Words and Phrases

The four open word classes (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) have
phrases associated with them, and in turn these phrases are
classified according to the word functioning as their head. Thus,
noun phrases are phrases headed by nouns, verb phrases by
verbs, adjective phrases by adjectives, and adverb phrases by
adverbs.

There are two major properties associated with the head

function. The first is ‘obligatoriness’, where the head is
obligatory, but dependents are usually optional. Compare:
1. ( Cool drinks) are available.
2. ( Drinks) are available.
3. * ( Cool ) are available.
Cool drinks in (1) is an NP in which the head noun drinks is
accompanied by a dependent, the adjective cool. It is possible to
omit the dependent, as we see in (2). However, in (3), it is not
possible to omit the head drinks from the subject NP.

There are some further examples of phrases, with the obligatory

head word in bold type:
NP: the warm current, a steady stream
VP: is looking, have started
AdjP: very hot, fiercely competitive
AdvP: too seriously, pretty meanly

In the sentence ‘They (may have lost) their way’, lost is the head
of the VP may have lost.

Not all phrases have a head-dependent structure. Prepositional

phrases (PP), such as to my brother and on Thursday, and
genitive phrases (to show possession) (GP), such as the secretary’s,
belong to a general class of constructions called relator-axis
constructions.

I sent it (to my brother) (on Thursday). (PP)

(The secretary’s) computer is quite old. (GP)

In order to elaborate the distinction between head-dependent

phrases and relator-axis phrases, we introduce the terms
‘endocentric’ and ‘exocentric’ (borrowed from a model of
grammar called tagmemics).

Endocentric (or ‘inwardly focused’) constructions such as NP

and VP are organised around their head word, which determines
the types of dependent elements that may or may not occur with
it.

Exocentric (‘outwardly focused’)

Relator-axis constructions are exocentric.
The role of the relator is to ‘relate’ the axis constituent to the
larger construction.

For example,
i) She gave the job to Ken.

Here the relator to not only introduces the phrase to Ken, but
also to relate Ken to the verb gave as the ‘recipient’.
ii) Let’s have a drink before the game.
The relator before relates the axis NP the game and the proposed
drink as chronologically sequential events.

Genitive phrases (to show possession) (GP) differ from Prepositional

phrases (PP) in two ways:
i) the relator in a GP (namely ’s) is positioned at the end
rather than the beginning of the phrase
ii) it is not a word but rather a clitic.

(Clitics are elements that differ from normal words in so far

as they are always attached to another word, and in English
they never contain a vowel: for example, ’ll as in she’ll and
’ve as in we’ve.) The most characteristic function of GPs is as
determiner within the structure of NPs.