Moving Iron Instrument:

In PMMC type instrument, the deflection is directly proportional to the d.c. quantity
being measured. If this instrument is used to measure the a.c. quantity, the torque
acting on the moving system is alternating. This means that the moving system
tends to oscillate about its zero position. If the frequency of alternation of a.c.
quantity is high, the moving system of the instrument cannot, in general, follow
these alternations, and so no deflection will be observed. So PMMC instrument
can not measure the a.c. quantity.

In moving iron type instrument, there is no moving coil, instead of which a plate or
vane of soft iron with high permeability forms the moving element of the system.
The iron vane is so situated that it can move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil. The coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement.
when the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane moves in
such a way so as to increase the flux of the electromagnet by occupying a position
of minimum reluctance. The deflecting force or torque produced is always in such
direction so as to increase the inductance of coil.
The moving iron instrument is classified into two types according to the
construction as i) attraction type ii) repulsion type.

In attraction type construction, the moving iron, consisting a flat disc made of soft
iron is eccentrically mounted or pivoted near the end of coil. When the current flows
through the coil, a magnetic field is produced, which attracts the disc. The disc
tend to move from the weaker magnetic field outside the coil into the stronger field
inside it. Whatever the direction of the current in the coil, the magnetization of the
moving iron is always such that attraction takes place. Thus, the direction of
deflecting torque will not depend on the direction of current flowing through the coil
and hence the pointer deflects to only one direction. The controlling torque is
provided by springs but gravity control can be used for panel type instrument which
are vertically mounted. Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light
aluminum piston, which moves in a fixed chamber closed at one end or with the
help of a vane attached to the moving system.

1
In repulsion type construction, there are two vanes inside the coil, one is fixed and
the other is movable. Two different types of design are followed as a) radial vane
b) coaxial type vane. In radial vane type, two rectangular soft iron strips are used,
one is fixed at inside surface of the coil and the other is attached to the spindle
radially. When the coil is energized by the current, the vanes are similarly
magnetized and a force of repulsion exists between them. This force moves the
movable vane away from the fixed vane. In coaxial type design the fixed iron may
consists of tongue shaped piece of sheet iron bent into a cylindrical form, the
moving iron being another piece of sheet iron bent and mounted so as to move
parallel to the fixed iron and towards its narrower end.
The controlling torque is provided by springs The damping torque is provided by
air friction piston moving in enclosed chamber. The operating magnetic field in
moving iron instrument is very weak due air core electromagnet and therefore eddy
current damping is never used. It is clear that whatever may be the direction of
current in the coil, the iron vanes are so magnetized that there is always a force of
attraction or repulsion. The moving iron is unpolarised, i.e. they are independent
of the direction in which the current passes. therefore, these instrument can be
used with both a.c. and d.c.

2
1
Torque equation:

An expression of torque of a moving iron instrument may be derived by considering

the energy relations when there is a small increment in current supplied to the
instrument. when this happens there will be small deflection and some
mechanical work will be done.
Let Td be deflecting torque
 Mechanical work done = Td d
Suppose the initial current is I , and the inductance of the coil is L
If the current increases by dI then the deflection changes by d and the
Inductances changes by dL

d dL dI
If e be the applied voltage , then e= ( LI ) = I +L
dt dt dt
The electrical energy supplied is eIdt = I dL + ILdI
2

1 2 1
The stored energy changes from I L to ( I + dI ) 2 ( L + dL)
2 2
1 2 1
The change in stored energy is ( I + 2 IdI + dI 2 )( L + dL) − I 2 L
2 2
Neglecting 2nd and higher order terms,
1
The change in stored energy is ILdI + I 2 dL
2
From the conservation of energy, Electrical energy supplied =increase in stored
energy+ mechanical work done
1
Thus I 2 dL + ILdI = ILdI + I 2 dL + Td
2
1 2 dL
Td = I
2 d
1 2 dL
or deflecting torque Td = I . Under steady state condition: Td = TC
2 d

1 dL 1 2 dL
TC = K ,  I 2 = K = I ( ) , I 2
2 d 2K d

Alternative Method:

Let us assume the soft iron disc makes an angle with the direction perpendicular
to the field of the coil, when it is zero position (shown in fig.). Let the deflection

3
produced due to flow of current I in the coil be. Let current I in the coil set up a
magnetic field of strength H and parallel to the axis of the coil.
The soft iron disc is magnetized due to magnetic field set up by the coil and in this
position magnetization of the disc is proportional to the component of H in the
direction of the axis of the disc
Pole strength of the disc mHCos[90  − (  +  )]Sin(  +  )
The force pulling the disc inside , FmHH 2 Sin(  +  )I 2 Sin(  +  ) [  HI ]

The deflecting torque , Td = FlCos(  +  ) , where is the distance between the point
, where the force F acts and the pivot or the disc .
Hence Td I 2 Sin(  +  ).ICos(  +  )I 2 Sin2(  +  )K 1 I 2 Sin2(  +  )
For spring controlled instrument , the controlling torque , Tc = K 2 
 At steady state position , Td = Tc or K 1 I 2 Sin2( +  ) = K 2
K 2 
or I = = K3
K 1 Sibn 2( +  ) Sin 2( +  )
From the above expressions it is obvious that the range of the instrument will be
maximum when  is zero . The deflecting torque per unit of current will be
maximum when Sin 2( +  ) = 1 or when ( +  ) = 45  . It will be zero when
( +  ) = 90 

Theory of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument

Suppose when there is no current through the coil, the pointer is at zero, the angle
made by the axis of the iron disc with the line perpendicular to the field is φ. Now
due current I and corresponding magnetic field strength, the iron piece is deflected
to an angle θ. Now component of H in the direction of defected iron disc axis is
Hcos{90 – (θ + φ) or Hsin (θ + φ). Now force F acting on the disc inward to the coil
is thus proportional to H2sin(θ + φ) hence the force is also proportional to I2sin(θ +
φ) for constant permeability. If this force is acting on the disc at a distance l from
the pivot, then deflection torque,

4
Since l is constant.

Where, k is constant.

Now, as the instrument is gravity controlled, controlling torque will be

Where, k’ is constant.

At steady state condition,

Where, K is constant.

The moving system is provided with spring control and it comes to steady position
when the deflecting torque is balanced by the controlling torque.
1 2 dL 1 I 2 dL
Thus Td = Tc or K = I or ,  =
2 d 2 K d

5
Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the operating
current. The deflecting torque is, therefore, unidirectional whatever may be the
polarity of the current. As the deflection is proportional to square of current , it is
evident that the scale of such an instrument is non uniform .If there is no saturation
dL
, the change of inductance with angle of deflection is uniform (i.e. = a constant
d
) .Therefore the instrument exhibits a pure square law response.

Shape of scale and calibration:

dL
In actual instruments is not constant and is usually a function of angular
d
position of the moving iron and thus the scale is distorted from the square law in a
manner dependant upon the way in which inductance varies with angle of
deflection. This variation can be controlled by suitable design i.e. by choosing
proper dimensions, shape and position of iron vanes. Thus it is possible to design
and construct an instrument with a scale which is very nearly uniform over a
dL
considerable part of its length. The necessary condition relating to against 
d
for linearization may be obtained when it is assumed as I = C
dL 2 K dL 2 K
Also = 2 or  = =a constant . Thus for a linear scale , the product (
d C  d C 2
dL
 ) should be a constant . This is not possible as it requires to be infinite at .
d
In practice the scale is made linear from the maximum deflection down to about
1 dL
th of the maximum deflection. The plot of against  over the range is a
10 d
rectangular hyperbola . It is possible to design the instrument in which a small
portion of the range, which is of particular interest or importance, is expanded over
a large part while the remainder of the scale is compressed into a relatively small
space.

6
Thus from the above, the necessary condition for moving iron instrument scale to
be linear is that product Ɵx (dL/dƟ) must be constant. Thus we got a design
constraint for having linear scale.

Now the question arises, can we have this product constant? This is not feasible
at all. See when Ɵ is zero, (dL/dƟ) must be infinite which is not possible. In
practice; moving iron instrument scale is made linear from maximum deflection
down to 1/10th of the maximum deflection. In this range of linear scale, relationship
between angular deflection and (dL/dƟ) is hyperbola as shown in figure below.

t is also possible to design and construct and instrument in which a small portion
of the range, which is of importance is expanded over a large part while the
remaining part is compressed into a relatively small space. It is quite clear form (1)
that portion of moving iron instrument scale near zero can never be made uniform
as it would demand to have infinite dL/dƟ.

In moving iron instrument, usually the scale is compressed or cramped at its lower
and higher end. Thus the scale is almost uniform in between the lower and higher
ends i.e. scale is usable over 80° of its length. Figure below shows a typical moving
iron ammeter. Carefully observe that scale is compressed initially and readability
starts from 10 to 15 degree approximately.

Shunts for moving iron instruments:

Moving iron instrument can be used for a range of 50A since in these instrument,
moving part does not carry ant current. Hence shunts are not necessary, except
for large currents. However, range of the instrument can further be extended using
shunt. For a.c. operation multiplying factor of the shunt depends on the frequency

7
and inductance–resistance ratios of coil and shunt as illustrated in the following
way:

Since the shunt is connected in parallel to the coil, the currents in coil and shunt
are in inverse ratio of their impedances.

Lm
Rm 1 + ( )2
I sh R + (Lm )
2 2
Rm
= m
=
or Im R + (Lsh ) 2
2
Lsh
sh
Rsh 1 + ( )2
Rsh
In order that the division of currents through coil and shunt shall remain same for
all frequencies, the ratio of time constants of two branches must be same or in
L L
other words, sh = m .
Rsh Rm

Multiplier for moving iron instruments:

The voltage range of moving iron instrument can be extended by the use of a series
resistance called multiplier with the fixed coil. For operation on a.c. with different
frequencies, it is necessary that the total impedance of the voltmeter circuit should
remain substantially constant over a large frequency range. Since the series
resistance forms a major portion of the total impedance of the voltmeter circuit, it
is desirable that this resistor should be either of non-inductive type or have as small
as inductance as possible.
Let R = resistance of meter
L = inductance of meter
I m =meter current for full scale deflection
 =angular frequency
Voltage drop across the meter for full scale deflection : v = I m R 2 +  2 L2
Rs =resistance of multiplier
V =voltage to be measured

8
Total resistance of meter circuit = R + Rs
 Total impedance of circuit = ( R + Rs ) 2 +  2 L2
V
The meter current I m =
( R + Rs ) 2 +  2 L2

V ( R + Rs ) 2 +  2 L2
Hence , voltage multiplying factor m = =
v R 2 +  2 L2
It is evident that the multiplying factor will change with frequency.

Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion type moving iron instrument:

The attraction type moving iron instrument have a lower inductance than the
corresponding repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore will be
accurate over a wider range of frequency and there is a greater possibility of using
shunts with ammeters. On the other hand, repulsion type instruments are more
suitable for obtaining a nearly uniform scale easily. they are therefore, much more
common than the attraction type.

Sources of errors in moving iron instruments:

There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments –errors which
occur with both a.c. and d.c. and the other which occur only with a.c. only.

Error with both D.C. and A.C.:

i) Hysteresis error:

This error occurs as the value of flux density is different for the same
current for ascending and descending order. The value of flux density is
higher for ascending values of current and therefore, the instrument
tends to read higher for descending values of current than for ascending
values. This error can be minimized by making the iron parts small so

9
 that they demagnetize themselves quickly. Another method is to operate
the iron parts at low values of flux density so that the hysteresis effects
are small. With the use of nickel iron alloys with narrow hysteresis (B-H
loop), the error may be brought down to less than 0.05 %

ii) Temperature error:

The effect of temperature changes on moving iron on moving iron

instruments arises chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring. The
error may be 0.02 % per C change in temperature. In voltmeter, errors
are caused due to self heating of coil and series resistance. The
temperature of the coil may increase by 10 to 20 C for a power
consumption of 1W. Therefore, the resistance increased by about 4 to 8
%, causing a decrease in current for a given voltage. This produces a
decreased deflection. Therefore, the series resistance should be made
of material like Maganin which has a small temperature co-efficient. the
value of series resistance should be very large as compared with the coil
resistance in order to minimize errors due to self heating.

iii) Stray magnetic field error:

The errors due to stray magnetic field may be appreciable as the

operating magnetic field is weak (about 0.006 to 0.0075 Wb/m at full
scale deflection) and hence can be easily distorted. Such errors depend
upon the direction of the stray magnetic field relative to the field of the
instrument. These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or a
thin iron shield over the working parts.

Errors with A.C. only:

Changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes of reactance of the

working coil and also due to changes of magnitude of eddy currents set up in
the metal parts of instrument. The change of impedance of the coil, of
resistance R and series resistance r is only of importance in case of voltmeters.
If L is the inductance of the coil , the current for an applied voltage V will be
V
given by: I =
( R + Rs ) 2 +  2 L2
The deflection of the moving –iron voltmeter depends upon the current through
the coil. Therefore, the deflection for a given voltage will be less at high
frequencies than at low frequencies. To some extent , compensation to this
type of error is possible by connecting a capacitor C across the series
resistance Rs
This shunting capacitor will make the circuit behave like a pure resistance so
that the frequency changes have no effect on the readings of the instrument.

10
Thus the compensated instrument will have a power factor nearly equal to
unity.
Rs Rs − jCRs2
Now the impedance of the circuit Z = jL + = j L +
1 + jCRs 1 +  2 C 2 Rs2
Since CRs  1 ,
then Z = jL + ( Rs − jCRs2 )(1 −  2 C 2 Rs2 )
=
jL + Rs − jCRs2 −  2 C 2 Rs3 + j 3 Rs4 = Rs −  2 C 2 Rs3 + j[L − CRs2 (1 −  2 C 2 Rs2 )]
Z 2 = Rs2 (1 −  2 C 2 Rs2 ) 2 +  2 ( L − CRs2 ) 2
This must equal Rs2 in order that the a.c. calibration at all frequencies and d.c.
calibration is the same.

Thus Rs2 = Rs2 (1 −  2 C 2 Rs2 ) 2 +  2 ( L − CRs2 ) 2

= Rs2 (1 − 2 2 C 2 Rs2 +  4 C 4 Rs4 ) +  2 ( L − CRs2 ) 2
= Rs2 (1 − 2 2 C 2 Rs2 ) +  2 ( L − CRs2 ) 2 [   4 C 4 Rs4  1 ]
= Rs2 − 2 2 C 2 Rs4 +  2 L2 +  2 C 2 Rs4 − 2 2 LCRs2
L2 − 2 LCRs2 − C 2 Rs4 = 0
or, L = 2.41CRs2
1 L L
C= ( 2 ) = 0.41( 2 )
2.41 Rs Rs

Since the deflection of the instrument depends upon the current through the
coil, the deflection for a given voltage will be less at high frequency than at low
frequency. The error due to this problem can be eliminated somehow by
connecting a capacitor in parallel to series resistance r. The idea of shunting
the series resistor is to make the circuit behave like a pure resistor so that the
frequency changes have no effect on the readings of the instrument. Thus the
compensated instrument will have a power factor nearly equal to unity.

The changes in frequency will cause the change in eddy current induced in
metal parts of the instrument. Let the mutual inductance between the coil and
the iron parts be M . The induced voltage due to current I in the instrument
coil lags the current I by 90. As a result of this induced voltage an eddy current
MI
flows and its magnitude is given by: I e = , where
Re2 +  2 L2e

A component of this eddy current, which will oppose the instrument current is
given by:
I e' = I eCos(90 −  e ) = I e Sin( e )
This current will crease opposing field thus reducing the torque on the

11
moving system. From the phasor diagram, it is seen that
MI  2 MLe
I e' = I e Sin( e ) =  I , when Re  Le , i.e. when
Re2 +  2 L2e Re2

 is small
MI
and I e'  , when Le  Re , i.e. when  is large.
Le
Thus at low frequency, the eddy current effect increases with square of the
frequency while at high frequency, the effect is practically constant. For these
reason moving iron instruments are unsuitable for frequencies above 125 Hz.

12
Advantages an disadvantages of moving iron instruments:

1) Universal scale:

2) Les friction error:

3) Robustness:

4) Accuracy:

5) Errors:

6) Waveform errors:

13
Error in Moving iron instruments:

There are two types error. one occurs in both ac and dc and other occurs only ac

Errors with Both dc and ac.

Hysteresis error: this error occurs as the value of flux density is different of same
current for ascending and descending values. The flux density is higher for
descending value there for instruments read higher for descending value
current this error can be minimize using small iron parts and other method is
used nickel iron alloy
Temperature error: the effect of temperature change on moving iron instruments
aries chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring. For minimize the error the
series resistance should be made of material like Manganin which has small
temperature coefficient. the value of resistance should large as compare with coil
resistance.in order to reduce the self heating.
Stray Magnetic fields: It is a also called demagnetization fields. this is weak at
full scale deflection hence it can easily distorted. These error can be minimized
using an iron case or iron shied over working parts
Errors with A.C. only:
Frequency error: Change in frequency is also cause of change in reactance of
working coil and also change the eddy currents setup in the metal parts of
instrument.
Reactance of Instruments coil: the change of reactance of the instrument coil is
importance in case of voltmeter. where a addition resistance put in series with
instrument coil to reduce this effect.

Advantages and Disadvantages Moving iron instruments:

Advantages:
1) Can be used both in D.C. as well as in A.C. circuits.
2) Robust and simple in construction.
3) Possess high operating torque.
4) Can withstand overload momentarily.
5) Since the stationary parts and the moving parts of the instrument are simple
so they are cheapest.

14
 6) Suitable for low frequency and high power circuits.
7) Capable of giving an accuracy within limits of both precision and industrial
grades.

Disadvantages:

1) Scale is not uniform.

2) For low voltage range the power consumption is higher.
3) The errors are caused due to hysteresis in the iron of the operating
system and due to stray magnetic field.
4) In case of A.C. measurements, change in frequency causes serious error.
5) With the increase in temperature the stiffness of the spring decreases.

15