6–404

Powder Technology 301 (2016) 39

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Powder Technology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / p o w t c
e

Physicochemical andflow properties of fruit powder and their effect on

the dissolution of fast dissolving fruit powder tablets
M. Saifullah a,b, Y.A. Yusof a,⁎, N.L. Chin a, M.G. Aziz a,c
a
Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400, Malaysia b Department of Agro Product
Processing Technology, Faculty of Applied Science and Technology, Jessore University of Science and Technology, Jessore, 7408, Bangladesh
c

Keywords: at Pb 0.001. The flowability and cohesiveness as determined by Carr index and Hausner ratio of individual fruit powders and
Flow properties their formulation were also different but in the range of passable class. The relationship of total dissolution time with
Fruit powder moisture, protein, fat content and porosity of fruit powder tablets was polynomial as determined by multiple regression
Dissolution analysis. Dissolution rate of effervescent fruit powder tablets was much higher compared to normal fruit powder tablets in
Fast dissolve
both dissolution medium (water and simulated saliva fluid). Among the fruit powder tablets, pitaya powder tablet went for fast
Tablet
Flowability dissolution (6 min) in simulated saliva fluid whereas guava powder tablets took the longest time (90 min) for complete
dissolution in water. Based on this study, a better understanding of the physicochemical properties of fruit powder and their
relationship with the dissolution rate and the effect of effervescent agents on the dissolution rate has been obtained, which is
essential for processing and handling of fruit powder and tablet preparation as well as for the improvement of the dissolution
rate.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Department of Food Technology and Rural Industries, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh

article info abstract

Article history: This research was conducted aiming to assess the flow and physicochemical properties of fruit powder and their relationship
Received 6 November 2015 with the dissolution of tablets containing effervescent agents. Commercial pitaya, pineapple, mango and guava fruit powders
Received in revised form 13 June 2016 were used as samples in this research. Fruit powder tablets were prepared by using direct compaction method. Powder
Accepted 17 June 2016 properties of individual fruits as well as their tablet formulation (fruit powder +effervescent agent + artificial sweeteners)
Available online 19 June 2016 analysedusing standard methods were found significantly different

1. Introduction
Tropical and subtropical parts of the world are blessed with
different types of fruit which are very popular all over the world in
terms of taste and nutritional value. Most of the fruits are seasonal.
Fruits are mainly consumed fresh in the peak season and also
processed into different types of products for preservation and further
use, such as juice, squash, nectar, concentrate, puree, jam, jelly and
pickle [1–4]. Fruit selection for processing into a specific type of
product depends upon the content of the fruit. For example, fruits with
high sugar and juicy pulp content are mostly processed into juice and
squash. Fruit juices and fruit based drinks are equally popular with
people of all ages. Juice processing requires number of unit operations
that increase the chance of contamination and the cost of production.
Further, due to the presence of a high amount of water and sugar, fruit
juices are prone to spoilage by yeasts, moulds and bacteria [5,6].
Enzymatic reactions are also responsible for degradation of the quality
of fruit juices. Hence, fruit juices possess a very short shelf life. To
increase the shelf life, food processors use
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yus.aniza@upm.edu.my (Y.A. Yusof).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2016.06.035 0032-
5910/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
different physical and chemical treatments of juices. However,
sometimes these treatments affect the quality of the juice.
Food scientists adopt a simultaneous heat and mass transfer
approach to dry the fruit juice into powder form. Fruit juice powders
provide a number of benefits over their liquid counterparts such as,
(1) reduced volume, weight and packaging; (2) easier preservation,
handling, transportation and storage; (3) and increased shelf life [7].
Fruit powders are mainly used as instant fruit drink powder and
consumed directly as refreshing drink after dissolving in water. The
potential other uses of fruit powder are as ingredients in baby food,
sweets, fruit yogurt, soup, cake, ice cream and confections [8–10],
to enhance the colour, flavour and nutritional value of the products.
Several drying methods are available for fruit juices such as spray
drying, drum drying, freeze drying and vacuum drying. Each type of
397 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
drying method has its own limitations and advantages [1]. The
different methods operate under different drying conditions.
Therefore, the physicochemical properties of fruit powder are varied
according to the method. Among the various drying methods the
most common, convenient and widely practiced by the industry is
the spray drying method [11,12]; which provides rapid production
through continuous operation.
Fruit powder is a dry and granular material. It is also bulky and
highly hygroscopic in nature. Therefore, it requires careful handling
and
Table 1
Flowability classification (Lebrun et al., 2012).
Flowability Carr Index (CI), % Hausner Ratio (HR) Stevia (Botanical Essence Marketing Sdn Bhd, Malaysia) was used
Excellent 0–10 1.00–1.11
Good 11–15 1.12–1.18
Fair 16–20 1.19–1.25
Passable 21–25 1.26–1.34
Poor 26–31 1.35–1.45
Very poor 32–37 1.46–1.59
Very, very poor N38 N1.60
packaging during storage and transportation. Adiba et al. [13], Zea
et al. [8] and Ong et al. [14] reported the compaction of fruit
powder for the preparation of fruit drink tablets, which offers a few
benefits over the powder form such as good physical and chemical
stability, prolonged shelf life, less space required for storage and
transportation, elegant appearance and greater acceptance in terms
of presentation [15]. However, in tablet form the hygroscopicity of
the powder becomes low due to the reduction of the surface area of
the powder. Therefore, it takes a longer time for dissolution.
However, people usually prefer rapid dissolving tablets. The
application of super disintegrants to reduce the total dissolution
time has been reported by Zea et al. and Ong et al. [8,14]. The
dissolution of a fruit powder tablet is a physicochemical process,
which is influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the
ingredients. Though a super disintegrant can improve the
dissolution rate of fruit powder tablets, conversely it may affect the
physical properties of the fruit powder. However, to the knowledge
of the authors, no studies have been carried out to demonstrate the
effects of a super disintegrant on the properties such as bulk
density, tap density, flowability and compressibility of the powder.
This includes the porosity and dissolution of the fruit powder tablet
when effervescent agents used as super disintegrants are mixed with
the fruit powder to produce fast dissolving fruit powder tablets.
Thus the objectives of this work were to investigate the physical
and chemical properties of four types of fruit powders; the physical
properties of the fruit powders after adding effervescent agents; and
finally the effect of physicochemical properties of the fruit powders
on the dissolution of fast dissolving fruit powder tablets in different
dissolution mediums.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Four types of fruit powders, namely pitaya, pineapple, guava,
and mango were used in this research. Spray dried fruit powders
containing 10% maltrodextrin were bought from Syarikat Sains
Maju, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. Citric acid (Chem Pure®,
R&M Marketing, Essex, UK), and sodium carbonate (Merck
KGaA, 64,271 Darmstadt, Germany) were used as effervescent
agents; these chemicals were brought from the local company LGC
SCIENTIFIC, 43,200 Balakong, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
as a natural sweetener in the formulation of the fast dissolving fruit
powder tablets.
2.2. Formulation and mixing of fast dissolving tablets
Each tablet contained 47.3% fruit powder, sodium carbonate
32.7%, citric acid 10% and stevia 10% [16]. All samples were
measured and put into a plastic container, then mixed thoroughly in a
mixing machine (Glas-Col, S/N 477625, USA) for 30 min at 15 rpm
with 15 min clockwise and 15 min anticlockwise directions to create a
uniform mixture. Then the sample mix was measured into 2.5 g
portions and placed in plastic containers for further use, such as tablet
preparation and analysis of physical properties.
2.3. Physical/powder properties
2.3.1. Particle size
The particle size and size range of the powder samples were
measured by using a particle size analyser (Malvern Mastersizer 2000
Instrument Ltd., U.K.) using dry dispersion method. The Mastersizer
2000 utilises a laser light diffraction technique to analyse the size of
the particles. For this experiment, the powder samples were placed in
the particle size analyser and the data was recorded automatically.
2.3.2. Morphology of fruit powder and mixture of ingredients for
tablet preparation
The morphological structure of powder particles and the
distribution of different ingredients in the mixture were observed
through a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Hitachi High
Technologies America Inc., IL). The samples were placed on double
adhesive tape stuck on gold aluminium pins. Then, the pins were
positioned in the SEM machine, and the particle shape and particle
distribution visualised through a computer.
2.3.3. Bulk density
The bulk density of the samples was determined manually by
pouring 2.5 g of fruit powder into a 10 mL graduated measuring glass
cylinder. The bulk density was calculated from the ratio of the mass of
powder to the volume occupied by the powder [17].
 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404 398

Fig. 1. (a) Dissolution of fruit powder tablet in water; (b) dissolution of fruit powder tablet in simulated saliva.
Table 2
SEM image of fruit powder and fruit powder containing effervescent agents.
Sample Fruit powder Fruit powder mixture
399 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
Pitaya powder

Pineapple powder

Mango powder

Guava powder

2.3.4. Tapped density 2.3.6. Porosity

The tapped density of the samples was measured by placing a 2.5 g
powder sample in a 10 mL graduated measuring glass cylinder and the
tapped volume was measured after the sample was gently dropped 100
times onto a rubber mat from a height of 15 cm [18]. Subsequently, the
tapped density was calculated by dividing the weight of the powder by
the tapped volume.
The porosity of the tablets was calculated from the tablet density
and true density of the tablet ingredients [19]. It was calculated
using the following equation [20,21]:
ε ¼ 1−ρρtruet

2.3.5. True density

Where ε is the porosity, ρt is the density of the tablet and ρtrue is the
The true density of the powder samples was determined by using a
true density of the tablet ingredients.
gas pycnometer (AccuPyc II 1340; Pycnometer Micromimetics,
U.S.A.). The volume of the sample was measured using the gas
2.4. Chemical properties
displacement method. The sample weight was recorded and entered
into the computer program, and the results were shown automatically
2.4.1. Proximate analysis
after finishing the process.
The proximate analysis includes moisture content, ash, protein, fat,
fibre and carbohydrate. This analysis was carried out for the pitaya,
 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404 400
Table 3
Physical/powder and flow properties of normal fruit powders and fruit powder effervescent mixtures.

Fruit powder mixture (fruit powder + effervescent agent +arti ficial

Raw fruit powder sweetener)
Pineapple powder Mango powder Pineapple powder Mango powder
Materials properties Pitaya powder Guava powder Pitaya powder Guava powder
Bulk density (kg/m3) 586.85 ± 0.25 579.68 ± 0.39 638 ± 0.48 648.70 ± 0.21 733.76 ± 0.34 738.10 ± 0.12 762.22 ± 0.17 764.20 ± 0.28
Tapped density (kg/m3) 740.31 ± 0.34 749.47 ± 0.42 833.22 ± 0.11 848.12 ± 0.32 939.13 ± 0.23 959.75 ± 0.46 1007.18 ± 1018.74 ±
0.31 0.12
True density (kg/m3) 1340.90 ± 1350.06 ± 0.35 1368 ± 0.15 1376.30 ± 1647.40 ± 1665 ± 0.13 1683 ± 0.16 1695.70 ±
0.24 0.38 0.19 0.35
Particle size D [4,3] 25.07 38.30 25.07 29.36 91.06 165.46 195.12 188.64
Span 1.63 1.58 1.73 1.94 16.34 13.33 19.86 20.76
Carr index (CI) % (Carr, 1965) 20.73 ± 0.10 22.65 ± 0.21 23.43 ± 0.24 23.51 ± 0.13 21.86 ± 0.18 23.09 ± 0.39 24.32 ± 0.11 24.98 ± 0.14
Hausner ratio (HR) 1.26 ± 0.05 1.29 ± 0.12 1.31 ± 0.17 1.31 ± 0.07 1.27 ± 0.22 1.31 ± 0.11 1.32 ± 0.21 1.33 ± 0.03
(Hausner,1967)
Flowability (Lebrun et al., 2012) Passable Passable Passable Passable Passable Passable Passable Passable

pineapple, guava, and mango fruit powders. Moisture content in the
sample was measured by using an oven drying method. Ash content
was determined using a standard method, in which 5 g of sample was
kept in a muffle furnace and ashed at a maximum temperature of 525
°C for 6 h, then the ash was cooled in a desiccator and weighed [22]
The Kjeldahl method (AOAC) [22] was used to determine the protein
content of the sample. Fat content was determined by using the
Soxhlet method [22]. The determination of fibre content was based on
the method by Ranganna [23]. The total carbohydrate content of the
sample was calculated by the difference of the total weight of the
sample (100%) and the summation of all other constituents (crude
protein, fat, moisture content, ash and crude fibre) [24]. All proximate
analysis was performed in triplicate, and an average reading was
determined with standard deviation.
(Instron Universal Testing Machine-5566, Canton MA, UK) was
used to compress the powder samples into tablet form. The Bluehill
software (Canton MA USA) was the operating software of that
particular machine, which helped to maintain a compaction speed of
0.1 mm/min at four different force settings of 9.8 kN, 8 kN, 6 kN
and 4 kN. After reaching the maximum force set for tablet
formation, the tablet was ejected from the die and the thickness of
the tablet was measured to calculate the final volume and density of
the powder in tablet form.
The Kawakita and Lüdde [28] model equation was used to
determine the compressibility of four types of powder mixtures. The
mathematical formula of this equation is as follows:
P P 1C a ab

2.4.2. Water activity (Aw) ¼þ

The water activity of the samples was determined using a digital where a and b are constants, C is the degree of volume reduction
water activity meter (Model 3TE, Aqualab, WA). Triplicate under applied pressure P. C is calculated from the initial volume of the
samples were analysed and the mean taken as a result. powder and final volume in tablet form.

2.5. Powder flow properties V0−V

C¼
2.5.1. Hausner ratio and Carr index V0 where V0 is the initial volume and V is the final
The Carr Index [25] and the Hausner Ratio [26] were used to
investigate the flow property of the samples. The Carr Index and the volume.
Hausner Ratio were calculated from the bulk density and tapped
density as follows: 2.7. Dissolution test

Bd To measure the dissolution time of the normal fruit powder tablets

T d−
and the fast dissolving fruit powder tablets, dissolution tests were
CI ¼ 100
carried out in a dissolution tester (Pharma Test D-63512, Germany) at
Td
100 rpm paddle speed. Two types of dissolution medium were used
during the test, namely distilled water and simulated saliva fluid. This
Td Bd was because people usually take the fruit powder tablet in drink form
after dissolving in water or directly like candy. The distilled water
HR ¼ dissolution test was carried out at room temperature and the
Where, CI is Carr Index, T d is tapped density, Bd is Bulk density dissolution test in simulated saliva was undertaken at 37.5 °C to create
and HR is Hausner Ratio. a simulated oral environment inside the dissolution chamber.
Different ranges for the Carr Index and the Hausner Ratio have Simulated saliva fluid was prepared according to the Fusayama et al.
been defined by Lebrun et al. [27] as presented in Table 1. [29] and Mareci et al. [30] formula. The simulated saliva fluid was
composed of 0.400 g NaCl; 0.400 g KCl; 0.795 g CaCl 2–2H2O; 0.780
2.6. Tableting
g NaH2PO4–2H2O; 0.005 g Na2S–9H2O; 1.000 g NH2CONH2 and
distilled water up to 1 L (all chemicals were
The tableting of the fruit powders was carried out according to
the direct compaction method [15]. A 2.5 g sample was poured into
a cylindrical uniaxial die of 20 mm. A universal testing machine Table 4
Chemical properties of fruit powders.
401 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
Proximate analysis Pitaya Pineapple Mango Guava powder effervescent tablets accordingly. On the other hand, in
properties powder powder powder powder simulated saliva fluid, the total dissolution time was also significantly
Moisture content (%) 3.60 ± 0.09 3.90 ± 0.11 3.30 ± 0.05 3.10 ± 0.11 less for the effervescent fruit powder tablets compared to the normal
Crude protein (%) 2.50 ± 0.23 3.80 ± 0.35 4.10 ± 0.03 5.00 ± 0.2 fruit powder tablets. The total dissolution time for pitaya, pineapple,
Crude fat (%) 1.00 ± 0.09 0.50 ± 0.03 2.30 ± 0.23 4.10 ± 0.19 mango and guava powder normal tablets was 50 min, 55 min, 70 min
Crude fibre (%) 8.00 ± 0.25 0.93 ± 0.07 1.00 ± 0.05 5.03 ± 0.3
and 85 min respectively; and for the effervescent tablets the time was 6
Ash (%) 1.20 ± 0.08 2.60 ± 0.25 2.10 ± 0.08 3.10 ± 0.18
Carbohydrate (%) 83.50 ± 0.15 88.10 ± 0.16 87.00 ± 0.09 79.50 ± 0.2
min, 6 min, 7 min and 9 min for pitaya, pineapple, mango and guava
Water activity (Aw) 0.31 ± 0.02 0.36 ± 0.01 0.29 ± 0.04 0.33 ± 0.02 powder accordingly.
from R & M Marketing Essex, U.K.) The chemicals were bought from Therefore, it was observed that the effervescent tablets dissolved
a local company LGC SCIENTIFIC, 43,200 Balakong, Selangor Darul faster than the normal tablets in both dissolution mediums. Dissolution
Ehsan, Malaysia. The pH value of the solution was 5.6. For the of a normal fruit powder tablet occurs through swelling, followed by
dissolution test, at first the dissolution chamber was filled with 500 mL surface erosion [8]. Adiba et al. [13] also reported similar findings for
dissolution medium and checked for temperature. Then five tablets food tablets prepared from dates (Phoenix dactylifera L.) and spirulina
were placed in the chamber and the machine paddle and stopwatch (Spirulina sp.) powders. An effervescent agent was added to the tablet
were switched on. A 25 mL sample was collected from the chamber at formulation to facilitate the break-up or disintegration of the tablets
1 min intervals and the chamber filled with fresh dissolution medium into smaller particles during dissolution [31,32]. The effervescent
of same temperature, simultaneously until complete dissolution of the agent also helps to rupture the outer layer and inside bonds of the
tablets occurred. The samples were kept in 50 mL centrifugal tubes for tablets, which increases the surface area. Therefore, the effervescent
further analysis. tablets dissolve faster than normal tablets.
An Ultraviolet spectrophotometer (HACH DR 2800, United States) All types of tablets dissolved slightly faster in simulated saliva.
was used to analyse the amount of solute present in the samples The fast swelling ability in the simulated saliva fluid caused rapid
collected from the dissolution chamber. The absorbance of light by the dissolution of the tablets [14]. Moreover the dissolution medium
sample solutions was measured at a wave length of 560 nm. The temperature had a positive influence on the dissolution rate of the
percentage of dissolution/solute release was calculated using the tablets. Zhang et al. [33] reported a higher reaction rate between the
following equation: effervescent agents and the CO2 release rate with increasing
temperature of the reaction environment.

A0
At− 3.2. Physical/powder, chemical and flow properties of fruit powders
Percentage dissolution at any time ¼ 100
Af The chemical and physical properties of the fruit powders have a
major influence on the design, optimisation and performance of fruit
powder products. The physical properties/ powder properties
Here, A0 is the Absorbance of a control sample (fresh medium), A t include particle size, particle shape, surface morphology of the
is the Absorbance of the sample at any time, powder particles, bulk density, tapped density, true density and
Af is the Absorbance of the sample when complete dissolution porosity; the chemical properties include the proximate composition
occurs. such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, moisture content, and water
activity; and the flow properties include Carr Index, Hausner's ratio,
2.8. Statistical analysis and flowability.

The statistical analysis was performed by using SPSS software

3.2.1. Physical/powder properties of fruit powders
version 20. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey's
Table 2 shows the particle morphology including particle shape
multiple comparison post hoc test was carried out to compare the
and size distribution. Guava powder indicates a regular particle
properties of the fruit powders in the raw and in effervescent fruit
shape and a wide size variation, while the pineapple powder shows
powder mixture form. A Paired-sample t-test was also used to
particles with less size distribution and regularity compared to
compare the properties of individual types of fruit powder tablets. A P
guava powder, which may result in an increase in the bulk volume
b 0.001 was considered as statistically significant.
of pineapple powder and cause a decrease in bulk density (Table 3).
However, for guava powder the counter phenomenon occurred.
3. Results and discussion
Table 2 shows that the powder particle morphology and size
distribution were identical for each type of fruit powder. However,
3.1. Dissolution of fruit powder tablets
there were few similarities between the pineapple powder and
pitaya powder as well as mango powder and guava powder in terms
Fig. 1 represents the results of the dissolution time for the fruit
of particle morphology and size distribution. Thus the bulk, tapped,
tablets in water and simulated saliva. Among all types of tablets pitaya
and true densities of pitaya powder were close to pineapple powder,
powder tablets and pineapple powder effervescent tablets dissolved
and the density of the mango powder was near to guava powder.
faster and took 6 min in simulated saliva fluid for completing
However, Table 3 shows that the tapped density and true density
dissolution. On the other hand, guava powder tablets took a maximum
were different according to the types of fruit powders. Since the
dissolution time of 90 min for completing dissolution in water. In
densities of food powder depend on the combined effects of
water, the total dissolution time for pitaya, pineapple, mango and
moisture content, particle size, particle size distribution, particle
guava powder normal tablets was 55 min, 60 min, 75 min and 90 min
shape and inter-particle cohesion force [34,35], therefore any
respectively. The total dissolution time was significantly decrease to 7
variation in specific characteristics may result in a significant
min, 7 min, 8 min and 10 min for pitaya, pineapple, mango and guava
change in the bulk, tapped and true density of fruit powders. In
 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404 402
Table 3, the bulk density of pineapple powder was the lowest and it dissolution time in simulated saliva.
was the highest for guava powder. The uniform particle shape and
wide range of particle size results in high initial packing, which can
material. This is because the first step of dissolution is that the liquid
cause an increase in bulk density.
penetrates into the material through the pore system [36]. Therefore, a
The application of ANOVA to the density values of the fruit
less porous material may result in a low dissolution rate.
powders showed that there was a significant difference present
among the fruit powders in the case of raw and fruit powder
3.2.2. Chemical properties of fruit powders
mixtures (fruit powder + effervescent agent +artificial sweeteners) Table 4 represents the proximate composition of the different
at the level of P b 0.001. A paired-t test result also showed that there types of fruit powders. The moisture content of the samples varies
was a significant difference in the density of raw and fruit powder from one sample to another. The pineapple powder contains the
mixtures for individual types of fruit powders for specific types of highest moisture content at 3.90 ± 0.11% and the guava powder
density. The level of significant was P b 0.001. The mixing of contains the lowest moisture content at 3.10 ± 0.11%. The moisture
effervescent agents and artificial sweeteners with the fruit powders content has a significant influence on the physical state and
significantly changed all the physical and powder properties of the reconstitution rate of powdered foodstuff [37]. One of the reasons
fruit powders. Table 3 shows that all the fruit powders increased in of increasing moisture content of any powder product could be the
bulk, tapped and true density when mixed with an effervescent hygroscopicity of powder, which facilitates powders to absorb
agent and artificial sweeteners. Effervescent agent and artificial moisture easily from the air [38]. Fig. 2(a) represents the
sweeteners help to widen the particle size range (span) in the fruit relationship between moisture content versus dissolution time. The
powder mixture. Therefore, a wide range of particle size distribution dissolution rate shows an increasing trend with an increase in
occurs in the fruit powder mixture. Thus, the void space between hygroscopicity. This phenomenon was also found by Quek et al.
the large particles is filled by the small particles, which results in an [37] and Goula et al. [17] from their research on spray dried
increase in density. Among the fruit powder mixtures, the guava watermelon powder and tomato powder, respectively. The
powder mixture density was the highest, meaning the particles were application of a fruit powder depends upon its moisture content.
more closely packed in the guava powder mixture than other types Fruit powder with b4% moisture content can be used to prepare
of fruit powder mixtures. The higher density represents lower candy, toffee, fudge and hard candy [39].
porosity. The porosity is very important from the point of view of Guava and mango powder content have a higher amount of
dissolution of any powdery protein among all the types of fruit powders tested at 5.00 ± 0.2%

Fig. 2. (a) Relationship between percent moisture content versus total dissolution time, (b) relationship between percent protein content versus total dissolution time, (c) relationship between percent
fat content versus total dissolution time, (d) relationship between percent porosity versus total dissolution time. *DTW = dissolution time in distilled water, *DTS =
403
and 4.10 ± 0.03% respectively. During spray dying, usually
denaturation of protein occurs. Anandharamakrishnan et al. [40]
reported the denaturation of whey proteins during spray drying. The
rehydration capacity of denatured protein differs from the normal
protein. The denaturation of protein results in a decrease in
wettability/solubility of powdered foodstuff [41]. Fig. 2 (b)
indicates the relationship between protein content and dissolution
time. The fat content of any powdery product has a significant
influence on its solubility capacity or dissolution rate. Usually fat
exhibits hydrophobic behaviour and hinders the water absorption
capacity of fruit powders. Millqvist-Fureby et al. [36] reported
similar findings for milk powder. Fig. 2 (c) shows that there is a
polynomial relationship present between the dissolution time of
fruit powders and the fat content for both dissolution mediums.
Table 4 shows that the highest amount of fat was found in guava
powder 4.10 ± 0.19%. The fat content in pitaya, pineapple, and
mango was 1.00 ± 0.09%, 0.5 ± 0.03% and 2.3 ± 43%, respectively.
The multiple regression analysis results presented in Table 5 show
that the polynomial model is the most suitable model to express the
relationship of dissolution time with moisture content, protein
content and fat content of the fruit powder, as well as the porosity
of fruit powder tablets.
The fibre content in pitaya was found to be the highest amount at
8.0 ± 0.25% among all the four types of fruit powders. The fibre
content for the other three types of fruit powders, which include
pineapple, mango, and guava powder, were 0.93 ± 0.25%, 1.00 ±
0.05% and
5.0 ± 0.3% fibre, respectively. The hydration rate of fibre is important
for fast dissolution rate of the products. However, the processing
conditions such as grinding, drying, heating and the environmental
conditions such as temperature, pH, ionic strength, dielectric constant
of the surrounding solution and nature of the ions can also influence
the hydration characteristics of fibre [42–44]. The hydration or
solubility rate of fibre also depends upon the type of fibre.
Table 5
Regression analysis result of dissolution of fruit powder tablet in relation to different parameters.
Relationship
Relationship between percent moisture content versus total dissolution time
M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
Ash refers to the inorganic residue remaining after either ignition
or complete oxidation of organic matter in a foodstuff. The ash content
of pitaya, pineapple, mango, and guava powder were 1.20 ± 0.08%,
2.60 ± 0.07%, 2.10 ± 0.08% and 3.10 ± 18%, respectively. Like other
components, the carbohydrate content in the fruit powder varies from
one type to another. Table 2 shows that the highest carbohydrate
content was in pineapple and mango powders with 88.10 ± 0.16% and
87.00 ± 0.09% respectively, while the lowest carbohydrate content
was in guava powder at 79.50 ± 0.2%. The water activity of any
foodstuff represents the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the
sample and the vapour pressure of pure water. It is a very important
parameter to indicate the availability of water in food systems for
biochemical reactions and microbial activity. When the water activity
value in any food product is b0.6, it is microbiologically stable and
indicates no growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens [45]. The
water activity value of all four types of fruit powders indicated that the
pitaya, pineapple, mango and guava powders were microbiologically
stable.
3.2.3. Powder flow properties of fruit powders
Flowability is an important parameter for a powdered material
measured by the Carr index and Hausner ratio. The flowability usually
depends on the physical properties of the powder, such as particle size
and shape, surface structure, particle density, and bulk density [46–
48]. The powder surface composition, such as fat, protein, moisture
content also affects the flowability of a powder [49]. Table 3 depicts
the flowability of the fruit powders and fruit powder mixtures. The
variation in the flowability of the fruit powders was due to the powder
particle morphology (different particle sizes and shapes of the fruit
powder particles) and the interaction of the powder particles. When the
powder contains particles of different sizes, then the smaller particles
fill the void spaces created by the larger particles. This causes an
increase in resistance to flow and reduces flowability which may be
due to an increase in inter-particle friction. Irregular particle shapes
Dissolution in water Dissolution in saliva
2 2
Model Equation R Equation R
Exponential y = 31.524e-0.396x 0.7615 y = 33.34e-0.452x 0.7647
Linear 0.7375 0.7375
y = −3.2777× + 19.431 y = −3.2777× + 18.431
Logarithmic y = −11.74ln(x) + 22.618 0.7668 y = −11.74ln(x) + 21.618 0.7668

Polynomial y = 7.8613x2–58.789× + 116.6 0.9869 y = 7.8613x2–58.789× + 115.6 0.9869

Power y = 46.263×-1.418 0.7901 y = 51.603×-1.616 0.7932

Relationship between percent protein content versus total dissolution time Exponential y = 4.7111e0.1332x y = 0.7005 y = 3.825e0.1516x 0.7016
Linear 1.1121× + 3.671 0.6914 0.6914
y = 1.1121× + 2.671
Logarithmic y = 3.6639ln(x) + 3.1345 0.5911 y = 3.6639ln(x) + 2.1345 0.5911

Polynomial y = 0.8193x2–4.9984× + 14.355 0.9655 y = 0.8193x2–4.9984× + 13.355 0.9655

Power y = 4.4085x0.4405 0.6033 y = 3.5455x0.5015 0.6048

Relationship between percent fat content versus total dissolution time Exponential y = 6.4337e0.1032x 0.9683 y = 5.4533e0.1174× 0.9697
Linear y = 0.862× + 6.2716 0.9569 y = 0.862× + 5.2716 0.9569

Logarithmic y = 1.355ln(x) + 7.4498 0.785 y = 1.355ln(x) + 6.4498 0.785

Polynomial y = 0.1838 × 2 + 0.0076× + 0.9974 y = 0.1838 × 2 + 0.0076× + 0.9974

6.8911 5.8911
Power y = 7.4037x0.1637 0.8093 y = 6.3976x0.1865 0.8125

Relationship between percent porosity versus total dissolution time Exponential y = 61.867e-0.077x 0.7098 y = 71.971e-0.088x 0.7135
Linear y = −0.6378× + 24.944 0.6824 y = −0.6378× + 23.944 0.6824

Logarithmic y = −17.31ln(x) + 64.756 0.6998 y = −17.31ln(x) + 63.756 0.6998

Polynomial y = 0.3585 × 2–19.898× + 282.7 0.9443 y = 0.3585 × 2–19.898× + 281.7 0.9443

Power y = 7734.3×-2.1 0.7271 y = 17.685×-2.394 0.7308

 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
Fig. 3. (a) Pressure versus density relationship for normal fruit powder tablet, (b) pressure versus density relationship for effervescent fruit powder tablet.
and particle surfaces reduce the contact surface area among the
particles and reduces the cohesive force among the particles, which
results in an increase in flowability. Table 2 shows that pitaya powder
contains particles with shrinkage of the outer surface and less particle
size variation. These aspects may cause pitaya powder to be more
flowable than other types of fruit powders. Table 6 also shows that
mixing of fruit powder with effervescent agents and artificial
sweeteners results in a decrease in flowability for all types of fruit
powders. Saifullah et al. [16] reported same type of results for mix
fruit powders with effervescent agent and artificial sweeteners.
However, according to Carr [25] and Hausner [26], all types of fruit
powders and fruit powder mixtures have been shown to have a
passable flowing characteristic. Variation was found in the flowability
among the fruit powders and fruit powder mixtures such pitaya powder
showed the highest flowability; on the other hand guava powder
mixture showed the lowest flowability among all types of fruit
powders and fruit powder mixtures. The compressibility of the powder
was different due to the flow property. Knowlton et al. [50] reported
that flowability has a great influence on transportation, formulation and
mixing, compression and packaging.
3.3. Compressibility of fruit powders
In the direct compaction tableting method, a compression load is
applied to the powder sample in a die cavity through upper and
lower punches. During compression, plastic deformation of the
powder occurs. The compressibility property of a powder is very
important during tableting. The physical deformation of particles,
inter particle bonding, and tablet quality all depend upon it. In this
study, the Kawakita and Lüdde model Eqs. (4) and (5) has been
used to describe the compressibility behaviour of all types of fruit
powder mixtures. The constants a and b were determined by
plotting the data in a P/C versus P graph and linear fitting of the
equation (Table 6). The constant a represents the initial
compressibility and porosity, while the constant b represents the
resistance to compaction of the material. The value of b represents
the resistance force of the powder particle against compressive load
[51].
Table 6 shows that among the four types of fruit powders,
pineapple powder and mango powder showed maximum porosity
and less resistance to compaction. Fig. 3 (a) shows a pressure versus
density relationship for a normal fruit powder tablet. The guava
powder showed less porosity and high resistance to compaction and
404
hence had the lowest compressibility among all four types of fruit
powders. The compressibility, porosity and resistivity to
compaction values for the raw fruit powders were changed when
mixed with other ingredients (effervescent
Table 6
Kawakita and Ludde equation constants for fruit powder tablets.
Normal fruit powder Fruit powder mixture
Sample a b R2 a b R2
Pitaya powder 0.43 0.12 0.997 0.53 0.18 0.994 Pineapple powder 0.54 0.09
0.994 0.46 0.79 0.982 Guava powder 0.36 0.19 0.998 0.41 0.49 0.998 Mango
powder 0.53 0.07 0.970 0.40 0.15 0.996
agent and sweetener) as part of the preparation of the effervescent fruit
powder tablets (Table 6). Ong et al. [14] and Saifullah [16] also
reported that changes in compressibility, porosity and resistivity to
compaction values of fruit powders when mixed with effervescent
agents. Among the four types of mixtures, pitaya powder mixture was
found to be the most porous and resistant to compaction was less than
pineapple and guava powder mixtures. Therefore major changes
occurred in volume and density during compaction and tableting. Fig.
3 (b) shows the pressure versus density relationship for the fruit
powder mixtures. Mango powder exhibited the lowest porosity and
resistance to compaction. The guava powder mixture showed a
minimum change in density under applied pressure compared to the
other mixtures. When a powdery material is more porous and the
resistance to compaction is low, then the powdery material is more
compressible. Porosity and resistance to compressibility of a powder
depend upon its particle size, shape and flowability. When any
powdery material contains particles of a regular shape with a high
variation in particle size, then it becomes less porous, because the
small particles fill up the void spaces between the larger particles [52].
Particle size and particle size distribution affects the compatibility
and rearrangement of particles [53]. Optimal particle shape, size and
particle distribution can provide better flow properties and compaction
behaviour. The mechanical strength of a tablet depends upon the
compatibility of the powder particles, which has a strong influence on
the total dissolution time and the rate of dissolution [54].
405 M. Saifullah et al. / Powder Technology 301 (2016) 396–404
3.4. Relationship between porosity and dissolution of fruit powder
tablets
The dissolution process is naturally influenced by the ability of a
tablet to undergo hydration followed by disintegration and/or
erosion. The hydration capacity depends upon the physicochemical
properties of the tablet ingredients, the formulation of the tablet,
and the dissolution environment [55]. In the dissolution process, the
first step is the penetration of water or the dissolution medium into
the tablet. The second step is swelling and the last step is erosion
and/or disintegration. The dissolution medium penetrates into the
tablet through the pores of the tablet. The porosity was calculated
from Eq. (1). Fig. 4 shows the porosity of normal and effervescent
tablets. From the figure it is clear that in the case of normal tablets,
the pitaya powder tablet was the most porous whereas the least
porous was the guava powder tablet among all four types of fruit
powder tablets. On the other hand, in the case of effervescent
tablets although a similar phenomenon was observed, the porosity
of all types of fruit powder tablets was less than the normal fruit
powder tablets. A more porous structure indicates a reduced inter-
particular bond in the tablet. Therefore, a liquid could easily
penetrate into the pitaya powder tablets compared to the other types
of tablets, which may result in a faster dissolution rate. Riippi et al.
[56] reported a proportional relationship between porosity and the
dissolution rate of a tablet. The dissolution time reduces with
increasing porosity of the tablet (Fig. 2 (d)).
The correlation between the porosity and dissolution of the tablets
was calculated by using statistical software (SPSS Version 20). The
Pearson correlation matrix result showed that there was a negative
correlation of −0.790 between porosity and total dissolution for both
dissolution mediums. The correlation was significant at the level of P b
0.001.
4. Conclusions
Next to pharmaceutical industries, tableting is gaining attention in
food industries to formulate convenient food for consumer and to
make economic management of food powders. In this study, the
opportunity of fast dispersible pitaya, pineapple, mango and guava
powder tablets were formulated and their behaviour in relation to
physiochemical and dissolution kinetics were studied. Besides
exhibiting significant differences among the fruits powders properties,
dissolution kinetics of formulated tablets showed polynomial relation
with respect to the moisture, fat and protein content and the porosity of
the tablet. The more porous of powder, the more dissolution time did it
need and hence, guava tablet took the longest time to dissolute
completely. Dissolution medium was also found a vital factor in
increasing dissolution kinetics and simulated saliva fluid was found
more favorable compared to water. Additionally the powder particle
size distribution and particle morphology, such as size and shape, had
a significant effect on the flow properties, compressibility and
dissolution rate. The addition of effervescent agent in the tablet
formulation decreased flowability slightly, eventually it helps to reduce
the dissolution time for fruit powder tablet significantly. Due to
addition of effervescent agents, the dissolution time reduced about 7–8
times in water and about 9–10 time in simulated
Fig. 4. Porosity of fruit powder tablets.
saliva fluid based on types of fruits. In conclusion, the study showed
the opportunity of formulating fast dispersible fruit powder tablets that
could be used as convenient instant drinks formulation or could be
used as chewable candies that would be healthier compared to existing
high sugar candies available in the market.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Education
Malaysia for granting the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS): 03-02-13-1289FR.
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