The Open Classes

The open classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives and

adverbs.
For each of these four classes, we shall consider three general
types of properties:
(a) Syntactic: The ‘external’ syntactic properties of the parts of
speech include their function within the associated phrase and
their distribution (specifically, the kinds of dependent items that
they may combine within phrases).
(b) Morphological: The ‘internal’ morphological properties of
the parts of speech include their inflectional morphology and
their lexical morphology.
(c) Semantic: The types of meaning associated with each part of
speech are often given prominence in traditional definitions.
We shall regard this third type of category as subsidiary to the
first two.

1. Nouns
(a) Syntactic: Noun is the head of noun phrases. It functions as
subject, object, predicative complement or adjunct in the clause.
Noun is the only part of speech to take adjectives and
determinatives as dependents. Nouns are also the only class to
take relative clauses as dependents.
(b) Morphological: Most nouns have separate inflectional
forms for number (singular and plural e.g. table/tables) and for
possessive (or ‘genitive’) case (table’s/tables’).
Nouns are also formed by adding suffixes such as -ness and -ty
as in thickness and royalty) and -er, -ment and -ion as in helper,
retirement and inflation).
(c) Semantic: A distinction is often drawn between ‘concrete’
nouns, and ‘abstract’ nouns. The distinction between concrete
and abstract nouns is a semantic one rather than a grammatical
one.

2. Verbs
(a) Syntactic: The vast majority of verbs functions as the head
of verb phrases (which in turn function as the predicator within
the clause). Auxiliaries (e.g. will, must, have) are a closed
subclass of verbs that function as dependents within verb
phrases, as in will sing, were running and must have gone.
(b) Morphological: It is the inflectional morphology of verbs
that is their most characteristic feature. Thus, for example, the
forms of take are takes, took, taken and taking.
There are some verbs that display distinctive features of lexical
morphology such as -ise as in industrialise and terrorise, and -ify
as in falsify and purify.
(c) Semantic: Verbs characteristically express actions, activities
and events, but the class also includes members that denote
states and relationships (e.g. be, seem, resemble), sensory
perceptions (e.g. hear, see), cognitive processes (e.g. think,
believe) and so on. As a consequence, verbs cannot reliably be
distinguished from other parts of speech on semantic grounds;
thus, for example, resemblance and belief are not verbs, even
though their meanings are close to those of the verbs resemble
and believe respectively.

3. Adjectives

(a) Syntactic: Adjectives function as the head of adjective

phrases. AdjPs are subclassified as attributive (as the head of
an AdjP occupying the pre-head modifier slot in an NP, as in A
dark cloud) or predicative (as the head of an AdjP occupying
the predicative complement slot, as in The cloud was dark).
Most adjectives may take degree expressions as dependents:
very large, quite upset, absolutely fabulous.

(b) Morphological: Many adjectives inflect to express degrees

of ‘comparison’ (e.g. short/shorter/shortest; good/better/best).
Many adjectives have characteristic features of lexical
morphology: a large number are derived from nouns by means
of such suffixes as –less (e.g. penniless), -ful (e.g. dreadful), -al
(e.g. comical), -ous (e.g. pompous) and -ese (e.g. Japanese).
A common means of forming adjectives from verbs is via the
suffix -able (e.g. enjoyable, agreeable).

(c) Semantic: Adjectives denote a quality, including physical

properties (e.g. short, heavy), psychological qualities (e.g. sad,
cowardly) and evaluations (e.g. cheap, silly).

4. Adverbs

(a) Syntactic: Adverbs characteristically modify verbs (e.g.

speak loudly, enter gracefully), but some may modify adjectives
(e.g. inexcusably late), adverbs (e.g. quite slowly) and even
entire clauses (e.g. Surprisingly, the kitten emerged without a
scratch).

(b) Morphological: A large number of adverbs are derived by

adding the suffix -ly to an adjective (e.g. frankly, quickly,
happily). However, not all -ly suffixed words are adverbs: a
number of adjectives also carry this suffix (e.g. a sickly
child, a cowardly act, a deadly virus).
(c) Semantic: Adverbs express various kinds of meaning,
especially those which function as adjuncts. Various types of
meaning here are time (e.g. now, afterwards), place
(e.g. there, locally), manner (e.g. carefully, leniently, well),
direction (e.g. away).

Adverbs that modify whole clauses either express a connection

with what precedes (e.g. therefore, however) or express an
aspect of the speaker’s attitude towards the content of the clause
(e.g. frankly, importantly).