C-PBC1: Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 3: Biological Basis of Behavior

Lesson 1: Neurons and Neurotransmitters  Plays a role in learning, memory, and emotions
 Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms of
Neuron
Parkinson’s Disease
 a specialized nerve cell that receives, processes, and
transmits information to other cells in the body.
3. Serotonin
 about 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human
 Found throughout the brain
brain
 Plays a key role in such body functions as mood, sleep,
 Three basic structures – cell body, axon and dendrites.
digestion, nausea, wound healing, bone health, blood
o Dendrites – carry information to the cell body
clotting and sexual desire.
from other neurons
 Low serotonin levels are implicated in depression
o Cell Body (Soma) – contains nucleus and
maintains the life sustaining functions of the
4. Endorphins
neurons
 Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down” neurons
o Axon – carries information to the next cell
that transmit pain information

Myelin Sheath
5. GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)
 are made of myelin
 Inhibits excitation and anxiety
 insulates the axon and speeds up the neural impulse
 The amount of myelin in the body increases
Neural Plasticity
throughout development
 The brain can be changed, both structurally and
 The myelination in the prefrontal cortex being the last
chemically, by experience
to complete in the 2nd or 3rd decade.
 Rat studies show that an “enriched” environment
 More myelin and myelination = quicker response to
leads to larger neurons with more connections
stimuli
 Has also been shown in humans
 Recent research has uncovered evidence of
Terminal button – enlarged area at the end of an axon
neurogenesis, or the production of new brain cells, in
Synaptic space (synaptic cleft) – tiny gap between
human brains
neurons
Synaptic vesicles – sacs in terminal button that release
Lesson 2: The Nervous System
chemicals into synaptic space
Nervous System
Neurotransmitters
 a complex network of nerves and cells that carry
 chemical messengers released by synaptic vesicles
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
 Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link
various parts of the body.
between the nervous system and behavior.
 It is the major controlling, regulatory, and
 Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain
communicating system in the body.
and body function, a deficiency or an excess of a
 It is the center of all mental activity including thought,
neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior
learning, and memory.
disorders.
 Together with the endocrine system, the nervous
system is responsible for regulating and maintaining
Common Types of Neurotransmitters
homeostasis.
1. Acetylcholine (ACh)  Two components:
 Involved in muscle action, arousal and attention o Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Disease
I. Central Nervous System
2. Dopamine  Comprised of the brain and the spinal cord
 Affects neurons associated with voluntary movement

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Skull covers the brain and helps protect it from injury.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 a clear, colorless, watery fluid that flows in and
around your brain and spinal cord
 It cushions the brain and cord from shocks that
could cause injury
 It is maintained at a level around 1/2 - 2/3 cup.
The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by 3 membranes,
collectively known as the MENINGES:
o Dura mater – the outside membrane
o Arachnoid – the middle membrane
o Pia mater – the inside membrane
1. BRAIN
 the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our
external environment, and the origin of control over
body movement
A. Brain Stem
 the oldest and innermost region of the brain and is
wired for survival
 It is designed to control the most basic functions of
life, including breathing, attention, and motor
responses
 Components of the brainstem:
o Medulla – controls heart rate and breathing
o Midbrain – associated with vision, hearing,
motor control, sleep and wake cycles, alertness,
and temperature regulation
o Pons – important to sleep and arousal
B. Cerebrum
 forms the bulk (80%) of the brain and is supported on
the brain stem
 Newest part of the brain and contains the two cerebral
hemispheres – left and right.
o Left hemisphere – controls the right side of the
body. It also performs tasks that have to do with
logic, such as in science and mathematics.
o Right hemisphere – coordinates the left side of
the body and performs tasks that have do with
creativity and the arts.
** Contralateral control – which means
the brain is wired such that in most
cases the left hemisphere receives
sensations from and controls the
right side of the body, and vice versa
 Corpus callosum connects the two halves of the brain
and supports communication between the
hemispheres.
 Four lobes of the CEREBRAL CORTEX (the outer layer
of the cerebrum)
o Frontal lobe – controls motivation, emotion,
personality and the ability to solve problems
o Parietal lobe – process sensory information
o Occipital lobe – controls vision
o Temporal lobe – control memory, hearing and
the ability to understand language.
 In larger mammals, including humans, the surface of
the cerebral cortex folds to create gyri (ridges) and
sulci (furrows) which allows it to expand in surface
area without taking up much greater volume.
 Subcortical structures of the cerebrum:
o Basal ganglia – important for the control of
movement and forming habits
o Olfactory bulb – a neural structure of the
vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the
sense of smell
o Hippocampus – part of the limbic system and is
important in forming and storing information in
long-term memory, and in spatial memory that
enables navigation
o Amygdala – another part of the limbic system
that perform a primary role in the processing of
memory, decision-making and emotional
responses (including fear, anxiety, and
aggression).
C. Cerebellum
 “little brain”
 small portion of the brain -- about 10% of the total
weight, but it contains roughly half of the brain's
neurons.
 essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions
 it coordinates voluntary movements such as posture,
balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth
and balanced muscular activity
 it is also important for learning motor behaviors.
 Cerebellar dysfunction primarily results in difficulty
walking, keeping balance, and holding hands steady.
 Consuming alcohol influences the cerebellum, which is
why people who are drunk have more difficulty
walking in a straight line.
D. Diencephalon
 also known as the forebrain stem
 It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.
o Thalamus
 is a small structure in the center of the brain
whose functions include relaying sensory and
motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the
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 regulation of consciousness, sleep, and
alertness.
 It is important in sleep because it shuts off
incoming signals from the senses, allowing us
to rest.
o Hypothalamus
 is a smaller part of the diencephalon, roughly
the size of an almond.
 It links the nervous system to the endocrine
system via the pituitary gland and thus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst,
and sex.
 It also responds to the satisfaction of these
needs by creating feelings of pleasure.
** Limbic system – amygdala, hypothalamus,
hippocampus
2. SPINAL CORD
 the brain’s link to the peripheral nervous system
 it receives information from the skin and muscles and
transmits it to the brain
II. Peripheral Nervous System
 responsible in carrying the messages to and from the
various muscles and glands of the body
 Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System:
a. Autonomic Nervous System – it regulates
involuntary processes of the body such as
heart rate, breathing, secretion, blood
pressure, digestion and others.
o Sympathetic – it prepares the body’s
defense mechanism during a
threatening event.
o Parasympathetic – returns the body to
a calmer state.
b. Somatic Nervous System – consists of nerves
and muscles that contract and allows one to
move voluntarily
BRAIN CONDITIONS
Headache
 There are many types of headaches; some can be
serious but most are not and are generally treated
with analgesics/ painkillers.
Stroke
 brain infarction
 blood flow and oxygen are suddenly interrupted to an
area of brain tissue, which then dies.
 A blood clot, or bleeding in the brain, are the cause of
most strokes.
Brain aneurysm
 An artery in the brain develops a weak area that
swells, balloon-like.
 A brain aneurysm rupture can causes a stroke.
Cerebral hemorrhage
 Any bleeding inside the brain.
Concussion
 A brain injury that causes a temporary disturbance in
brain function.
 Traumatic head injuries cause most concussions.
Brain tumor
 Any abnormal tissue growth inside the brain.
 Whether malignant (cancer) or benign, brain tumors
usually cause problems by the pressure they exert on
the normal brain.
Glioblastoma
 An aggressive, malignant brain tumor (cancer).
 Brain glioblastomas progress rapidly and are very
difficult to cure.
Hydrocephalus
 An abnormally increased amount of cerebrospinal
(brain) fluid inside the skull.
 Usually this is because the fluid is not circulating
properly.
Meningitis
 an inflammation (swelling) of the protective
membranes covering the brain and spinal cord
 bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the
brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling
 injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of
infections also can cause meningitis
Encephalitis
 Inflammation of the brain tissue, usually from infection
with a virus.
 It can be life threatening and requires urgent
treatment in hospital.
 Anyone can be affected, but the very young and very
old are most at risk.
 Fever, headache, and confusion are common
symptoms.
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Traumatic brain injury
 results from a violent blow or jolt to the head or body.
 An object that goes through brain tissue, such as a
bullet or shattered piece of skull, also can cause
traumatic brain injury.
 More-serious traumatic brain injury can result in
bruising, torn tissues, bleeding and other physical
damage to the brain.
 These injuries can result in long-term complications or
death.
Parkinson's disease
 Nerves in a central area of the brain degenerate
slowly, causing problems with movement and
coordination.
 A tremor of the hands is a common early sign.
Huntington's disease
 an inherited disorder that causes nerve cells (neurons)
in parts of the brain to gradually break down and die.
 Dementia and difficulty controlling movements
(chorea) are its symptoms.
Epilepsy
 characterized by repeated seizures  a sudden
alteration of behavior due to a temporary change in
the electrical functioning of the brain.
 Head injuries and strokes may cause epilepsy, but
usually no cause is identified
Neurocognitive disorder
 Mild neurocognitive disorder – some decreased
mental function, but able to stay independent and do
daily tasks.
 Major neurocognitive disorder – decreased mental
function and loss of ability to do daily tasks.
Alzheimer’s disease
 a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss
and possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a
conversation and respond to the environment.
 involves parts of the brain that control thought,
memory, and language.
Brain abscess
 a pus-filled swelling in the brain
 It usually occurs when bacteria or fungi enter the brain
tissue after an infection or severe head injury.
 Antibiotics and surgical drainage of the area are often
necessary.
Lesson 3: The Endocrine System
Endocrine System
 the chemical regulator of the body that consists of
glands that secrete hormones
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the
bloodstream
 Hormones – chemicals in the bloodstream that affect
behavior; are necessary in the integration of actions
and responses in the body to maintain homeostasis or
internal balance.
Endocrine Glands
** Gland – an organ that makes and puts out
hormones that do a specific job in your body.
Endocrine glands release the substances they make
into your bloodstream.
Pituitary Gland
– also known as the “master gland”
 a small pea-sized gland located near the center of the
brain
 is responsible for controlling the body’s growth
o Too little growth hormones produces dwarfism,
o Too much growth hormones causes gigantism or
giantism.
Adrenal Gland
o Adrenal cortex (outside part) – secretes
hormones that regulate sugar and salt balance
and help the body resist stress
o Adrenal medulla (inside part) – secretes two
hormones that arouse the body to deal with
stress and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenalin)
and norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Thyroid Gland
– regulates metabolism through secretion of hormone
thyroxin
Pancreas
 regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by
secreting insulin.
 lack of insulin results in some form of diabetes, too
much causes hypoglycemia or low blood sugar.
Gonads
 In females, the ovaries produce hormones estrogen
and progesterone that regulate sexual development,
ovulation, and growth of sex organs.
 In males, the testes produce hormone testosterone
that regulate sexual development, production of
sperm, and growth of sex organs.
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 Lack of sex hormones during puberty results in lack of
secondary sexual characteristics (facial and bodily hair,
muscles in males, breast in females)