GAMETOGENESIS

Introduction

Gametogenesis occurs in sexually reproducing organisms. It is the process of formation

of gametes. When it occurs in the female animal for the synthesis of ovum or egg, the
process is known as Oogenesis and when occurs in male to produce spermatozoa, the
process is called Spermatogenesis.
Key terms

 spermatocyte: a male gametocyte, from which a spermatozoon develops

 oocyte: a cell that develops into an egg or ovum; a female gametocyte
 polar body: one of the small cells that are by-products of the meiosis that forms an
egg
 Spermatogonia: are the male germ cells, or stem cells in the testes. They undergo
spermatogenesis to form sperm cells (spermatozoa).
 Oogonia: are the female germ cells that form during fetal development in the ovaries.
 mitosis: the division of a cell nucleus in which the genome is copied and separated
into two identical halves. It is normally followed by cell division
 meiosis: cell division of a diploid cell into four haploid cells, which develop to produce
gametes

SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells
in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. Begins at puberty.

In human being a pair of testes is located below the abdominal cavity inside the muscular
scrotum. Inside the testes there are numerous tubular structures, called seminiferous
tubule. The inner surface of these tubules are lined by germinal cells (spermatogonia),
which are the raw material for the formation of spermatozoa.
The process occur in two steps-
a) Formation of Spermatid
b) Spermeiogenesis
Formation of Spermatid

i) Multiplication phase (mitotic phase)- In this phase the germ cells present on the
basement layer of inner side of the seminiferous tubule undergo repeated mitotic division.
These newly formed cells are called spermatogonia or sperm mother cells. Two types of
spermatogonia are produced i.e Type A spermatogonia and Type B spermatogonia. Type
A spermatogonia maintain the germ cell pool through self-renewal while Type B
spermatogonia undergo further differentiation.

ii) Growth phase- The spermatogonia formed as a result of repeated mitotic division,
stops division and grows in size by accumulating nutrient and prepare for next phase.
These cells are now called primary spermatocytes. During the growth phase the entire
cell with the nucleus enlarges in size.

iii) Maturation or meiotic division phase- In this phase the diploid primary spermatocytes
undergo first reduction division(meiosis 1) and produce two haploid secondary
spermatocytes. Then the secondary spermatocytes with half the number of chromosome
undergo second maturation division and form four haploid cells. These are called
spermatids.

Spermeiogenesis

Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis. It involves the transformation of

round, non-motile spermatids into mature, streamlined, and mobile spermatozoa. The
process of spermiogenesis is characterized by several key morphological changes:
Formation of Acrosome

 The Golgi apparatus within the spermatid becomes active, producing vesicles that
fuse to form a cap-like structure known as the acrosome.
 The acrosome is located at the anterior end (head) of the developing sperm cell and
contains enzymes that play a crucial role in penetrating the egg during fertilization.
Nuclear Changes
 The nucleus of the spermatid undergoes condensation, leading to a reduction in size
and compaction of genetic material.
 The excess cytoplasm is shed, leaving a streamlined and condensed nucleus.
Formation of Flagellum (Tail)
 The centrioles located near the nucleus organize microtubules to form the axial
filament, which extends into a long tail.

 The tail is essential for providing motility to the sperm, enabling it to swim toward the
egg.
Mitochondrial Sheath Development
 Mitochondria accumulate around the axial filament, forming the midpiece of the sperm.
 The midpiece is crucial for providing the energy (in the form of ATP) required for the
sperm's movement.
Elimination of Excess Cytoplasm

 Excess cytoplasm is eliminated, streamlining the sperm and reducing its overall size
and weight.

 This process ensures that the mature sperm is highly specialized and focused on its
reproductive function.
Maturation and Release

 The mature spermatozoa detach from the Sertoli cells (nurse cells) in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes.
 The mature sperm move into the epididymis, a coiled tube connected to the testes,
for further maturation, storage, and acquiring the ability to swim.
Spermatozoa Storage:
 The mature spermatozoa are stored in the epididymis until they are released during
ejaculation.
 The epididymis also plays a role in concentrating and transporting the sperm.
How the sperm is adapted to perform its function:

 acrosomes contain enzymes to digest egg membrane

 nucleus contains genetic material

 mitochondria produce energy to move the tail back and forth

 the lashing movement of the tail enables the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid medium
towards the egg

 it is streamlined for faster/easier movement/swimming to meet the egg

OOGENESIS

Oogenesis is the process of formation of female gametes. It occurs in the outermost

layers of the ovary of female animals. Oogenesis process begins inside the fetus before
birth. Oogenesis starts with a germ cell called oogonium. The oogonium undergoes
mitosis to increase in number.
The steps in oogenesis up to the production of primary oocytes occur before birth. Primary
oocytes do not divide further until at puberty.
Stages of oogenesis

Oogenesis is divisible into following three phases:

1. Multiplication Phase:
The primary germinal cells of the ovary with diploid number of chromosomes (2n) divide
several times mitotically so as to form a large number of daughter cells known as oogonia.
This form groups of oogonia called follicles or eggnest. Addition of oogonia results in the
growth of the ovaries.

2. Growth Phase:
The oogonium does not divide but increases in size to form a primary oocyte. The growth
is associated with both nuclear and cytoplasmic growth. The nuclear growth is due to
accumulation of large amount of nuclear sap and is termed as germinal vesicle. The
cytoplasmic growth is associated with increase in number of mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi complex and accumulation of reserve food material called yolk or
vitellin.

3. Maturation phase:
The primary oocyte undergoes two successive divisions by meiosis. The first division is
meiosis-I . Two unequal daughter cells are produced. The large cell is called secondary
oocyte containing haploid (n) set of chromosomes . The smaller cell is called first polar
body or polocyte containing ‘n’ number of chromosomes and little or no cytoplasm.
The secondary oocyte and first polar body then undergo second maturation division by
meiosis-II. As a result of this division one large ovum is formed containing entire amount
of cytoplasm and ‘n’ number of chromosomes and a second polar body like the first polar
body.
Simultaneously, the first polar body may divide into two polar bodies or may not divide at
all. Thus only one functional ovum is formed and the two or three polar bodies soon
degenerate. In vertebrates the first polar body is formed after the primary oocyte is
released from ovary and has entered into the oviduct. The second polar body is formed
only when the sperm enters into ovum during fertilization.
 Ovum structure

How The Ovum Is Adapted to Its Function

 nucleus contains genetic material

 Vitelline membrane encloses plasma membrane which encloses yolky cytoplasm

 yolky cytoplasm provides nourishment

 jelly coat protects ovum against dehydration

 FERTILIZATION

 Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the nucleus of a female
gamete to form a zygote.

 This takes place in the upper part of the oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn
up by suction through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using
their tails.

 Very many sperms are released but only one is required to fertilise the ovum.

Stages of Fertilization

 Sperm preparation/conditioning
At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of changes, as freshly
ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize. The sperm must
undergo capacitation in the female's reproductive tract, which increases its motility and
hyperpolarizes its membrane, preparing it for the acrosome reaction.

 Capacitation
 Starts in uterus and continues in to fallopian tube. Follicular fluid enhances the
process.
 Fertilizin is glycoprotein, produced by cells of zona pellucida. It Makes sperm
sticky and to adhere to egg surface (Corona radiata)
 Glycoproteins are removed from plasma membrane over acrosome.
 Capacitated sperms show no morphological change, but more active.
 Completion of capacitation permits acrosome reaction to occur.
 Acrosome reaction and penetration

When the acrosome reaction occurs, a number of proteolytic enzymes are released.
These enzymes is responsible for digesting the hole through the zona pellucida through
which the sperm enters the perivitelline space.

1. Hyaluronidase : needed to assist in penetration of the corona radiata barrier;

2. Trypsin-like substances : needed for the digestion of the zona pellucida;

3. Acrosin:also needed to help the sperm to cross the zona pellucida.

4. Progesterone (present in follicular fluid) seems to stimulate the acrosome reaction

 Cortical reaction/Prevention of polyspermy

The fusion of sperm and oocyte membranes causes cortical reaction to occur. Cortical
granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell, causing
enzymes inside these granules to be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida. This
in turn causes the glycoproteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each other making
the whole matrix hard and impermeable to sperm. This prevents fertilization of an egg by
more than one sperm (polyspermy).

 Reactivation/completion of meiosis II
As a result of the sperm fusing with the egg plasmalemma, the oocyte nucleus, which is
at metaphase of the second meiotic division, completes that division giving rise to another
polar body.

 Fusion of the sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus

The head of the sperm containing the nucleus detaches from the entire sperm and is
known as male pronucleus. The tail and the second polar body degenerates.

Following completion of the second meiotic division, the nucleus of the ovum becomes
the female pronucleus.

The haploid male and female pronuclei move toward one another, meet, and fuse to form
the diploid nucleus of the zygote.

The zygote will now proceed to undergo cleavage.

 Activation of Ovum

This refers to a series of morphological, physiological and molecular changes that occur
in the egg in response to fusion of the sperm with the egg.

Events that characterize egg activation

1.Release of Ca++(calcium) stored in the egg endoplasmic reticulum -appears to be the

critical step in the process.

2.Cortical reaction-rupture of cortical granules that occurs concurrently with the Ca++
release. Contents of granules are released into perivitelline space and cause “hardening”
of the vitelline membrane or zona pellucida. Causes vitelline/fertilization membrane to
rise away from surface of egg in somespecies.

3. In many species,an influx of Na+(sodium) into the egg cytoplasm that causes a change
in membrane potential-fast block to polyspermy.
4.In many species a reorganization of the egg cytoplasm.

5.In most cases, completion of meiosis by the egg.

6. An efflux of H+ (hydrogen) ions causing an increase in cytoplasmic pH -this activates

previously inhibited synthetic pathways.

7. Increase in metabolism-zygote gears up for development.