Book Reviews

Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Volume One A-D. Edited by Jane Dämmen

McAuliffe. Pp. xxxiii+557. Leiden, Boston and Cologne: EJ. Brill, 2001. £148.00.

The Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an is hailed by its editors as the first comprehensive
reference work devoted to the academic study of the Qur'an appearing in a Western
language. It is a text which aims to present the 'century's finest achievements in the
sphere of academic studies of the Qur'an', serving as a critical reference tool for both
students and scholars of the Islamic sciences. The volume under review is the first of
five proposed volumes, three of which now have been published. Upon completion,
it will comprise close to one thousand defined entries, focusing on concepts, contents,
themes, personalities, and topics germane to the Qur'an and the Qur'anic sciences;
indeed, the Encyclopaedia also broaches theological, legal, historical, cultural, and
literary topics having a Qur'anic nexus and it draws from the 'rich scholarly heritage'
of classical scholarship in the Islamic sciences. The detailed preface to this volume,
written by its general editor Jane McAuliffe, explains that the Encyclopaedia is the
fruit of many years of preparation, design and planning. Furthermore, she emphasis-
es that particular importance was attached by its editors to the fact that the

Encyclopaedia should encompass a 'plurality of perspectives and presuppositions',

presenting contributions by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars while essentially main-
taining 'rigorous academic' scholarship on the Qur'an.
The entries for the five volumes are alphabetically arranged in the form of articles and
extended essays. The first volume of this Encyclopaedia covers the letters A-D and
comprises around 170 entries. A summary review of these shows that they are writ-
ten in a coherent and informed style. Indeed, each of the entries has an impressive
critical bibliography of primary and secondary sources, furnishing extensive coverage
of individual topics and themes. It is evident that classical aspects of Qur'anic studies
and scholarship are prominently represented in the stock of entries for this and other
volumes; issues relative to contemporary approaches to the text of the Qur'an and its
exegesis are also given adequate treatment.
McAuliffe states that the general editors debated the issue of the arrangement of
entries for this Encyclopaedia, deciding to adopt a system of English-language head-
ings as opposed to the transliterated Arabic lemmata, the convention applied by the
Encyclopaedia of Islam (El) and one which is typically considered the 'scholarly
norm'. Intriguingly, the case made for this system of entries was based on the
proposition that English language entries provided a greater level of utility and
128 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

effectiveness in the specification and designation of proposed entries, resulting in a

more comprehensive exposition of a given entry. It is also argued that such an

arrangement suitably serves readers being introduced to the Qur'an and its sciences
for the first time. The editors claimed that while the Arabic lemmata conventionally
employed in the Encyclopaedia of Islam, its sister publication, serves specialists in
the field of Islamic and Qur'anic sciences well (it also furnishes greater precision in
the identification of entries), it does not adequately assist scholars and researchers
with no background in these sciences. With these considerations in mind, the editors
adopted a system of alphabetically arranged English language entries and headings,
all fully cross-referenced; the fact that the Encyclopaedia is clearly aimed at a wider
readership rendered the adoption of this system an appropriate choice.
Despite the adoption of a system of English language entries, the Encyclopaedia uses
transliterated terminology for specific entries idiomatically distinguished in Arabic
such as °Ad, al-cArlm, Aqsa Mosque, cArafat, Badr, Bahd'ts, Barzakh and Basmala.
As expected, notable individuals are listed alphabetically: Abraha, Abu Bakr, Abii
Lahab, cÄ°isha bint Abi Bakr, °Alib. Abi Tdlib, Azdr, Bilqis and Dhü'1-Kifl. One also
finds that the Encyclopaedia frequently includes transliterated terms which are pro-
vided with only an undefined heading and an appropriate English cross-reference:
cAbd, Abu Tdlib, Ahl al-Bayt, Ahmad, Akhira, Al-cAbbds, cAlamin, cAlawis, AlifLdm
Mim, AlifLdm Rd0, Allah, Al-Lät, Ansär, Asbäb al-Nuzül, Aya, Ayyüb, Bäbil, Bahira,
Bashir, Bätin wa Zähir, Band Isrä°il, Bekka, Dohr, Dar al-Harb, Dar al-Isläm,
Dacwa, Dhikr, Dhimma, Dhü'l-Nün, Dhü'l-Qarnayn and Dunyä. Transliterated ter-
minology features throughout individual entries.
The individual volumes of the Encyclopaedia do not comprise a separate index or 'reg-
ister of subjects' which would facilitate the identification of connected entries and
themes. It is stated in the preface that detailed indexing of both English and transliter-
ated terminology is planned for the Encyclopaedia's final volume; however, this means
that as the volumes currently stand they are without some sort of basic index or list of
entries. Given the breadth and compass of themes covered in the many entries, access
to an index is imperative, and indexes for each of the volumes would have usefully
linked related English language entries and their transliterated equivalents. The Shorter
Encyclopaedia of Islam (1974), which employs transliterated Arabic entry words, has
a practical 'register of subjects' in its index, although admittedly it is a single volume

work. The register furnishes key terms in English followed by a list of transliterated
entries relating to these terms; a revised form of this type of index would have been
very useful, aiding in the tracing of relevant material with greater ease.

The Encyclopaedia does include a profusion of English entry headings which have
no accompanying definition, but rather a cross-reference indicating one or more
 Book Reviews 129

appropriate entries as illustrated through the letters A-B: Adoption (see Children and
Family), Afterlife (see Resurrection; Paradise; Hell; Fire), Alcohol (see Intoxicants),
Allegiance (see Oaths and Pledges), Allegory (see Language and Style of the Qur3dn),
Alphabet (see Arabic Script; Letters and Mysterious Letters), Altar (see Idols and
Images), Analogy (see Language and Style of the Qur'dn; Exegesis of the QurDdn:
Classical and Mediaeval), Ancestors (see Kinship and Family), Ant (see Animal Life),
Anthropocentricity (see Creation), Anthropology (see Social Sciences and the
Qur°dn), Apocalyptic Süras (see Süra), Appointed Time (see Freedom and
Predestination; Time), Army (see Expeditions and Battles), Ass (see Animal Life),
Association (see Politics and the Qur3dn), Astronomy (see Cosmology in the QurDdn),
Asylum (see Protection Oaths), Atmospheric Pressure (see Natural World and the
QurDdn), Atom (see Science and the Qur°dn), Attributes of God (see God and his
Attributes), Augury (see Popular and Talismanic Uses of the Qur3dn), Balance (see
Eschatology), Battles/Warfare (see Expeditions and Battles), Be (see Creation;
Jesus), Beast of Prey (see Animal Life; Lawful and Unlawful), Beating (see
Chastisement and Punishment), Bee (see Animal Life), Beguiling/Bewitching (see
Magic, Prohibition of), Bequest (see Inheritance), Berries (see Agriculture and
Vegetation), Betrothal (see Marriage and Divorce), Biosphere (see Animal Life),
Birds (see Animal Life), Blood Kinship (see Kinship; Family), Body (see Anatomy;
God and His Attributes; Anthropomorphism), Body Fluids (see Blood and Blood
Clot; Biology as the Creation and Stages ofLife), Bones (see Biology as the Creation
and Stages of Life; Death and the Dead), Book of David (see Psalms), Bovines (see
Animal Life), Brocade (see Material Culture and the Qur3dn), and Buildings (see
House, Domestic and Divine; Mosque; Markets).
Included among the entries are many extended essays which serve as meticulous
overviews of the subjects, themes, and concepts they tackle: Almsgiving, Arabic
Language, Arabic Script, Archaeology and the Qur'dn, Art and Architecture, Belief
and Unbelief, Book, Calligraphy, Christians and Christianity, Chronology and the
Qur3dn, Codices of the Qur3dn, Collection of the Qur'dn, Community and Society in
the Qur3dn, Contemporary Critical Practices and the Qur3dn, and Cosmology. The
detail and depth of scholarship are impressive. The following select examples of
entries give some idea of the scope and nature of the topics broached by the
Encyclopaedia: Abraham, Abrogation, Adam and Eve, African Literature, Agriculture
and Vegetation, Ambiguous, Angel, Animal Life, Anthropomorphism, Air and Wind,
Amulets, Anatomy, Antichrist, Apocalypse, Apologetics, Apostasy, Arrogance,
Ascension, Asceticism, Authority, Basmala, Bedouin, Biology, Brother and
Brotherhood, Byzantines, Cain and Abel, Calfof Gold, Caravan, Cave, Chastisement
and Punishment, Children of Israel, Cleanliness and Ablution, Clients and Clientage,
Colors, Commandments, Companions of the Prophet, Computers and the Qur'dn,
130 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

Conquest, Consecration of Animals, Consultation, Contamination, Contracts and

Alliances, Conversion, Courage, Court, Covenant, Createdness of the Qur'an,
Creation, Creeds, Criterion, Crucifixion, Cups and Vessels, Curse, Darkness, Date
Palm, David, Day and Night, Day (Times of), Death and the Dead, Debate and
Disputation, Decision, Deferral, Deliverance, Deobandis, Despair, Destiny, Devil,
Dialects, Dialogues, Divination, Dreams and Sleep, Drowning and Druzes. This is in
addition to a plethora of shorter entries which provide the work with a comprehensive
edge.
The Encyclopaedia comprises separate entries for individual prophets and other dis-
tinctive personalities recounted in the Qur'an; it also includes entries for prominent
companions of the Prophet, although a Qur'anic nexus serves as the principal criteri-
on for inclusion. The editors however decided against including biographical entries

for principal luminaries of the Qur'anic sciences such as Farrä3, Abu JaTar al-Tabari
and Fakhr al-DIn al-Räzi. This decision was based on the view that the
Encyclopaedia's focus of concentration should be the Qur'an, although relevant
aspects of these scholars' contribution to Qur'anic studies and thought are alluded to
wherever this is pertinent to a given entry. Yet judging by the range of entries high-
lighted above, such biographical notices could have been easily accommodated with-
in the miscellany of entries. Biographies of influential luminaries create an excellent
framework for appreciating principal Qur'anic concepts and themes; indeed, it is
often through biographical notices that concepts can be contextualised, enhancing the
resolution and definition of a subject. McAuliffe indeed states that this decision might
be reconsidered should the Encyclopaedia generate a second, expanded edition.

The standard of this volume's production is exceptional. Unfortunately, in the edition

of the Encyclopaedia provided for review, oversights in the binding have meant that
pages 533-40 have been omitted (the entry for dissimulation is incomplete and the
entry which precedes it); these pages have been inadvertently replaced by the repeti-
tion of pages 515-30.1 trust that this error affects only a limited number of copies of
the Encyclopaedia. This notwithstanding, it is notable that the fonts used are larger
than those employed in the Encyclopaedia of Islam; moreover, two of the extended
essays include a fine selection of illustrated plates. The essay on the Arabic Script
includes eleven plates featuring copies of manuscripts and codices relating to the
development of the Arabic script; while the entry on the Basmala includes eight plates
illustrating the ornamental and decorative representation of the Basmala formula in
different scripts and styles. These illustrative plates are of splendid quality.

McAuliffe's preface to this Encyclopaedia provides an engaging overview of the his-

torical, political and cultural factors which have shaped approaches to the Qur'an; she
has also provided a broad survey of the development of the exegetical tradition in the
 Book Reviews 131

Islamic world. The scope of this current review does not permit a substantial assess-
ment and appraisal of the Encyclopaedia's individual entries. However, the
Encyclopaedia is clearly an indispensable aid to the academic study of the Qur'an and
an important work of reference; its strengths rest in the extensive and authoritative

coverage it provides together with the relative appeal of its general format, a format
which will suit those being introduced to the text of the Qur'an and its concepts for
the first time. Indeed, positive reaction to this publication seems to confirm its impor-
tance as a research tool and one can only look forward to the completion of this proj-
ect.

Mustafa Shah

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Thomas Aquinas on the Question of the Eternity of the
World. By Muammer iskenderoglu. (Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science, vol.
XLVIII). Pp. 198. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 2002. £37.00.
Comparative studies run a dual risk. On the one hand, they may fail to render a satis-
factory descriptive analysis of one or the other of the subjects of inquiry. On the other,
in the quest of a proper understanding of the subjects, they may blur the object of the
comparative exercise. Comparative approaches to Islamic studies remain a minority
pursuit, but their significance and exigency is clear, especially in times when
Islamicists constantly have to justify their existence. The book under review is a solid
contribution to comparative medieval philosophical theology. A published disserta-
tion, it may not have the merit of a polished monograph but there is much within it
that could be of benefit for the student of medieval thought.

Iskenderoglu sets out to examine a key issue of contention for medieval thought and
eagerly locates it within the debate on the 'conflict between reason and revelation', a
theme rehearsed continuously by medievalists. On the face of it, there appears to be
a contradiction between scriptural accounts of a divine agent creating the cosmos ex

nihilo and philosophical (mainly Aristotelian and Neoplatonic) positions that insist
that the cosmos is a natural (even instrumental?) procession from a Principle. The
author wants to suggest that such a stark dichotomy reflects a rather unsophisticated
approach to the question. Concerned with the influence of the 'creationist' approach
of Ghazäli (d. 1111), he seeks to find a more nuanced approach in the work of Räzi
and then wishes to juxtapose and compare it with a figure whom he considers as play-
ing a cognate role in the medieval Christian tradition. He wishes to conclude that the
two thinkers have a similar position locating the relationship between God and the
cosmos in the notion of radical contingency. Already we face a few objections.
132 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

iskenderoglu seems unaware of the debate concerning Ghazäli's 'real views' on the
incipience of the world. The works of Nasrollah Pourjavady,1 Richard Frank,2
Michael Marmura3 and Frank Griffel4 on Ghazalian cosmogony seem to be absent
from his reading. Thus the need to find a correction to Ghazäli from within his own
(Asrfari) school, namely Räzi, does not arise. Further, one wonders whether Aquinas
is the correct cognate within the comparative framework. Aquinas was both a major
theologian and a philosopher who wrote commentaries on Aristotle and on
Neoplatonic works such as the Liber de Causis. Räzi, however, was arguably more a
theologian who had philosophical interests and used philosophical arguments. But
there is one major point of convergence between the two figures which would have
made for a more fruitful focus of the study: they were both heavily influenced by the
philosophy and cosmogony of Avicenna (d. 1037), a point that iskenderoglu recog-
nises (p. 167) but makes little of. Both draw upon the Avicennan notion of the radi-
cal contingency of the cosmos in the face of the divine Necessary Being, despite
rejecting one of the pillars of Avicenna's argument, the existence-essence distinction
within contingents. An analysis of their anxiety over Avicenna's influence upon them
may well have made a more exciting subject of inquiry.
The study comprises four chapters. Chapter One sets the scene describing the prehis-
tory of the problem pitting creation against emanation. The first part of the chapter
examines the Greek debate. Aristotle and Plato both considered the world to be a
causal effect of a Prime Agent but did not necessarily consider the world to be pro-
duced out of nothing. Their arguments were significantly critiqued by John
Philoponus, the Christian commentator on Aristotle who insisted on creation ex nihi-
lo as rationally defensible and had a decisive influence on medieval theology, not least
on the 'kalam cosmological argument' for the existence of God and the temporality

of the world, made famous by William Lane Craig.5 Perhaps the most important point
for the debate is the influence of Plotinus mediated through the pseudo-Aristotelian
Theologia (Uthülüjiya), a paraphrase of sections of Enneads IV-VI upon Avicenna.
The Plotinian scheme of emanation actually 'saves the appearance' of creation since
it insists that the existence of the cosmos is wholly derived from the One/God.6 In
fact, the ambiguity between creation and emanation in Plotinus accounts for its pop-
ularity among religiously-minded philosophers such as Avicenna in the medieval
period. Aside from the survey of the Hellenic debate, the author provides short sum-
maries of the positions of the main Astfart and Muctazili theologians, Ibn al-
Bäqilläni (d. 1013) and cAbd al-Jabbär (d. 1025), known, interestingly, to each of
their respective traditions as 'the Qadi'. The interesting notion to observe is cAbd al-
Jabbär's explanation that the world is created from non-existence which is in itself not
absolute, because following the Muctazili school, non-existence is a meaningful
notion that has reference. This already dilutes the creatio ex nihilo position before the
 Book Reviews 133

advocacy of emanationism by Avicenna (and Färäbi before him), iskenderoglu's

presentation of the arguments is good, but there is one major lacuna: there is no dis-
cussion of the notion of time and its ontology which is directly relational to the ques-
tion of the incipience or eternity of the world.

Chapter Two presents Räzi's arguments, following a brief discussion of his life and
works. What is particularly useful in this chapter is his analysis of al-Matdlib al-
cäliyya, a work hitherto little used in secondary sources (iskenderoglu consistently
and incorrectly drops the initial definite article of the title). The first point to notice is
that Räzi does not argue that creation out of nothing is a Qur'anic doctrine because,
he says, there are no explicit verses that express it. But the question that arises is what
sort of incipience does the world possess? While it is clear that he has little time for
emanationism, Räzl upholds the radical contingency of the world as expressed by
Avicenna. Indeed, the author correctly notes that Räzi's main source in the arguments
is Avicenna. One critical point concerns the notion of time, iskenderoglu's explana-
tion for Räzi's ontology of time, attributing it to Galen's reading of Plato (no doubt
he has in mind the epitome of the Timaeus that was available in Arabic although the
author does not cite it), misses the most obvious connection. Räzi's position quite
clearly mirrors Avicenna's schema of three 'levels' or modalities of time: sarmad,
dahr and zamdn. In the end, Räzl follows the model of Galen and suspends final
judgement on the incipience of the world attempting to find a middle path between
the instrumentalist emanationism of Neoplatonism and the volitional creationism of
scripturalist theology.
Chapter Three turns to The analysis draws on the whole upon the Summa
Aquinas.
Contra Gentiles and De Aeternitate Mundi. Given the significance of Aquinas'
engagement with Avicennan radical contingency, it is surprising that iskenderoglu did
not consult De Ente et Essentia. Aquinas was more radical than Räzl. He accepted
emanation whilst insisting on divine volition to choose what to create (and not nec-
essarily whether to create). Certainly, his debt to Neoplatonism and even to
Avicennism seems much clearer.

The final chapter justifies the label of a comparative study. But, like the introduction,
it suffers from setting up a strawman to be knocked down: the medieval 'theological
mainstream' and its rigid insistence upon creatio ex nihilo. Such an attitude begins
with an assumption of the marginality of philosophy, even of philosophical theology
in the medieval period, which seems to contradict the author's purposes. Aquinas
does not object to the postulation that the world is eternal: he just insists that it is not
demonstrably so. Räzi, on the other hand, finds the eternality of the world to be prob-
lematic although not contrary to Qur'anic teachings. But the real point of interesting
comparison is that both thinkers espouse the radical contingency of Avicenna.
134 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

Iskenderoglu's dissertation is a useful study of medieval thought, despite some of its

questionable assumptions. It might have been preferable for him to have developed
some of the ideas concerning time and the relationship of the two thinkers to

Avicenna when he was converting it into a monograph. Perhaps it was not possible,
which is a shame because the resulting work would have been a far greater contribu-
tion to comparative medieval studies.

Sajjad H. Rizvi

notes
1 Pourjavady (ed.), Majmüca-yi falsafi-yi Marägha (Tehran: Iran University Press, 2002).
2 Frank, Creation and the Cosmic System: Al-Ghazali & Avicenna (Heidelberg: Carl Winter
Verlag, 1992), and Al-Ghazäli and the Ashcarite School (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994).
3 Marmura, 'Ghazälian causes and intermediaries', Journal of the American Oriental Society
115 (1995), pp. 89-100, and 'Ghazali and Ashcarism revisited', Arabic Sciences and
Philosophy 12 (2002), pp. 91-110.
4 Griffel, Apostasie und Toleranz im Islam: die Entwicklung zu al-Gazalis Urteil gegen die
Philosophie und die Reaktionen der Philosophen (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2000).
5 Lane Craig, The Kalam Cosmological Argument (London: Macmillan, 1979).
6 For an excellent discussion of this, see Lloyd Gerson, 'Plotinus' Metaphysics: Creation or
Emanation?', Review of Metaphysics 46 (1993), pp. 559-74.

The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion: A Reader. Edited by

Russell T. McCutcheon. (Controversies in the Study of Religion.) Pp. 398. Cassell:
London & New York, 1999. £19.99.

Intended as a reader for undergraduate and graduate courses on the study of religions,
this volume is the first in the Controversies in the Study ofReligion series (other titles
deal with Feminism and Sacrifice). The series is intended to provide 'a series of in-
class anthologies that put into instructors' and students' hands influential essays dis-
cussing ongoing debates and controversies', to provide students with background
...

on 'complex and contested theoretical, definitional, and methodological issues that

have shaped the field over the past 100 years'. This volume, The Insider/Outsider
Problem in the Study ofReligion, addresses the problematic question of how to estab-
lish valid criteria by which to comment on religion, and deals with what is perhaps
the most fundamental issue under debate amongst academics involved in the study of
religions today that of the authority and ability of believers and non-believers to
-

comment upon, and define the terms on which others may comment upon, religion.
 Book Reviews 135

An extremely interesting anthology which presents a wide and balanced representa-

tion of the arguments on the insider/outsider question (albeit addressed solely in
terms of European and American academic attitudes to the study of religion, and the
problems of studying the beliefs of 'others'), the volume is divided into sections deal-
ing with, respectively; theoretical background, the question of personal religious
experience and its relationship to scholastic authority, the reductionist/non-reduction-
ist debate, the quest for scholastic neutrality and methodological agnosticism, reflex
-

ivity and the study of religion, and a conclusion in which McCutcheon presents
articles reflecting his own stance on the insider/outsider debate. Each chapter is intro-
duced by a brief essay summarising and highlighting the main themes and concerns
that follow, in which the various arguments and their flaws are set out. Although nom-
inally directed at the study of religions, a number of the articles included are discus-
sions of anthropological analytical methodology; a reflection both of the importance
of the insider/outsider debate in the study of anthropology and of the blurred dividing
line between the territory of anthropology and the study of religion.

Following a short introduction, in which the four main positions of thought on the
insider/outsider issue are set out (empathic, explanatory, agnostic and reflexive), the
first section, 'Theoretical Background', launches its discussion of the insider/outsider
problem with the article 'Body Ritual Among the Nacirema' by Horace Miner, an elo-
quent demonstration of the problems inherent in discussing other peoples' cultures
and religions. This is followed by three articles in which the insider/outsider dilem-
ma is introduced (by the linguist Kenneth Pike, the philosopher Alisdair Maclntyre,

and the anthropologist Clifford Geertz): can insiders and outsiders ever understand
each other's language and beliefs, i.e. speak the same language? Can sceptics and
believers ever possess the same concept of religion given that their judgements of it
are so different? Does an outsider have to achieve a state of perfect understanding

with others to understand their world-view or is the process more akin to appreciat-
ing poetry, i.e. reliant on repeated shifts between analysis of what is being said, and
the underlying meaning of what is being said?

Having introduced the theoretical basis of the debate, in the second section, 'The
Autonomy of Religious Experience', McCutcheon moves on to present discussions of
the importance of personal religious belief in the study of the religions of others. In
the Introduction, these are set against the background of the European legacy of the
Enlightenment which has led to the pre-eminence of scientific enquiry and the per-
ception of religion as the irrational product of human creation that, being a human
creation, can be studied scientifically. This stance has been counterbalanced by the
argument put forward, for example, by Friedrish Schleiermayer in On Religion:
Speeches to its Cultural Despisers (published in 1799) that religion is a 'highly per-
sonal feeling' and is valid on the same lines that other feelings, such as happiness, are
136 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

valid; a which effectively placed religious belief out of the reach of scientific
stance

study and implies that the only route to understanding is personal experience. The
discussion begins with writings by three authors who demonstrate the legacy of
Schleiermayer's beliefs, Joachim Wach, Rudolf Otto and Mircea Eliade, all of whom
argue that a common mystical experience between outsider and insider is necessary
for an understanding of other religions: Wach suggests that religious study should
only be undertaken by one group of religious insiders in conversation with another
group of religious insiders; Otto goes so far as to request of his readers that if they
have had no feelings of religious experience, they 'read no further' (p. 79). Their
views are then counter-pointed with articles by Rosalind Shaw and Raymond Firth.
Shaw argues (from a feminist standpoint) that any religion can only be understood in
the context of its historical and cultural background, rather than being reduced to sim-
ply a 'personal experience' of the divine, and questions the assumption that a com-
mon religiosity infers mutual understanding. Firth, who is interested in the political

and anthropological aspects of religion, rejects the concept of common personal

belief bestowing authority and raises the question of exactly where the border
between the practice and study of religion lies, if religion can only be commented on
by those who have personal religious belief.
Moving on to address the related issue of Reductionism versus non-Reductionism, the
discussion shifts to address ideas of Naturalism (originating from the late
fifteenth/early sixteenth century writings of Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes)
which is concerned with why humans are religious, as opposed to what religions
mean. The section begins with essays by Immanuel Kant and Robert Segal, setting

out the case for the scientific study of human behaviour as a moral imperative upon
the individual for the betterment of human society (Kant), and arguing in favour of
reductionism; the study of religion on historical, cultural, anthropological and/or eco-
nomic terms (Segal). It continues with contributions by Terry Godlove, Daniel Pals
and Anthony Edwards: Godlove argues that the outsider cannot possibly understand
the insider as they do not share a common world experience; Pals questions the per-
ception that reductionism and belief are incompatible and posits that it is, in fact, pos-
sible for an outsider to appreciate many insider beliefs (i.e. 'God is good') without
actually believing; and Edwards pleads that all parties respect one another's freedom
to study religion as they see fit on the basis that there are many roads to 'truth'.
McCutcheon notes that Segal's article (which is fiercely critical of Mircea Eliade's
methodology, describing it as hypocritical in its pretence at neutrality and objectivi-
ty, inconsistent and too tied to a supposedly authoritative insider view which is in
actuality defined by Eliade himself) and Daniel Pals' response (that Segal is guilty of
over-simplification, or rather over-reduction, and just as open to charges of subjectiv-
ity as Eliade) initiated a lengthy and significant debate between reductionist and
 Book Reviews 137

non-reductionist academics, and it is interesting to see their place in the overall insid-
er/ outsider debate given context in this anthology.

The fourth section, 'Neutrality and Methodological Agnosticism', discusses the the-
ory that it is possible for the outsider to apply objective, or neutral, analytical para-
digms to religion, allowing them to transcend the insider/outsider dichotomy. The
section begins with an example of the methodology in use in Ninian Smart's 'Within
and Without Religion', and continues with an article by Peter Donovon in which var-
ious concepts of neutrality are identified and classified. Peter Byrne then rejects both
reductionist and non-reductionist approaches on the basis that they assume a common
basis for all religions that he finds untenable, and argues for a cultural-symbolic
approach on the basis that religion is a 'masking institution' through which human
society deals with some of its darker aspects, and thus should not be taken at face
value, while Donald Wiebe and Martin Jafee discuss the difference between external
religious tradition and internal personal faith, from differing standpoints.
The final section presents articles on the subject of reflexivity in the study of religion
how what the outsider says about others is also defined by what they think about
-

themselves. In the first article, David Hufford introduces and defines the tenets of
reflexivity, following which the reader is presented with studies demonstrating reflex-
ive methodology (Michael Jackson), discussing interaction between researcher and
subject in the anthropological field (Margery Wolf), Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty's
'The Uses and Misuses of Other People's Myths', and McCarthy Brown's discussion
of her journey from anthropological outsider to participating insider in the Vodou cult
she studied. Finally, in the Conclusion, McCauliffe sets out his own position and pres-
ents three articles which illustrate his stance two studies (by Jonathan Z. Smith and
-

Mark W. Muesse) of American cults, both of which raise interesting questions, fin-
ishing with a succinct, pertinent article by Bruce Lincoln on the nature of scholarship.
Overall, this is a well-structured anthology that leads the reader through with a sense
of logical progression. The articles are carefully selected and the introductions at the
beginning of each chapter guide the reader well, giving food for thought rather than
leading by the hand. Although I occasionally felt that I was not reading quite the same
article as that described by McCutcheon in the introductions, this actually served to
highlight the degree to which understanding and interpretation is a subjective issue,
and it is interesting to see the dialogue between the various schools of thought, and
figures within those schools, gathered together in a single volume. As an anthology
intended as a teaching resource, the level of complexity is quite high and might
stretch an undergraduate audience; however this is by no means a criticism and,
because of the impartial presentation of so many divergent views in structured coun-
terpoint, there is also much here for the graduate reader.
Helen Blatherwick
138 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

Islam and Science. By Muzaffar Iqbal. (Ashgate Science and Religion Series.)
Pp. 372. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002. HB £47.50; PB £17.99.
The attractive book offers a fascinating account of the relationship between religion
and science in the classical periods of the Islamic tradition, furnishing an imperative
setting for an assessment of contemporary aspects of this relationship. The book oper-
ates on a simple but effective premise: namely, that 'the Islamic scientific tradition
had emerged from the same ethos which had given birth to all other branches of
knowledge', including the religious sciences. Therefore, from a classical perspective,
Islam and science were never conceived of as two separate and distinguishable enti-
ties, but rather as complementary elements of an entwined philosophy of learning. It
is argued that this spontaneous interaction between Islam and science served not only
as a catalyst for the progression and refinement of scientific thought, but also cru-

cially sustained science's intellectual vitality. Taking this thought a stage further, the
author contends that the attainment of scholastic vigour existed because scholars were
preoccupied with pursuing a synthesis of science and knowledge which was incon-
trovertibly reconciled with the metaphysical axioms of a revealed text; and this was
primarily rooted in its spiritual sphere. The implication of this enlightened view of the
function of the physical and natural sciences within the Islamic milieu predicates that
science was never a pursuit shackled to a superficial reading of the perceived scien-
tific allusions of Islamic scripture but one which was prefigured by the timeless and
enduring qualities of its discourse. It is against this background that the book charts
the Islamic contribution to the scientific tradition, crucially defining the nature of the
relationship between religion and science.
The first part of this book is taken up with a coherent overview of the beginnings of
scientific abstraction in the Islamic milieu. It is evident from what is presented that
there is no way of determining definitively the true nature and origins of the factors
which allowed the study of science to evolve with such sophistication and precision.
The period of Umayyad rule (661-750) logically serves as the primary reference
point during which the first translations of Greek treatises on medicine, astrology,
mathematics, geography and alchemy were translated into Arabic via Syriac. It is
Iqbal's view that that these translated works were enriched through commentary and
elucidation prior to being integrated into a developed institution of learning. Over
subsequent years, the Greek, Persian and Indian traditions' influence was profound:
however, the translations of classical treatises and tracts from these traditions of learn-
ing served to enhance and qualify existing paradigms of scholarship. Moreover, the
fact that scientific texts from antiquity were given cogent expression in the language
of Arabic predicates the existence of an inherent tradition of learning which provided
the environment for their evolution and refinement. It is intriguing to note that Iqbal
maps the progression of scientific thought against the concomitant genesis of the
 Book Reviews 139

Islamic tradition and the religious sciences of theology, jurisprudence, the codifica-
tion of the traditions, and the physical preservation of the Qur'an, including the lin-
guistic sciences. The suggestion is that the environment that allowed grammar,
philology and prosody to be given meticulous definition also allowed an intellectual
tradition to thrive. It is fascinating to observe the nexus between scientific theories
and the discourse of the rational theologians. Iqbal shows how MuTazilite theolo-
gians imported Greek philosophical concepts into the texture of their own arguments
while defining questions such as human agency, responsibility, and causality. Quoting
from Alnoor Dhanani's absorbing study entitled The Physical Theory of Kaläm
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994), he alludes to the nuances of the Islamic theory of atomism
to illustrate the sophisticated edge to both a religious resolution of this concept and
the scholastic rigour which allowed this to take place. It is apparent from the exam-
ples discussed that, from a relatively early period, the Islamic scientific tradition was
sufficiently advanced to develop its own brand of thought, while simultaneously
assimilating the rich legacy of the scholarship of antiquity. Iqbal states that this
advanced state of affairs explains the genius of figures such as Jäbir ibn Hayyän (d.
161/778), and their immense contributions to science.
The second chapter of this book seeks to contextualise the role that the Qur'an plays
in the scientific formulation and synthesis of natural phenomena. Iqbal makes the
important distinction that, while Islam's scriptural source emphasises the unicity and
omnipotence of God, drawing attention to the many portents that God has created, it
also obliges mankind to 'discover the modalities through which nature works'; the
physical world is therefore one sublime aspect of the Qur'anic cosmos. It is here that
Iqbal argues that the metaphysical imperative to grasping the physical modalities of
nature leads inexorably to the recognition of the absolute unity of nature's creator;
and this sums up the essence of the Qur'anic philosophy. Within such a framework
there was no conflict between religion and science. Moreover, as Iqbal argues, clas-
sical Muslim scholarship was determined to appraise, qualify and synthesise the the-
ories which formed the foundation of the natural sciences. The natural phenomena
which enthralled them were reflections of the Qur'anic cosmos. Iqbal demonstrates
that the classical Islamic scientific tradition was not about the simple citation of
Qur'anic verses to illustrate functional scientific abstraction, but rather it was about
seeking to discover the laws which governed the physical world, laws which they apo-
dictically accepted were the result of a divine design and scheme.
In his survey of the making of a tradition Iqbal explores the historical background to
the translation movement, identifying the significance of centres of learning such as
Gundishapur in Persia, a centre which was host to Persian, Greek, Roman, Syrian and
Indian scholars, and Harrän. The movement is perceived as spanning some three
hundred years and the Islamic engagement with the sources is seen as sustained and
140 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

productive. Iqbal notes that the Islamic scientific tradition 'came into existence
amidst a rich flow of diverse cultural, philosophical, and scientific currents', pointing
out that the philosophical and scientific ideas of Greek, Persian and Indian prove-
nance had reached the Islamic milieu through intricate processes of gradual diffusion

and filtering; the concepts and theories of this legacy arrived as 'a complex hybrid'.
The rest of the chapter not only touches upon the range of disciplines within the con-
tours and boundaries of the Islamic scientific tradition, but also assesses the reasons
for the misconceptions inherent in western perceptions of the nature of this tradition.
A number of excellent examples are provided in this chapter, illustrating the fact that,
once certain texts were translated, theyfrequently subjected to retranslation,
were

conceptualisation and commentary; and this continued over ensuing centuries, engen-
dering profounder levels of scholarship. Ptolemy's Almagest and Euclid's Elements
serve as apposite examples in this respect.

However, this book is essentially about the relationship between science and the
Islamic religion, and it is this nexus with the religious paradigm, together with its
implications, which forms the focus of Chapter Four. The critical question posed by
Iqbal is, 'What was Islamic in the Islamic scientific tradition?' Moreover, what dis-
tinguishes this tradition from its Greek, Persian and Indian counterparts? Iqbal argues
that it is incorrect to view scientific abstraction as foreign to the Islamic milieu. He
suggests that individuals such as Ignaz Goldziher misconstrued the exact nature of
this relationship, propounding the view that the religious tradition inspired a rather
obscurantist and confined approach to the pursuit of knowledge. This created the
impression that there was no practical link between the Islamic scientific tradition and
the religious tradition; Iqbal endeavours to refute this thesis, arguing passionately that
it was the religious tradition which created the appropriate environment which
enabled the sciences to flourish. Moreover, within this general framework of enquiry,
'reception, cultivation, and integration' were refined; it is shown that even the articu-
lation and definition of scientific concepts was facilitated by the impressive stock of
Qur'anic vocabulary. Indeed, there was never a sense of discord between religion and
science. However, Iqbal also deals with the precarious question of 'naturalisation', in
which the philosophical and cosmological doctrines accompanying scientific data and
theories were dealt with in the Islamic tradition, a process which spanned several cen-
turies and elicited much sedate reflection and thought. Notwithstanding the need to
reconcile received cosmological doctrines with the Qur'anic view of the cosmos, the
impact of 'naturalisation' was both dramatic and varied; it was to leave an indelible
imprint on the currency of medieval Islamic thought.
The perplexing question of the causes of the decline of the Islamic scientific tradition
is tackled in Chapter Five of this book; it is evident that identifying a date and
chronology for this decline is an elusive endeavour. As Iqbal states, the sheer scope,
 Book Reviews 141

magnitude and diversity of the classical Islamic scientific tradition coupled with the
fact that there remains a plethora of unexamined manuscripts, artefacts and archival
evidence, have meant that any final assessment regarding the chronological frame-
work of the decline of the Islamic scientific tradition remains tentative at best. The
quandary is demonstrated by reference to David King's World-Maps For Finding
the Direction and Distance to Mecca (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999) and the fact that the
discovery of sophisticated instruments can adversely affect the manner in which
the history of a scientific discipline such as cartography is defined. Iqbal does list an
array of social, political and religious factors which were determinants in the
waning of the Islamic scientific tradition; he robustly dismisses the view that this
decline was a corollary to the predominance of conservative and radical religious
forces.

Chapter Six focuses on charting the transmission and transformation of the Islamic
scientific tradition, providing the backdrop for aspects of the contemporary relation-
ship between the Islamic tradition and science. Reviewing the existing institutions of
learning in the West, the chapter provides a detailed overview of the manner in which
Islamic scientific and philosophical manuscripts were translated from Arabic into
Latin, defining the framework within which this was achieved. The remainder of this
chapter provides some context as to the manner in which this scientific legacy was
prudently transformed and 'appropriated'.
While the first six chapters of the book focus principally on the genesis, nature and
development of the classical Islamic scientific tradition and the dynamics of the rela-
tionship with religion, the remaining five chapters position the general tenor of the
narrative within the contemporary boundaries of this relationship. Iqbal marks the
eighteenth century as being a period which witnesses the collapse of the Islamic sci-
entific tradition; in contradistinction, European scientific and technological achieve-
ments were in the ascendant. The decline of the Muslim scientific tradition is
inextricably linked with the disintegration of the political and economic fortunes of
Muslim establishments of the period: Ottoman, Safavid and Timurid empires. The
successive phases of European colonisation meant that the cultural landscape of the
Islamic world and its institutions were adversely affected. The Islamic tradition was
now grappling with issues of survival, reform, and the challenges of modernity; it was

hardly in a position to foster the cultivation of scientific thought. Moreover, within

this changed and transformed setting, the classical formula which sustained the syn-
ergy between religion and science had been discarded. Iqbal maintains that one of the
consequences of this new 'construct' is the development of 'a colonised Islam and
science discourse' which invokes scripture in support of scientific findings, over-
looking the 'seamless linkage between the transcendental and the historical' as
accepted by the classical Islamic scientific tradition. This modern discourse could be
142 Journal of Qur'anic Studies

neither challenging nor indeed innovative. It had effectively separated Islam and
science; an act the classical tradition had not felt compelled to venture.

Iqbal's text is endowed with a rich and informative narrative; its synthesis of the con-
text of the classical Islamic scientific tradition is compelling. The fact that the book
is able to conceptualise lucidly the relationship between Islam and science, placing it
within the parameters of classical and modern discourse, is sufficient testimony to its
merit. Moreover, the breadth and depth of this survey is impressive, particularly in
terms of its coverage of the classical scientific tradition.

Mustafa Shah