, and
some type of communication network. When a sensory receptor is stimulated, signals pass from it
along a sensory neuron to the spinal cord. The message travels out of the spinal cord along a motor
neuron to the effector organ (e.g., a muscle or a gland), which shows the response. Such a pathway
is called a reflex arc. Additional nerve cells capable of communicating with other parts of the body
(Beyond the receptor and effector) are present in reflex circuits.
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is the major division, and consists of the
brain and the spinal cord. The spinal
canal contains the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity contains the brain.
Human Brain: It is enclosed in cranium (brain box) and is protected by cerebrospinal fluid which acts
as a shock absorber. It is the command center for the human nervous system. It receives input from
the sensory organs and sends output to the muscles. It has several layers called MENINGES.
Human brain has three majors parts or regions::

(a) Fore-brain (b) Mid Brain (c) Hind Brain.
(a) Fore-brain (CEREBRUM) : Most complex/specialized part of the brain is Cerebrum or the
forebrain.
Functions: 1. Thinking part of the brain 2. Control the voluntary actions. 3. Store information
(Memory)
4. Centre associated with HUNGER 5. Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and
integrates it.
(b) Mid Brain : It connects the fore-brain with the hind-brain. It is the portion of the central nervous
system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and
temperature regulation.
(c) Hind-Brain-
It has three main parts
Cerebellum-Controls and coordinates muscular movements, maintaining body posture and
equilibrium
Pons-Is the respiratory centre, controls respiration. Also controls sleep cycles
Medulla Oblongata-Controls involuntary actions like Blood pressure, breathing, heartbeat, vomiting
etc
Spinal Cord: Spinal Cord is enclosed in Vertebral column.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS:
HORMONES are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.
Plant Hormones: Main plant hormones are:
(a) Auxin: Auxin is a plant hormone produced in the stem tip that promotes cell elongation.
(b) Gibberellin: Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate growth and influence various
developmental processes, including stem elongation, germination, flowering, enzyme induction,
and leaf and fruit senescence(falling).
(c) Cytokinins: CytokininsS (CK) are a class of plant growth substances (phytohormones) that
promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell
growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf
senescence.
(d) Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone). It promotes the closing
of stomata (during adverted rough condition) there by reducing the water loss.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS
Hormones: Hormones are the chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and
transmitted by the blood to the tissues on which it has a specific effect.
Iodized Salt is Necessary because thyroid gland needs iodine to make thyroxine which helps in
regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Deficiency of iodine cause a disease
called goiter.
Diabetes- It is due to deficiency of Insulin hormone secreted by Pancreas that is responsible to

lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment: Common diabetes can be controlled by medicine but in severe cases. Injections of
insulin hormone are given to the patients.
Feedback Mechanism
The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our body. Feedback mechanism
makes sure that hormones are secreted in precise quantities and at right time.
So we have learnt that Control and coordination are the functions of the nervous system and
hormones in our bodies. The responses of the nervous system can be classified as reflex action,
voluntary action or involuntary action. The nervous system uses electrical impulses to transmit
messages. The nervous system gets information from our sense organs and acts through our
muscles. Chemical coordination is seen in both plants and animals. Hormones produced in one part
of an organism move to another part to achieve the desired effect. A feedback mechanism regulates
the action of the hormones.
CHAPTER- 7
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to
themselves. It ensures continuity of life on earth. Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid) which is the heredity material .DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation. So,
these new cells will be similar but may not be identical to original cell. Variations are useful for the
survival of the individual and species over time as well as the basis for evolution.
Types of Reproduction
(a) Asexual Reproduction

 A single individual give rise to new individual.
 Gametes are not formed.
 New individual is identical to parent.
 It is extremely useful as a means of rapid multiplication.
 Adopted by lower organisms.
(b) Sexual Reproduction

 Two individuals i.e., one male and one female are needed to give rise to new individual.
 Gametes are formed.
 New individual is not identical to parents.
 It is useful to generate more variations in species.
 Adopted by higher organisms.
Fission
• Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms. The parent
cell divides into daughter cells
• When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission (e.g.Amoeba, paramecium).
When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple fission (e.g. Plasmodium). Planes of
fission may be different for different organisms.
(i) Binary Fission In Amoeba
In this organism divide two or more equal part and each

develops into identical new individuals.
Fig - Binary fission in amoeba
(ii) Fragmentation: The organism breaks-up into smaller pieces; upon maturation, each piece
develops into new individual. E.g., Spirogyra.
(iii) Regeneration: If an organism is somehow cut or broken into many pieces, each piece grows into
a complete organism. E.g., Planaria, Hydra.
(iv) BUDDING:-In this new organism develops on bud (out growth on the parent body). The new
organism remains attach to the parent body till it get matures. Ex- hydra, yeast
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
A mode of reproduction in plants in which a vegetative part, like the stem, root, leaves
develop into a new plant under favourable conditions. It is also considered as a type of asexual
reproduction as long as one parent is involved. The main advantage of vegetative propagation is
that the new plants contain the genetic materials of only one parent so; they are essentially
clones of the parent plant.This can also help to maintain consistent quality and taste in
products made from plants or crops. This process is very helpful in case of plants where they
have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
E.g.: Rose (stem, branch), Bryophyllum (leaves) etc.
SPORE FORMATION
Spore,is a reproductive cell, capable of developing

into a new individual without fusion with another
reproductive cell. Spores are agents of asexual
reproduction, whereas gametes are agents of
sexual reproduction. Spores are produced by
bacteria, fungi, algae and Plants.
Rhizopus (Bread mould) grows as filamentous,

branched structure. The filamentous structure that
grows above it is called Hyphae, which are not the
reproductive parts. Hyphae give rise to a Globular structure called Sporangia, which contains spores.
The spores are covered by thick wall that protect them from any adverse conditions and the spores
are lighter so they get dispersed to another places easily. It will provide better chances for them to
survive and grow up.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It is the production of new organisms by the combination of genetic information of two individuals
of different sexes. In most species the genetic information is carried on chromosomes in the nucleus
of the reproductive cells called Gametes (haploid) which then fuse to form a Zygote (diploid). The
zygote develops into a new individual. Sexual reproduction is the dominant form of reproduction in
living beings.
WHY THE SEXUAL MODE OF REPRODUCTION?
Sexual reproduction causes more viable variations due to the following reasons:-
* Error in copying DNA, which are not highly significant
* Random segregation of Father and Mother chromosomes at the time of Gamete formation
* It’s a source of genetic variation among a population of organisms.
* It gives rise to individuals more adapted to the environment
* It helps in survival of species
* It helps in evolution of organisms.
In lower form of multicellular organisms there doesn’t appear much difference between the germ
cells but in higher multicellular organisms the difference exist, one germ cell will be smaller and
motile while the other will be storing food in it and non-motile. In male body the germ cells are called
Sperm cells and in females Ova, both having half set of chromosomes.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
 Sexual reproduction in plants happens through flowers.
 The typical structure of flower contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.
 Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.
 Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if
they are green in colour.
 Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.
Male reproductive structure is called a stamen and consists of anther and filament.
• Anther produces haploid pollen grains.
• Female reproductive structure is called pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary
Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the flower is
pollination.
There are two types of pollination:-
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species.
It generally takes place with the help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.
Fertilization Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.
• The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the
ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives us the zygote which is capable of growing
into a new plant.
• After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.
Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower.
Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.
Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo. Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle.
Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is
known as germination.
Reproduction in Human Beings
Humans use sexual mode of reproduction
Sexual maturation: The period of life when production of germ cells i.e. ova (female) and sperm
(male) start in the body. This period of sexual maturation is called puberty.
Changes at Puberty
• Common in male and female
Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples.
• In girls Breast size begin to increase.
Menstrual cycle begins.
• In boys Thick hair growth on face.
Voice begins to crack.
These changes indicate that sexual maturity is taking place.
Male Reproductive System
Testes A pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outside the abdominal cavity.
Scrotum has a relatively lower

temperature needed for the
production of sperms. Male
germ cell i.e. sperms are
formed here. Testes release
male sex hormone
(testosterone), regulate
production of sperms and
bring changes at puberty.
(ii) Vas deferens - It passes

sperms from testes up to
urethra.
(iii) Urethra - It is a common

passage for both sperms and
urine. Its outer covering is called penis
(iv)Associated glands
Seminal vesicles and prostate gland add their secretion to the sperms. This fluid provide
nourishment to sperms and make their transport easy. Sperm along with secretion of
glands form semen.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It has the following parts
• Two ovaries: Ovaries produce Ovum. When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain
thousands of immature eggs. On reaching puberty, some of these start maturing. One egg is
produced every month by one of the ovaries.
• Oviduct / Fallopian Tube: The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb (uterus) through a
thin oviduct or fallopian tube. It is the site for fertilization.
• Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. The
uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
FERTILISATION:
 Fertilization is fusion of sperm and egg. It takes place in fallopian tube. Fertilized egg is called as
zygote which develops into embryo.
 The zygote, gets attached in the lining of the uterus, and starts dividing This is called
implantation. The uterus holds the developing embryo in its layer through placenta and umbilical
cord.
 When egg is not fertilized then inner lining of uterus breaks and comes out through the vagina
as blood and mucus (menses). This cycle repeats every month and is called menstrual cycle.
GESTATION: The period from fertilization to the birth of the baby. The development of the child
inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months 280-290 days.
PREPARATION OF UTERUS:
• Uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.
• The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
PLACENTA:
• The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta.
• This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the
tissue.
• On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface
area.
Functions of Placenta:
1. Transport nutrient from the mother to the embryo.
2. Transport oxygen from the mother’s body to the embryo.
3. The developing embryo generate waste substances which are removed by transferring them
into the mother’s blood through the placenta.
Parturition: The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus
MENSTRUATION / MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
• If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day.
• Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to
receive a fertilized egg.
• Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if
fertilization had taken place.
• The lining of the uterus slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous.
• This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for
about two to eight days.
MENARCHE AND MENOPAUSE:
Menstruation starts in human females at the puberty.
The starting of menstruation is called Menarche. Menstruation continues in human females till
the age of 45-50. At this age menstruation comes to an end.
Stoppage of menstruation is called Menopause.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
The process of sexual maturation is gradual and takes place along with general body growth.
Some degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the body or the mind is ready
for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD)
Diseases transmitted through sexual contact are called Sexually Transmitted Diseases or
Sexually Transmitted Infections or Venereal diseases. e.g: Gonorrhoea and Syphilis (caused by
bacteria)
HIV-AIDS. Caused by virus.
Preventing the transmission of such diseases during the sexual act:

Using a covering, called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to prevent transmission of
many of these infections to some extent.
CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS/BIRTH CONTROL METHODS:
The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major
demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if she is not ready for it, her health will
be adversely affected. Therefore, many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
1. BARRIER METHOD/MECHANICAL METHODS:

The creation of a mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg.
Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in the vagina can serve this purpose.
2. CHEMICAL METHOD/ HORMONAL METHODS/ ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES:
Contraceptives acts by changing the hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released
and fertilisation does not occur. These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. Oral pills
change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects.
3: Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices: Loop or the copper-T are placed in the uterus to
prevent pregnancy. They can cause side effects due to irritation of the uterus.
3. SURGICAL METHODS: Surgical methods can be used to create such blocks.

VASECTOMY: If the vas deferens in the male is either cut or blocked, sperm transfer will be
prevented.
TUBECTOMY: If the fallopian tube in the female is either cut or blocked.
In both cases fertilisation will not take place. While surgical methods are safe in the long run,
surgery itself can cause infections and other problems if not performed properly.
4. ABORTION: Removal of unwanted pregnancies.Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
ABORTION, FEMALE FOETICIDE AND ITS SOCIAL IMPACT:
Termination of Pregnancy.
• Abortion may be misused by people who do not want a particular child, as happens in illegal
sex-selective abortion of female foetuses.
• For a healthy society, the female-male sex ratio must be maintained. Because of reckless female
foeticides, child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate
PRENATAL SEX DETERMINATION:
• Prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by law. This is due to the misuse of scanning.
CHAPTER - 8
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
Heredity: The passing of traits from the parents to offspring is called heredity.
Gene- Gene is the smallest part of DNA that codes for a protein .In each cell there is a nucleus, in the
nucleus are chromosomes. The genes are present on chromosomes. Every person has two copies of
each gene inherited one from each parent.
Genetics- The study of genes, gene variation and heredity is called genetics.
Trait – A characteristic of an organism is called a trait eg- natural eye colour, hair colour, height.
Offspring- An organism’s next generation eg- a person’s child or children
Inheritance:- Inheritance refers to the process of transmission of genes from parent to offspring.
Inheritance is the passing on of genetic traits from parents to their offspring, and these offspring get
all the genetic information from their parents.
Alleles : Different physical forms of a trait are called it's alleles. For eg. Length of a pea plant has two
alleles i.e. tall and short stem. There may be two or multiple alleles of a trait.
Dominant traits: The traits that express themselves in an organism in every possible combination
and can be seen, are called Dominant traits. In Mendel’s experiment, we see that the tall trait in pea
plants tends to express more than the short trait. Therefore, the tall trait of the plant is said to be
dominant over the short trait.
Recessive traits: A trait which is not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele is known as
recessive. So, recessive character/trait is present in an organism but cannot be seen if a dominant
allele exists.
Genotype: Genetic arrangements of the genes for a trait(s) of an organism. For eg. RrYy or TTRr etc.
Phenotype: Physical appearance of a trait is called its phenotype. For eg. Yellow and green seeds of
pea., tall or dwarf plant etc
Variation: The difference in the characteristics of individual in a population is called variation.

Cause of variation
In Asexual reproduction -> Due to the errors in DNA coping ->less variation
In Sexual reproduction ->DNA of two parent combine -> more variation
Importance of variations: -
1. Variations helps a species to survive in a changing environment.
2. They help an organism to adapt to their altered environment.
3. Variation leads evolution.
Mendel’s laws of inheritance –Gregor Johann Mendel is known as father of Genetics. He
experimented self and cross fertilization on following traits of garden pea
→Scientific name of human being is "Homo sapien". And scientific name for pea plant is "Pisum
sativum"
Mendel law of inheritance –Mendel selected garden pea (Pisum sativum) with characters as
follows:
Mendel concluded his experiments with 3 laws-

1. Law of dominance –
When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one character expresses
itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character and the character/factor which
cannot express itself is called the recessive character. In the given monohybrid cross T gene form
represents tallness and t represents shortness.
Parents male TT Self Male Tt

pollination
female(tt) T T Gametes T t
in plant of
t Tt(Tall) Tt(Tall) f1 Female T TT(Tall) Tt(Tall)
generation Tt
t Tt(Tall) Tt(Tall) t Tt(Tall)
tt(short)
F1 generation
F2 generation
F2 generation phenotype- 3 tall : 1 short F2 genotype 1:2:1
Homozygous – Having two identical forms (alleles) of a particular gene TT, RRYY
Heterozygous- Having two different forms of a particular gene like Tt, RrYY, RrYy
2. Law of segregation – During the formation of gamete, the two-alternating form of a gene are
never found in the same gamete but they separate and pass on to different gametes so that one
gamete receives only one form of a gene. This is called as Law of Segregation.
3. Law of Independent Assortment-When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of
one pair of characters is independent of the other pair of characters or the members of different
gene pair assort randomly and independently. This law is based on dihybrid cross.
Dihybrid cross- A cross involving two traits is called a dihybrid cross. In this example colour, and
shape of seed are taken.
In F1 generation all plants have only dominant traits yellow and round but in F2 generation the new
combinations yellow with wrinkled seed and round with green appear. This shows that different
traits are independently assorted.
Parents This cross includes two traits colour,

shape of seed so called dihybrid cross.
Gametes In F1 generation all plants have only
dominant traits yellow and round but
F1
in F2 generation the new
generati
combinations yellow with wrinkled
on
seed and round with green shows that
different traits are independent to
express with any other trait.
F 2 phenotype 9:3:3:1.
Inherited traits: Acquired traits:
 Traits inherited by the parents and which  The traits that are acquired by an
are passed on to the next generations organism from its environment, over the
(depending on the dominance or period of its lifetime and that cannot be
recessiveness they may or may not be passed to future generations.
expressed.)
 Change in its genes (DNA).  No change occurs in gene.
 Inherited trait cannot be altered or  Acquired traits are earned with own
acquired in life with efforts. efforts.
 Ex. Eye colour, hair colour etc.  Ex. Dancing, painting, cycling etc.
Sex determination in humans: (A mechanism by which sex of new born baby is determined).
Autosomes: These determine the somatic traits. There are 22 pairs of autosomes in humans .
Sex chromosome: Chromosome which determine the sex of a person. (X & Y). There is one pair of sex
chromosome in humans which may be XX or XY
1. In male – One X chromosome and one Y chromosome
2. In female- Two X chromosome (no Y chromosome)
3. Y chromosome is responsible for sex of a boy.
Father XY
SEX DETERMINATION
Sperm X Sperm Y
Egg X XX ( Girl) XY (Boy)

Mother XX
Egg X XX ( Girl) XY (Boy)
CHAPTER 9
LIGHT-REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
 Light is a form of energy which is used to see any object by sensitizing our sense of vision.
 Reflection of light -The bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth or polished surface is
called reflection of light.
 Laws of reflection of light
1. Angle of incidence(i) is equal to the angle of reflection(r).
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same
plane.
Mirror- A sheet having one surface reflecting and other polished with silver is called a mirror. It
is mainly of two types
1.Plane mirror 2. Spherical mirror
 Plane mirror-Mirror having plane reflecting surface is called plane mirror.
 Spherical mirror-Mirror having spherical reflecting surface is called spherical mirror. It is a part of
hollow sphere made of glass or plastic. It is of two types:
Concave mirror- A spherical mirror having its reflecting surface towards the centre of sphere of
which it is a part, is called concave mirror.
Convex mirror -A spherical mirror having its reflecting surface away from the centre of sphere of
which it is a part., is called convex mirror.
Terms related to the mirror
 Centre of curvature-It is the centre of the sphere of which mirror is a part and is denoted by 'C'.
 Radius of curvature- It is the radius of the sphere of which mirror is a part and is denoted by 'R'.
 Pole -It is the middle point of the mirror, denoted by ‘P’.
 Principal axis -It is the line that joins centre of curvature and pole.
 Principal Focus- The rays of light parallel to the principal axis of the mirror after reflection either
pass through a point (in case of
concave mirror) or appear to
come from a point (convex
mirror), the point is known as
focus or principal Focus,
denoted by ‘F’.
 Focal length- The length between

focus and pole of the mirror is focal length. It is denoted by ‘f’.
 Aperture -The diameter of the reflecting surface of the

mirror is called aperture.
Image-If light rays coming from a point after reflection meet at another point or appear to meet
at another point, then second point is called the image of first point. There are two types of
image, i.e.
(i)Real image- If the light rays coming from a point actually, meet after reflection, then the image
formed is called a real image.
(ii) Virtual image -If the light rays coming from a point, after reflection do not actually meet, but
appear to meet at a point when produced backwards then the image formed is called a virtual
image.
Note-1.Focal length is half of the radius of curvature. f=R/2
2 Object is always placed left side of the mirror.
Rules for drawing ray diagrams
1. Light ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focus after reflection from the mirror.
2.Light ray passing through the centre of curvature get reflected on the same path.
3.Light ray passing through the focus becomes parallel to the principal axis after reflection.
4. A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on the
concave mirror or a convex mirror, is reflected obliquely
Image formation by Concave Mirror
(i) When object is at infinity
Image Position − At ‘F’
Nature of image – Real, inverted
Size – Point sized or highly diminished
(ii) When object is beyond ‘C’
Image Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Size – Diminished
(iii) When object is at ‘C’
Image Position – At ‘C’
Size – Same size as that of object
(iv) When object is placed between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Image Position – Beyond ‘C’
Nature of image– Real, inverted
Size – Enlarged
(v) When object is placed at ‘F’
Image Position – At Infinity

Size – Highly enlarged
(vi) When object is between ‘P’ and ‘F’
Image Position – Behind the mirror

Nature of image – Virtual, erect
Size – Enlarged
CHAPTER- 10 (HUMAN EYE AND COLORFUL WORLD)
HUMAN EYE: - The human eye is the most sensitive part of the human body. By closing our eyes, we
can sense some objects with their smell, taste, sound they make or by touching them but we cannot
identify the colour without opening our eyes.
Example: - Fragrance of pink and red roses is the same but they have different colours.
Parts of human eyes: -

 Cornea- It is the outermost part of the eye, light enters from this part.
 Eye lens- It is a convex lens ,its curvature is controlled by ciliary muscles.

 Ciliary muscles-The ciliary muscles are involved in lens accommodation and help in changing the
focus of the lens in order to see things near or far accordingly. When the muscles contract, the
focal length decreases and vice versa
 Iris- The part of the eye which controls the size of the pupil. It gives colour to the eyes
 Pupil- The aperture of the pupil varies with the help of the iris. Pupil regulates and controls the
amount of light entering the eye.
 Retina- The light-sensitive screen, where the image of any object is formed, is called retina. It
converts images from the eye into electrical impulses that are sent along the optic nerve to the
brain, to interpret as vision. It comprises of the rod and the cone cells. The image formed on the
retina is real and inverted.
 Rods They are responsible for vision at low light levels (night vision).
 Cones The cones help in seeing colour but only when light is at a high level
 Optic nerve-The Optic Nerve is the largest sensory nerve of the eye. It carries impulses for sight
from the retina to the brain.
When Light is bright => iris contract => less amount of light enters in eye
 When Light is dim => iris expands => more amount of light enters in eye
Power of accommodation: - The ability of eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.
The curvature of eye lens is modified by the ciliary muscles. Due to the change of curvature its focal
length is also changed.
Distant object => ciliary muscles get relaxed => decreases the curvature of lens =>lens becomes
thin => focal length is increased
Object is close to eyes => ciliary muscles get contraction => increases the curvature of lens=> lens
becomes thicker=> focal length decreased
● The minimum distance that a normal eye can see clearly is called the near point of the eye. And
the maximum distance is at infinity, it is called as the far point. For a young adult near point is
25cm and far point is infinity.
Defect of vision and their correction: -
(1) Cataract:
In cataract the lens of the eye becomes opaque which leads to a decrease in vision. Cataracts often
develop slowly and can affect one or both eyes.
Symptoms may include faded colours, blurry or double vision, halos around light, trouble with bright
lights, and trouble seeing at night .Mostly occurs with ageing Can be cured through surgery.
(2) MYOPIA / near-sightedness-- problem to see far--- image formed in front of retina--
Corrected using concave lens
(3) HYPERMEMETROPIA / Far-sightedness- problem to see near- image formed behind the retina--
 Corrected using convex lens
(4) PRESBYOPIA: - This defect of eye arises due to the (i) diminishing flexibility of eye lend (ii)
weakening of ciliary muscles corrected by bifocal lens
Myopia Hypermetropia
The defect Near object can be seen clearly but the far Far things are seen clearly but the
things are not clear things that are near are not clear.
Effect Image is formed in front of the retina. Image is formed behind the retina.
Causes Shortening of the eyeball Elongation of the eyeball
Elongation of the eye lens Shortening of the lens
Correction Using a concave lens Using convex lens
Dispersion of light by a glass prism: - The splitting of light into its component colours is called
dispersion of light. A prism can split the incident white light into a band of colours. the sequence of
colours is Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. We remember it with “VIBGYOR”.
(5) The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.
(6) The red light bends the least while the violet the most.
Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.
Recombination of dispersed spectrum of white light
Isaac Newton was a first to use two glass prism arrangements as shown in the figure above in which
the second identical prism is inverted with respect to the first prism. He observed that the light
passing through the second prism was white light due to recombination of the spectrum of light. This
gave him the idea that the sunlight was made up of seven colours
Rainbow - A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by
dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed
in a direction opposite to that of the Sun. The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and
disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out
of the raindrop.
Atmospheric refraction - The refraction due to the atmosphere is called atmospheric refraction. Here
due to the temperature difference between the air, refraction occurred. The hotter air is lighter (less
dense) than the cooler air (denser) above it. Here refractive index of hotter air is slightly less than
that of the cooler air.
Twinkling of stars
The twinkling of stars is a phenomenon due to the atmospheric refraction.
Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset-due to atmospheric refraction the Sun is visible to us about 2
minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset.
Scattering of light: - Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays deviate from their
original path upon striking an obstacle like dust or water droplets.
 Scattering of light makes the particles visible.

 Tyndall effect is the phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal particles
 Colour of the sky appears Blue
 Danger signals are red in colour
CHAPTER-11
ELECTRICITY
CHAPTER MAPPING
NOTES
Electric Current: The rate of flow of electric charges in unit time is called current. Charge flows
through the conductor only when the potential at two ends of the conductor is different. The
direction of current is taken as the direction of flow of positive charge.
If a net electric charge (Q) flows through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then,
Where I is electric current, Q is a net charge and t is a time in second.
S.I. Unit of Electric Charge- coulomb (C). One coulomb is nearly equal to 6 × 1018 electrons.
S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C/1 s,
When 1 coulomb of electric charge flows through a cross section for 1 second, the current is said to be
1 ampere.
Ammeter: An apparatus to measure electric current in a circuit.,
➢ Electric Potential Difference: We define the electric potential difference between two points in an
electric circuit carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the
other
Therefore, Voltage =
Voltage or electric potential difference is denoted by V’. Therefore, V =
Where, W = Work done and Q = Charge
S.I. unit of electric potential difference is volt and denoted by ‘V’
When1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another in an electric
circuit the potential difference is said to be 1 volt.
1V = 1Joule/1Coulomb = 1J/1C
Voltmeter: An apparatus to measure the potential difference or electric potential difference

between two points in an electric circuit.
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.
Electric Circuit: Electric circuit is a continuous and closed path of electric current.
➢ Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature the current passing through the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor. i.e.,
VαI or V= IR or R=V/I
Where R is a constant known as the resistance of the conductor. Resistance is something which
opposes the flow of electric charges. The unit resistance is Ohm (Ω)
Factors on Which Resistance of a Conductor Depends:
(i) Nature of Material: Some materials allow current to pass and are called good conductors.
Materials which do not allow flow of electrons through them are called bad conductors or insulators.
(ii) Length of Conductor: Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. This
means, resistance increases with increase in length of the conductor.
or, R ∝ l …(i)
(iii) Area of Cross Section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross section (A) of
the conductor.
or, R ∝ ….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
R∝
R=ρ
Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant. It is called the electrical resistivity of the material of
conductor.
or ρ =
Resistivity: It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1m when current
flows perpendicular to its opposite faces.
Note: Resistivity of a given material does not change with length or area of cross section. (i.e., there
will not be any change in resistivity when the area or length of the conductor increases or decreases.)
➢ Combination of resistors
Resistors in Series: When resistors are joined from end to end, it is called in series. In this case,
the total resistance of the system is equal to the sum of the resistance of all the resistors in the
system.
In series combination (i) effective resistance increases. (ii) current (I) flows through all resistors are
equal. (iii) Potential difference across each resistor may different.
1.
R s = R 1 + R2 + R 3
When the resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the same and
is equal to the total current.
Resistors in Parallel: When resistors are joined in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of
the system is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.
In parallel combination of resistors, Effective resistance decreases. Current (I) flows through each
resistor may be different. Potential difference for every resistance is same.
1/Rp = 1/R1 +1/ R2 +1/ R3

.
➢ Joule’s law of heating effect : This law implies that heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly
proportional to the square of current for a given resistance, (ii) directly proportional to resistance for
a given current, and (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the
resistor
H = I2Rt
Electric Power
The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy is called Electric Power. If W is
work done in time t, then
P=W/t.
S.I unit is Watt(W).
One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a potential difference of 1 V.
P= VI or P=I2R or P=V2/R
The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour (kWh) or unit.
1kWh = 3.6×106 J
One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of power is used for 1
hour.
➢ Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
➢ Electric Bulb: It produces light when it becomes too hot. Therefore, a material which can produce
high heat without burning is required to make the filament of a bulb. Tungsten is used for making
bulb because it has high resistivity and high melting point.
➢ Fuse: It has to be work in a manner that it should burn when high current is passing through it.
Therefore, a material which can produce high heat but should melt at high temperature. An alloy of
tin and lead is used for making fuse wire because it has high resistivity and low melting point.
➢ Electric Heater: Its produces heat when current is passing through it. The commonly used
material for making heater is Nichrome wire. It has high resistivity and high melting point.
CHAPTER-12
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
INTRODUCTION:
We use many appliances at home, like the mixers, grinders, fans etc which draw electricity and
convert them to motor movement i.e., mechanical energy. Also, we know of turbines, windmills,
generators etc which move a mechanical part to generate electricity. These are possible because
when electric current flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic effect around it. So, in this
chapter, we will study about these interesting facts -'Magnetic effects of Electric Current'
Magnetic Field around a Bar Magnet

o A magnet always exerts an influence around the region surrounding it. This region is called
the Magnetic Field.
o Magnetic Field has both direction and quantity.
o The fields always emerge out of the North pole and always merge into the South pole
o Inside the magnet, the field is from the south pole to the north pole, ie merge into the south
pole and emerge out of the north pole.
o The strength of the magnetic field is determined by the closeness of the field lines.
o If the lines are closer and crowded, it means that the strength of the magnetic field is high and
exerts a strong force on a magnet which is brought near it.
o If the lines are far and less crowded, it means that the strength of the magnetic field is
relatively low and exerts a weaker force on a magnet which is brought in its proximity.
o When a magnetic compass is brought near a bar magnet, it deflects and always points in
the north-south direction.
o When iron filings are brought in the vicinity of a bar magnet, they arrange themselves along the
field lines.
o The magnetic field lines are such that they never cross each other. If they did cross at a certain
point, it means that at that point, the compass needle would point towards two directions,
which is logically incorrect.
Magnetic Field in a Straight Current Carrying conductor
o In the above figures, note that there are current carrying conductors in opposite directions. In
both cases, the current carrying conductor is intercepted by a cardboard placed at right angles
to the current carrying conductor.
o There are some iron fillings sprinkled on the conductor.
o When current flows through the conductor, the iron filing arrange themselves along
the magnetic field.
o We can see that the magnetic field in both cases is in opposite directions as is the current.
o The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends inversely on the
distance from it and directly on the current passing through it.
o From this we see that the current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The
direction of this magnetic field is given by Right Hand Thumb Rule.
Right Hand Thumb Rule
Suppose that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the
thumb points towards the direction of flow of current. Then, your fingers which wrap around the
conductor indicate the direction of magnetic field lines (as shown in the figure)
Magnetic Field in a Circular Carrying conductor
o At every point of current-carrying circular conductor, the magnetic field is in the form of
concentric circles as represented above.
o The circles are concentric in nature with increasing diameters as the move farther from the
current carrying wire.
o At the centre of the circular loop, the circles appear like straight lines.
o The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends inversely on the distance
from it and directly on the current passing through it.
The Right-Hand Thumb Rule is applicable here at every point of the current carrying conductor
Magnetic Field due to Current in a Solenoid
A coil with many circular close turns of insulated copper wire (like a cylinder as shown above) is
a solenoid.
One end of such a solenoid behaves like the north pole and the other as a south pole.
Therefore, magnetic field due to current in the solenoid is similar to a bar magnet. The fields
always emerge out of the North pole and always merge into the South pole
The field inside the solenoid is uniform.
The strong magnetic field inside the solenoid is so strong that it can be used to magnetize a piece of
soft iron when it is placed inside the coil. The magnet formed like this is called a Electromagnet
Force acting on a Current carrying conductor

An electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field. This field will exert
a force on a magnet placed in the proximity of the conductor.
This means that the magnet also will exert an equal and opposite force on the current-carrying
conductor.
● André-Marie Ampère was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of
the science of classical electromagnetism, he discovered that a wire carrying electric current can
attract or repel another wire next to it that also carrying electric current.
● When a current carrying suspended conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force in
a particular direction. When the direction of the current is reversed the force exerted also changes
the direction.
The direction of this force is given by Left Hand Thumb Rule
- Fleming’s Left Hand rule: Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand such
that they are mutually perpendicular to each other (as shown in the figure). If the middle finger
points in the direction of the current in the conductor, the forefinger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of the force acting on the conductor.
Devices that use these applications is electric motor, electric generator, loudspeakers, microphones
and measuring instruments.
Electric Motor: A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
Construction of Electric Motor

(a) Armature coil: It consist of a single loop of an insulated copper wire in the form of a rectangle.
(b) Strong field magnet; Armature coil is placed between 2 pole pieces of a strong magnet which
provide strong magnetic field.
(c) Split ring type commutator: It consist of 2 halves of a metallic ring. The two ends of armature coil
are connected to these 2 halves of ring. Commutator reverses the direction of current in armature
coil.
(d) Brushes; Two carbon brushes press against the commutator. These brushes act as contact
between commutator and terminal battery.
(e) Battery; It is connected across the carbon brushes. It supplies current to the armature coil.
Working of Electric Motor

1)1n the side AB of the rectangular coil ABCD, the direction of current is from A to B and in the side
CD of the coil, the direction of current is from C to D. The direction of magnetic field is from N pole of
the magnet to its S pole.
2) Applying Fleming’s Left hand rule to sides AB and CD of the coil, the force on side AB of the coil is
in downward direction whereas the force on side CD of the coil is in upward direction. Due to this the
side AB of the coil is pushed down and side CD is pushed up. This makes the coil ABCD rotate in the
anticlockwise direction.
3) While rotating, when the coil reached vertical position, then the brushes will touch the gap
between the two commutator rings and current of the coil is cut off. Though the current to the coil is
cut off when it is in the exact vertical position, the coil does not stop rotating because it has already
gained momentum due to which it goes beyond the vertical position.
4) After half rotation, when the coil goes beyond vertical position, the side CD of the coil comes on
the left side whereas side AB of the coil comes to the right side, and the two commutator half rings
automatically change contact from one brush to the other.
5) After half rotation of the coil , the commutator half ring R2 makes contact with brush B1 whereas
the commutator half ring R1 makes contact with brush B2.This reverse the direction of current in the
coil.
6) The reversal of direction of current reverses the direction of force acting on the sides AB and CD of
the coil. The side CD of the coil is now on the left side with a downward force on it whereas the side
AB is now on the right side with an upward force on it due to this the side CD of the coil is pushed
down and the side AB of coil is pushed up. This makes the coil rotate anticlockwise by another half
rotation.
7) The reversing of current in the coil is repeated after every half rotation due to which the coil
continue to rotate as long as current from the battery is passed through it
Uses of D.C. Motor

It is used in electric cars, rolling mills, electric cranes, lifts, drilling machine, fan, hair dryers, blowers,
tape recorder, refrigerators, washing machine, mixers, blenders etc.
AC current (Alternating current) : Changes its direction after equal intervals of time. It is easier to
transmit this current over long distances due to lesser loses and hence this is the current that is
supplied to our houses from the electricity department.
DC current (Direct current): Does not change direction with time. Eg: Current from a simple
battery/cell
Domestic Electric circuits:
We receive power in our house through a main supply, commonly called mains.
It is supplied through overhead cables or underground cables.
There are 3 types of wires in domestic circuits: Earth Wire, Live Wire, Neutral Wire.
Earth wire: It is generally green in colour. It is usually connected to a metal plate placed in the earth
near the house as a safety measure to ground gadgets that have a metallic body. (Refrigerator,
toaster). In case of charges leaking on to the metallic body, the charges get grounded and thus
prevent shocks.
Live wire: Positive wire generally red in colour
Neutral wire: Negative wire generally black in colour
The potential difference (or voltage) supplied in our country is 220V
When they come into our houses, they pass through a circuit called a Fuse. Whenever there is a high
voltage, voltage fluctuation, overloading, short circuit the fuse melts and prevents the high voltage
reaching the electric appliance. This saves the electrical gadget.
Then through the metre board in the house, these wires pass on to different electric gadgets
Generally, 2 types of electric circuits are used at homes
15A: Appliances which have higher power ratings. (Geysers, refrigerators, ACs)
5A: Appliances which have lower power ratings. (TV, bulbs, fans)
CHAPTER 13
 Environment means everything which surrounds us. It may include living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components. So, it may include besides all creatures, water & air also.
 Environmental science can be defined as the study of organisms in relation to their surroundings.
 Human activities related to livelihood and welfare generate waste. All wastes are pollutants, and
they create pollution in one way or another. Air, land and water surroundings are affected due to
improper disposal of wastes which create an imbalance in the environment.
POLLUTION: Any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land
and water that affect human life adversely is called pollution.
POLLUTANT: A substance released into the environment due to natural or human activity which
affects adversely the environment is called pollutant. e.g., Sulphur-di-oxide, carbon-monoxide, lead,
mercury, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES:
Bio–degradable wastes- Substances that are broken down by biological process of biological or
microbial action are called bio-degradable waste. e.g., wood, paper and leather.
Non–bio-degradable wastes- Substances that are not broken down by biological or microbial action
are called non-biodegradable wastes. e.g., Plastic substances and mineral wastes.
ECO-SYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
A community of organisms that interact with one another and with the physical environment is called
an ecosystem. An ecosystem has two types of components, viz. biotic component (living creatures)
and abiotic components like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil etc.
All living organisms are classified on the basis of the manner in which they survive in the Ecosystem.
These groups include: -
PRODUCERS– All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food (Sugar & starch) from in
organic substance using light energy (Photosynthesis).
CONSUMERS– Include organisms which depend on the producers either directly or indirectly for
their sustenance. In other word consumers consume the food produced by producers.
DECOMPOSERS–Decomposers include micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi that obtain

nutrients by breaking down the remains of dead plants and animals. They help in the breakdown of
organic matter or biomass from the body of dead plants and animals into simple inorganic raw
materials such as Carbon dioxide , water and some nutrients.
FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
FOOD CHAIN (i) A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy
pass as one organism eats another.
(ii) The ultimate source of this energy is the sun.
(iii) Producers like green plants trap solar energy and convert it into the chemical energy of food.
When a primary consumer eats the producer, a part of this energy is passed on to it.
(iv) The primary consumer is then eaten by a secondary consumer.
(v) And the secondary consumer may be eaten by a tertiary consumer, and so on.
(vi) In this way energy gets transferred from one consumer to the next higher level of consumer.
In a forest ecosystem, grass is eaten by a deer, which in turn is eaten by a tiger. The grass, deer and
tiger form a food chain. In this food chain, energy flows from the grass (producer) to the deer
(primary consumer) to the tiger (secondary consumer) [see figure (a)].
A food chain in a grassland ecosystem may consist of grasses and other plants, grasshoppers, frogs,
snakes and hawks [see figure (b)].
In a freshwater aquatic ecosystem like a pond, the organisms in the food chain include algae, small
animals, insects and their larvae, small fish, big fish and a fish-eating bird or animal [see figure
(c)].
A food chain always begins with producers. Herbivores (plant-eaters) come next in the chain. They
are consumed by carnivores (flesh-eaters). A few food chains can be long and may extend to the
fourth, fifth or even sixth order of consumers.
Some common food chains are mentioned below:

Plants → Deer → Lion
Plants → Worm→ Bird → Cat
Plants→ Grasshopper→ Frog→ Snake→ Hawk
Algae→ Small→ animal → Small fish → Big fish —> Bird
FOOD WEB
Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains and are more realistic representation of
consumption relationships in ecosystems.
Difference Between Food Chain and Food Web

Food Chain Food Web
Energy flow is linear i.e, in straight line. Energy flow is multidirectional.
An organism of higher-level trophic feeds
Members of higher trophic level feed upon
on a specific organism of lower trophic
many organisms.
level.
Has no effect on the adaptability and Has a role in improving the adaptability and
competitiveness of organisms. competitiveness of an organism.
The most important differences Between Food Chain and Food Web are summarized below:
TROPHIC LEVEL
The levels of a food chain (food pyramid) are called Trophic levels. The trophic level of an organism is
the level it holds in a food pyramid.
The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.

Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.
Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level
Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the fourth or the last level.
TEN PERCENT LAW
The Ten percent law was given by Lindemann (1942).

This law states that when the energy is passed on from one trophic level to another, only 10 percent
of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level, remaining 90℅ energy is always used up by the
organism in performing living processes such as reproduction etc or as body heat.
BIO-MAGNIFICATION
Biomagnification refers to the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.

The toxic chemicals that are released into the environment are absorbed by the lower organisms
such as plants, earthworms, etc.
These chemicals are then transferred to different trophic levels when lower organisms are eaten by
other organisms.
The pesticides and chemicals such as DDT, and mercury released into the lakes and rivers are
ingested by the aquatic organisms. These get accumulated in their body tissues and are transferred
to other organisms that feed on them.
Since the pesticides are industrially processed, they contain traces of heavy metals such as lead,
arsenic, cadmium, etc. These metals have been found in the bodies of animals and humans and are
believed to have an adverse effect on them.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Oxygen is a molecule formed by 3 atoms of oxygen while O2 which we normally refer to as oxygen is
essential for all aerobic forms of life.
Ozone is a deadly poison.
 However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere (in stratosphere), ozone performs an essential
function.
FUNCTION OF OZONE-It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
Sun. This radiation is highly damaging to organisms, for example, it is known to cause skin cancer in
human beings.
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen
molecule. The higher energy UV radiation split apart some molecular oxygen into free oxygen (O)
atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form ozone as shown—
REASON OF OZONE DEPLETION: Excessive use of CFCs (Choro Flouro Carbon) a synthetic, inert
chemical E.g., Freon which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers, caused Ozone depletion
in the upper atmosphere. A single chlorine atom can destroys1,00,000 Ozone molecules. U.N.E.P.
(United Nation Environment Programme) did an excellent job in forging an agreement to freeze CFC
production at 1986 levels (KYOTO Protocol) by all countries.
HOW TO PROTECT US FROM THESE HAZARDOUS WASTES : Industrialization and rise in demand of
consumer goods have created a major problem in the form of wastes/garbage accumulation and its
disposal especially in urban area. The different methods of solid wastes disposal commonly used
around the world are.
(i) Open dumping: A conventional method in which solid wastes dumped in selected areas of a town.
It actually causes pollution.
(ii) Land fillings: Wastes are dumped in low living area and are compacted by rolling with bulldozers.
There are permanent storage facilities in secured lands for military related liquid and radioactive
waste materials. High level radioactive wastes are stored in deep underground storage.
(iii) Composting: Organic wastes are filled into a compost pit (2m x 1m x 1m). It is then covered with
a thin layer of soil. After about three months the same garbage filled inside the pit changes into
organic manure.
(iv) Recycling: The solid wastes is broken down into its constituent simpler materials. These materials
are then used to make new items. Even non-biodegradable solid wastes like plastic, metal can be
recycled.
(v) Reuse: A very simple conventional technique of using an item again & again. For E.g., paper can
be reused for making envelops etc.
(vi) Incineration: The burning of materials is called incineration. Hazardous bio-medical wastes are
usually disposed of by means of incineration. Human anatomicsssal wastes, discarded medicines,
toxic drugs, blood, pus, animal wastes, microbiological and bio-technological wastes etc., are called
bio-medical wastes.
(vii) Deep well injection: It involves drilling a well into dry porous material below ground water.
Hazardous waste liquids are pumped into the well. They are soaked into the porous material and
made to remain isolated indefinitely.

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SCIENCE/X/STUDY MATERIAL/2022-23

STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

Smt. Shruti Bhargava

Smt. Vinita Sharma

Sh. Jitendra Kumar Daroch

Sh. Satveer Singh Mrs. Aditi Agrawal

TGT Science TGT Science

KV ONGC Chandkheda KV No.1 Shahibaug

MATERIAL PREPARATION COMMITTEE

S.N CHAPTER NAME OF TEACHER POST KV

 We can observe or recognize a chemical reaction by observing change in state, color, by

ACID, BASE AND SALTS

Natural acids or organic acids-.

Mineral acids are stronger than organic acids.

*Acid – Base Indicators

A. Blue litmus solution/paper To red No change

 Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases

Test for the evolution of Hydrogen gas(pop test)

MetalCarbonate + Acid  Salt + Carbondioxide + Water

Metal bicarbonate +Acid Salt +Carbon dioxide +Water

* Lime water Test for evolution of CO2 gas

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)CaCO3(s)+ H2O(l)

Limewater White precipitate

CaCO3(s)+ H2O(l)+ CO2(g)- Ca(HCO3)2

Copper oxide Hydrochloric Copper+ Water

Acids produce H+ions in the presence of water

(H3O+ – Hydronium ion.)

– H+ion cannot exist alone. It exists as H+(aq.)or(H3O+) hydronium ion.

– Bases provide (OH–) ions in the presence of water

concentration of H3O+or OH–per unit volume in acids and bases respectively.

Strength of an Acid or Base

Importance of pH in our daily life

MORE ABOUT SALTS

Salts and their derivation

2. Sodium Sulphate Na2SO4 NaOH H2SO4

3. Sodium Chloride NaCl NaOH HCl

Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2):-

Calcium hydroxide + chlorine  bleaching Powder + Water

Baking Soda (NaHCO3):-

On heating NaHCO3 produces: NaHCO3--Na2CO3+ H2O+ CO2

NaHCO3+H+- CO2+H2O+ Sodium Salt of acid

Preparation: Sodium carbonate is manufactured by the thermal decomposition of sodium hydrogen

Examples: COPPER SULPHATE PENTAHYDRATE (CuSO4.5H2O)

CuSO4.5H2O + heat → CuSO4

FERROUS SULPHATE HEPTAHYDRATE (FeSO4.7H2O)

PLASTER OF PARIS [CaSO4.1/2 H2O]

Physical properties of Metals

 2Mg + O2 -------------> 2 MgO

 2Ca + O2 -------------> 2 CaO

 Na2O + H2O----------------- 2NaOH

3. Reaction with Acids:

Reaction between Metals and Non-Metals

Properties of Ionic Compounds

 The atomic number of carbons is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It requires 4 electrons to

Types of Covalent Bond:

 The small size of the carbon atom.