Loading and Unloading by Pneumatic Arm Bot Using Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

CENTRAL ASIAN JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL
AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Volume: 04 Issue: 09 | Sep 2023 ISSN: 2660-5317
https://cajotas.centralasianstudies.org
Loading and Unloading by Pneumatic Arm Bot Using Programmable

Logic Controller (PLC)
Abubakar Siddiq M
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed College of Engineering,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
Hifzur Rahman A
Mohamed Faizudeen S
J. Rahila
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed College of
Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
P. Anand
Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed College of
Shagar Banu
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dhaanish Ahmed College of
Received 4th Jul 2023, Accepted 6th Aug 2023, Online 16th Sep 2023
Annotation: The primary goal of this paper is to address domestic automation by using PLC. In this
home, appliances are mechanically managed by PLC for power-saving purposes. This paper consists of
more sensors to enhance the load at any time. A PLC is an example of an actual time system when you
consider that output results must be produced in response to input situations within a bounded time. A
programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital computer used to automate electro-mechanical
techniques such as equipment on factory assembly traces, fan, and light systems. The automation by PLC
is simple and easy. An additional relay chord may be utilized in this paper to increase at any point as the
© 2023, CAJOTAS, Central Asian Studies, All Rights Reserved 59
Copyright (c) 2023 Author (s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY).To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
CENTRAL ASIAN JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
Volume: 04 Issue: 09 | Sep 2023, ISSN: 2660-5317
load keeps increasing with technology’s development. Our system also has two modes of operation, such
as auto and manual mode of operation. Under auto mode, semi-control and full control of appliances can
be done. These modes are included for safe and uninterrupted operation of appliances even under regular
maintenance and inbuilt system faults. Implementation of this system will aid in the reduction of usage of
power.
Key words: Loading and Unloading, Pneumatic Arm, Bot, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
1) A PLC, or programmable logic controller, is a type of computer designed specifically for
use in industrial settings. Functions including on/off control, timing, counting, sequencing, arithmetic,
and data handling are all stored and executed in its programmable memory [1]. PLCs, or programmable
logic controllers, are utilised in nearly every sector of the manufacturing sector to increase output and
efficiency [2]. A single PLC can be efficiently designed to perform the functions of hundreds or thousands
of electromechanical relays in older automated systems [3]. Over time, PLCs have expanded their ability
to go beyond conventional relay control. PLCs used to only be able to operate lights and fans, but now
they can do much more, including motion control, process control, distributed control systems, and
intricate networking. PLC offers numerous benefits over traditional relay controls, including improved
dependability, adaptability, cost, communication capabilities, response time, and troubleshooting
simplicity [3]. Industrial and commercial buildings can benefit greatly from having their electrical
systems automated. Manufacturing firms also make use of these methods, as do businesses that deal with
the control of household activities like home entertainment systems, plant and yard watering, pet feeding,
setting different atmosphere "scenes" for different events, and the employment of domestic robots.
Networked devices can be controlled from a computer and accessed from afar over the internet,
improving usability, resource efficiency, and security. The arm feed is widely used in businesses that rely
on inexpensive automation. It can be used to collect finished goods at workstations and deposit them in
bins along automated assembly lines. It can also be used to load raw materials onto conveyor belts by
picking them up [4]. Clamping is a further application for this device. Clamping and other operations
that need high speeds are performed in some sectors of mass manufacturing. These units can only be used
for tasks that need low to medium clamping forces.
Literature Review
Factories and industrial production often involve the handling of materials and devices to choose
and place objects from the lower level to the higher plane. Because there are so many mechanics in each
pneumatic arm, their price has skyrocketed. As a result of integrating data from kinematics, dynamics,
and structural analysis of the desired robot configuration, a pneumatic arm was designed with two
cylinders, a shaft, and a lead screw mechanism that can translate the motion of the hep piston into
rotational motions of the arm. By adjusting the pressure with the flow control valve, the highly dynamic
pneumatic arm model may be readily placed at intermediate positions. As cargo is transferred from lower
to higher levels in a port, it can be loaded and unloaded [5].

The primary goal of this project was to design, develop, and install a low-cost, high-control robot
arm that could compete with existing options. The robot arm will be incorporated into a mobile platform
that provides support to the industrial workforce, and it was developed with four degrees of freedom,
making it capable of accurately completing simple jobs like light material handling. Multiple
interconnected servo motors power the robot arm. An encoder built into the servo motors eliminates the
need for a controller. We utilised Labview, which does inverse kinematic calculations and sends the
appropriate angles serially to a microcontroller that drives servo motors that can be adjusted for position,
velocity, and acceleration, to give us control over the robot. The robot arm has been tested and validated,
and the results confirm that it functions as intended [6].
It details the development and implementation of real-time industrial automation software that
improves the dependability of a soft sensor-based automated production system. Initial specifications are
based on a case study application exhibiting the kind of steady state behaviour seen frequently in process
automation. Thus, the modelling concept aids in application development and is complemented with a
strategy for implementing, say, plc-based standard automation. The current system relies on illumination
control systems, which are centrally located computing equipment that facilitate communication between
various system inputs and outputs linked to lighting control. Systems for regulating lighting output deliver
adequate illumination when and where it is required [7].
B. Proposed Technology
Manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, robotic devices, or any activity that requires high-
reliability management and ease of programming and process fault diagnosis, can be managed with the
help of programmable logic controllers (PLCs), also known as programmable controllers [8-12]. The high
expense of reconfiguring relay-based industrial control systems inspired the development of
programmable logic controllers in the late 1960s. These structures could not be altered. It was required to
rewire or replace them entirely whenever production needs necessitated a new order of controls. When
adjustments had to be made frequently, the cost soared. The concept to switch out traditional relays for
programmable microcontrollers the introduction of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) changed the
face of the industrial control market forever [13-19].
In several fields, PLCs have been indispensable for decades. When it comes to subsystems like
radiation control, personal safety, fire, and smoke alarms, these are the primary control elements. These
individual components perform admirably and at little cost [20-24]. Without input from the Controls
Software Group, the skilled technician staff can easily control new equipment or alter operating
conditions to implement new control features. Ascendancy Lab's new PLC ascendancy software library is
based on the software development tools and some documentation of accessory support for Direct Net
PLCs. The programme has three main components: a PLC disciplinarian with an accessory apparatus
ascendancy block, an accessory a support module, and an approved consecutive driver, and it serves as a
Direct Net expert via any RS-232 anchorage. A separate printed ambit board provides access to the most
fundamental PLCs. They are sometimes referred to as separate lath PLCs or open architecture PLCs.

These are autonomous (apart from a power source) and can be implemented in a system by simply
mounting a controls chiffonier on threaded standoffs [25-32] (fig.1).
1)
2)
Figure 1: Programmable logic controller

 Memory: Data used by the CPU is static. The system read-only memory (ROM) stores the OS's
permanent data. The values of timers, counters, and other internal devices, as well as the states of input
and output devices, are all kept in RAM (fig.2).
Figure 2: Hardware blocks of a PLC
 I/O section – Sensors and switches, among other field devices, are recorded by input.
 O/P Section - The motors, pumps, lights, and solenoids are all under the command of the
system's output. The input/output ports were designed using a RISC processor (RISC).
 Power supply – Certain PLCs have an isolated power supply. But, most of the PLCs work at
220VAC or 24VDC.
 Programming device – This component transfers data from the storage medium to the processor's
RAM. The PLC's memory receives the programme after it has been fed into the programming device.
 System Buses – Buses are the paths through which the digital signal flows internally of the PLC.
The four system buses that are present in the hardware of the PLC are:

The CPU shares information with its peripherals via a data bus. Internally controlled actions are sent
via a control bus. To gain entry to the stored information, addresses are transmitted via address bus. The
system bus facilitates interaction between the I/O port and the I/O unit (fig.3).
3)
Figure 3: PLC used for the design
4) Functionality
Over time, PLCs have expanded their capabilities to encompass things like distributed control
systems and networking in addition to sequential relay control, motion control, process control, and so on.
Some cutting-edge PLCs are nearly as powerful as desktop computers in terms of data handling, storage,
processing power, and connectivity. When used with remote I/O hardware and PLC-like programming, a
general-purpose desktop computer can replace various PLCs [33-37]. Since desktop computers use less
reliable operating systems than PLCs, and since desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to
the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as processors used in
PLCs, desktop computer controllers have not been widely adopted in heavy industry. The controller may
not always respond to changes in input status with the consistency in timing expected from PLCs since
operating systems like Windows do not lend themselves to predictable logic execution. Desktop logic
applications are often used in places where the application is less demanding and important, such as in
small facilities or for laboratory automation [38-44].
5) Expanding PLC functionality with networking
While PLCs paved the way for visual communication on the factory floor, integrating them with
networking devices gave businesses even more insight and control by bringing together real-time
Ethernet, visualisation, and communication. Industrial automation is becoming increasingly dependent on
networks, which are expanding to provide new levels of monitoring and control in previously inaccessible
places. Integrating field buses with Ethernet has allowed device networks to expand their reach into
industrial control systems. Bringing control-level devices closer to the action by combining networking
capabilities with PLCs allows users to off-load main processor activities for distributed control in the
field. By integrating control with distributed I/O, manufacturers can reduce their OPEX by standardising
data acquisition, transmission, and connectivity across the whole plant [46-49].

6) Networking
Users need enough bandwidth for real-time industrial Ethernet in order to turn PLCs into a
networking tool. PLCs need to improve their support for numerous network technologies to keep up with
rising connectivity and communication demands [50]. There isn't a universal industrial network for high-
performance I/O solutions, but programmable logic controllers (PLCs) can bridge the gap between the
enterprise layer and the physical plant. PLCs are required to drive and support these extra functions
introduced by network protocols. Keeping up with routine maintenance is essential for guaranteeing the
smooth operation of these interconnected systems used in industrial automation. It's crucial to have a
stable connection. Keeping the network up and running is, thus, essential. This necessitates the
availability of sufficient bandwidth and high data transfer rates, as well as the protection of data during
maintenance operations and the ability to quickly recover in the event of a connection failure.
Redundancy is crucial for continuous performance and reliability, alongside speed and availability.
Prolonged unscheduled system outage has the potential to jeopardise plant output. However, redundancy
solutions can not only minimise implementation costs but also guarantee msec-level network recovery
[51-55].
7) Distributed control
The automated system can have decentralised and dispersed components thanks to distributed
control. This means that some aspects of the system are controlled by distinct controllers located in or
near the direct control region. Because of this, we can accommodate a wide range of application
specifications with a wide range of form factors. Spreading the I/O data across the application also allows
manufacturers to reduce the number of components required for automation and control, hence lowering
the overall cost of the system (either in-cabinet or on-machine). With distributed control, customers can
construct a modular design with the precise amount of inheritable I/O expansion to be added as needed,
allowing for rapid, cost-effective updates in preparation for future growth. With distributed intelligence,
the PLC doesn't have to handle as much of the work, and the system can grow to meet new functional
needs without replacing the PLC. This allows users to improve their systems by increasing their size and
functionality while maintaining a PLC standard [56-71].
Off-loading reduces network traffic by shifting some control tasks from the central processor (PLC
or PC-control) to the distributed I/O on the machine or in the cabinet. This is because the main processor
can use dispersed I/O to avoid polling the remote I/O for the current input and output states. The main
processor can focus on other duties while the distributed I/O system with control/programmable features
takes care of the rest. Manufacturing companies can reduce control costs across a wide range of sectors
and applications by enabling remote I/O setups. This allows for high levels of connectivity with a minimal
number of I/O points, even across large geographic areas. Having a controller at each location is
impractical and expensive for large operations that require comprehensive monitoring and management.
Having to run cables from each I/O point across great distances is a time-consuming and costly
installation operation. Data from distant parts of a plant or facility, for instance, can be gathered by means
of remote I/O devices. The PLC can receive data for use in management and upkeep reports, such as cycle

times, counts, durations, or occurrences. In addition, there is a higher possibility of mistakes during
hardwiring, such as miss-wiring, which can lead to lengthy downtime for repairs [72-84].
8) Advanced I/O capabilities
The capabilities of modern networking systems have progressed past the simple I/O of digital,
analogue, and analog-to-digital conversion. RFID, SSID for motion and serial inputs, data recording,
barcode, and 2D matrix identification systems are all examples of sophisticated I/O. Integrated PLCs
need to be able to handle the increased volumes of data generated by smarter, more complex I/O [85]. All
the high-end input and output features can be found here. Enhanced manufacturing process control is
typically sought after in factory settings, and this calls for more than just discrete I/O. PLCs typically
have high-bandwidth inputs and outputs due to the inclusion of features like analogue signal processing,
temperature monitoring, and radio frequency identification. To share data with PLC and other devices,
PROFINET, for instance, employs three distinct communication channels. Parameterization,
configuration, and acyclic read/write operations all make use of the regular TCP/IP channel. Standard
cyclic data transfer and alerts are carried out over the real-time (RT) channel. In order to speed up the
data transmission with PLC, RT communications avoid using the traditional TCP/IP interface.
Synchronous real-time is the third and fastest channel and is typically employed in motion control systems
[86-92].
9) Scan time
As long as the controlled system is operational, the PLC programme will continue to run.
Sometimes referred to as "I/O Image T," this region of memory is accessible by the CPU and stores a
copy of the state of the physical input points. The code executes from the first to the last instruction rung.
PLC processing time is lengthened by the need to check the state of all rungs before updating the I/O
image database. For tiny programmes or on a fast CPU, this scan time may only be a few milliseconds,
but for older PLCs running very large programmes, this time may be significantly longer (up to 100ms).
The PLC's response to changes in the process conditions would be ineffective if the scan time was too
long. Subroutines and other techniques for altering the PLC's execution ladder have evolved with its use.
By separating the sections of the programme responsible for setting up the machine from those needed to
function at faster speed, this streamlined programming could minimise scan time for high-speed
procedures. Where the PLC's scan time is too long for predictable performance, special-purpose I/O
modules may be employed. When the scan time is too long to properly count pulses or detect the feel of
rotation of an encoder, precision timing modules, also known as counter modules, are utilised. The
accumulated pulses are done by a specialised module that is not impacted by the speed with which the
programme executes, but the comparatively sluggish PLC may nevertheless interpret the counted values
to drive a machine [93-101].
10) System scale

The number of input and output ports on a compact PLC is typically predetermined. If the standard
version doesn't have enough inputs and outputs, you can usually upgrade. The chassis (rack) of a modular
PLC is where several modules can be installed to perform various tasks. Each application requires a
unique processor and set of input/output modules. Multiple racks can be managed by a single processor,
and that processor could have hundreds of I/Os and outputs [102-109]. To cut down on cabling expenses
for massive facilities, a unique high-speed serial I/O link or analogous communication mechanism is
employed to distribute racks away from the processor. It is possible to reduce wiring and maintenance
time by mounting I/O terminals directly on the machine and connecting sensors and valves using quick-
disconnect connections [110].
11) Programming Languages
Machine code is a sequence of binary digits that represents the programme instructions in PLC
systems. You can use a mnemonic-based assembly language and a tool called an assembler to turn that
language into machine code. It is possible to employ high-level languages like C and BASIC.
12) Ladder Logic:
It has matured into a programming language wherein a graphical description of a program's logic
is used, much like the circuit diagrams of relay logic hardware. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
are utilised in industrial control applications, and their corresponding software is developed using ladder
logic. The visual symbols used in ladder logic are reminiscent of those used in relay schematic circuit
layouts. In the ladder diagram, the two power rails are represented by vertical lines. Between these two
verticals are the horizontal lines that make up the circuit connections. One coil is located on the far right
end of each level in the language ladder. A rung input checker may have many output coils, depending on
the manufacturer (contacts) [112-116].
Multi-Function Meter
Producing energy is an expensive endeavour, and accurate monitoring of consumption necessitates

the use of specialised equipment like a multi-function metre. The rising cost of electricity paves the way

for the creation of advanced, multi-purpose metres for precise energy monitoring. Electricity consumption
is often measured in kilowatt hours by standard electricity metres, which can be either electro-mechanical
or computerised. Utility firms are interested in monitoring topics like supply voltage and electricity
consumption patterns to promote more responsible energy use. Utilities may learn a lot about their
customers' habits and the load demand at different times of day by tracking how much electricity they use
at different times of day. Electrical energy provided to consumer premises must meet certain minimum
quality requirements from the standpoint of both customers and utility companies. The Multi-Function
Meter can be used to measure a wide variety of electrical parameters [117-123].
Figure 4: A single-phase MFM
From the perspective of the end users, the electrical energy must be provided at a voltage within a
certain range around the rated value of the device's operation for the equipment to function properly
(fig.4). The meter's shape also allows for easy viewing from afar. The meter's seven-segment display,
rather than LCD, suggests that it could be used in smoke-filled environments. Seven-segment displays
offer two advantages: they are inexpensive and can help bring down the device's cost, and the larger digits
make them legible from a great distance. These gadgets are useful for measuring energy, and their design
allows them to do so. It utilises a CPU-independent metrology engine to calculate a wide variety of
parameters [124-129]. The ADCs read the voltage and current inputs and the C code derives many results.
The time and date used in the maximum demand estimates are regularly updated via RTC. Before using
the metre for the first time, it must undergo a calibration procedure to ensure accurate readings of its
characteristics. An FRAM is used to keep track of the current values. The seven-segment display then
shows the values as selected by the user [130].
C. Function
A current transformer is a type of transformer that, like any other transformer, consists of a primary
winding, a core, and a secondary winding. Simply put, a current transformer is one that is f'd'with"'c'nst"
current, whereas a voltage transformer (of the conventional sort) is one that is fe' 'ith"co'st' voltage. By
inducing a rotating magnetic field in the core, the alternating current in the primary generates an
alternating current in the secondary. When a CT is installed, it has minimal impact on the primary circuit.
The primary and secondary of a current transformer must be tightly coupled for accurate results. If the
main has one turn, then the secondary current is equal to the primary current divided by the number of
secondary turns. This is an AC ammeter, where I represents the current in the primary winding, "pri"
represents the magnetic field in that winding, and "fi" represents the number of turns in the secondary
[131-133]. As depicted on the right, current transformers typically have a silicon steel ring core wrapped
in several rounds of copper wire. The primary current-carrying conductor is routed around the ring (fig.5).

Figure 5: Current transformers of various shapes
To create a single-turn primary winding, circuit cables can be fed through the centre of an opening
in the core of a window-type current transformer. The aperture's centre is where the principal conductor
should be positioned for optimal precision. The primary-to-secondary current ratio is used to classify CTs.
Switchgear manufacturers and users have different preferences for form factor. Current transformers for
low voltage single-ratio metering typically have plastic-molded casings or are ring-type. Current
transformers with a split core either have a removable component of the core or a core that is split in two
[134]. This permits the transformer to be quietly installed around a conductor. Low-current measurement
equipment, often handheld, battery-operated, and portable, make extensive use of split-core current
transformers (see illustration lower left). The protective relays are supplied with currents that are
proportional to the currents in the power circuit, but are amplified by current transformers. The
instruments for measurement must be isolated from the high power sources. Therefore, current
transformers provide that equipment with currents of appropriate magnitude relative to the applied power
[135].
D. USES

In order to measure current and keep tabs on the electrical system, current transformers are widely
employed. Almost all structures with three-phase and single-phase services above 200 amperes use
revenue-grade CTs to power the electric utility's watt-hour metre in addition to voltage leads. Multiple
CTs are frequently installed as "s" and put to different purposes. By utilising distinct CTs, metering and
protection circuits can be kept separate, and current transformers with varying properties (accuracy,
performance) can be employed for each application. The norm for monitoring and security purposes.
Widespread use anywhere differential security is needed. Mounting current transformers on either the
low-voltage or high-voltage leads of a power transformer is possible. It is possible to replace a current
transformer by cutting out a part of the bus bar in some cases. The current transformer can be used for all
of these different purposes. There are, however, a plethora of alternative uses. A Power is converted in a
switched-mode power supply (SMPS) electronic circuit by rapidly cycling on and off switching devices,
which are supplemented by storage components like inductors and capacitors. Because of their high
efficiency, switching power supplies are used in a broad variety of electronic devices, including
computers and other delicate devices that need a reliable and efficient power source. Switch-mode or
switching-mode power supplies are other names for a switched-mode supply (fig.6)
Figure 6: SMPS
Different topologies, or circuit layouts, each have their own advantages, disadvantages, and modes
of operation that ultimately decide how the input power is transformed into the output. Transforms
provide isolation, voltage scaling, and various output voltages, and are utilised in the most common
topologies including fly back, push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge. In non-isolated setups, inductive
energy transfer handles power conversion in place of a transformer. In a switch-mode power supply
(SMPS), the output current flow is determined by several factors, including the power signal input, the
storage components and circuit topologies employed, and the pattern (such as pulse-width modulation
with an adjustable duty cycle) used to drive the switching elements. These switching waveforms have a
spectral density that is relatively peaky at higher frequencies. A tiny LC filter can be used to remove
switching transients and ripple from the output waveforms.
1) Input rectifier stage

If the SMPS accepts an alternating current (AC) input, the first stage is a DC-to-AC converter. The
process is known as "correction." If your SMPS accepts DC power instead of AC, you can skip this step.
Some power supplies (often computer ATX power supplies) have a switch that can be manually or
automatically toggled to convert the rectifier circuit into a voltage doubler. This allows for use with
standard 115 V or 230 V power outlets. A big filter capacitor receives the rectifier's unregulated DC
voltage. This rectifier circuit draws current from the wall outlet in brief bursts timed to coincide with the
AC voltage peaks. The power factor is decreased because of the extremely high frequency energy
contained in these pulses. Power factor correction (PFC) circuits are used by many modern SMPS to
transform the input current into a sinusoidal function of the AC input voltage. Active PFC power supplies
often have auto-ranging input voltage support (from 100 VAC to 250 VAC) and an input voltage selector
switch.
2) Inverter stage
In this paragraph, the helicopter indicated by the solid lines is of interest. The inverter stage takes
DC from the input or the rectifier stage and transforms it into alternating current (AC) using a power
oscillator with a small, few-wound output transformer operating at frequencies in the tens to hundreds of
kilohertz range. The frequency is typically inaudible to humans because it is higher than 20 kilohertz. The
switching is built as a MOSFET amplifier with multiple stages. High current can be handled by
MOSFETs despite their low on-resistance.
3) Voltage converter and output rectifier

The primary winding of a high-frequency transformer is driven by the inverted alternating current
when isolation of the output from the input is required, as is typically the case in mains power supplies.
This adjusts the secondary winding's voltage such that it produces the desired output level. This function
is performed by the output transformer shown in the block diagram. The transformer's alternating current
(AC) output can be rectified into direct current (DC) if necessary. For output voltages higher than about
ten volts, regular silicon diodes are typically utilised. Schottky diodes are frequently employed as the
rectifier elements at lower voltages due to their reduced voltage drop when conducting and faster recovery
times compared to silicon diodes (which allows low-loss operation at higher frequencies). MOSFETs,
which have even smaller conducting-state voltage drops than Schottky diodes, can be employed as
asynchronous rectifiers to achieve even lower output voltages.
After the output is rectified, it passes through a filter made of inductors and capacitors. Components
with lower capacitance and inductance are required for higher switching frequencies. Inductors are used
in place of transformers in simpler, non-isolated power supply. All three of the most common types of
power inverters—boost, buck, and buck-boost—fall under this category. They use just one inductor and a
single active switch, placing them in the simplest category of converters with a single input and a single
output. The input voltage is lowered by the buck converter in direct proportion to the duty cycle, which is
the ratio of conductive time to the whole switching duration. Input voltage of 10 V at 50% duty cycle will

result in an average output voltage of 5 V in a perfectly functioning buck converter. By shifting the duty
cycle in response to changes in the input voltage, a feedback control loop maintains a constant output
voltage. In contrast to the boost converter, whose output voltage is always higher than its input voltage,
the uck-boost converter's inverted output value might be higher, lower, or the same as its input voltage.
Almost all DC-to-DC converters can be broken down into these three categories, while there are
numerous variants and extensions available for this class of converters. Other SMPS designs replace the
inductors and transformers with a capacitor-diode voltage multiplier. These are typically put to use when
a high voltage at low current needs to be produced (Cockroft-Walton generator). A charge pump is the
name for the low-voltage variation.
4) Regulation
As can be seen in the aforementioned block diagram, a feedback circuit keeps an eye on the output
voltage and compares it to a set standard. The DC output may or may not be isolated from the controller
using an isolation mechanism (such an Opto-coupler), depending on design and safety considerations.
These optocouplers are used in the switching power supplies of electronic devices like computers,
televisions, and video recorders to precisely regulate the output voltage. A feedback circuit is not present
in an open-loop regulator. Instead, they take it as read that the output of the transformer or inductor will
be accurate so long as a consistent voltage is fed into it. Designs with regulation account for the
transformer's or coil's impedance. The magnetic hysteresis of the core can also be accounted for in
monopolar systems. Due to the power requirements of the feedback circuit prior to power generation, a
second, non-switching power source is included for standby.
5) Transformer design
A transformer is necessary for the galvanic separation of any switched-mode power supply that
draws its energy from an alternating current (AC) power line ("off-" converter). In some DC-to-DC
converters, isolation may not be as important, hence the converter may use a transformer. The SMPS
transformer operates at very high frequencies. The reduction in the size of the high-frequency transformer
from the 50/60 Hz transformers previously utilised is responsible for the majority of the money (and
room) saved by off-line power sources. There are further compromises inherent in the design. Multiplying
the transformer's core area, magnetic flux, and frequency yields the terminal voltage. The core area (and
hence the core mass) can be drastically lowered by switching to a much higher frequency. Domestic items
like personal computers sometimes feature switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) with universal
inputs, allowing them to accept power from main suppliers worldwide. However, a manual voltage range
switch may be necessary. In terms of power frequency and voltage, switch-mode power supplies are quite
flexible. Even DC-to-DC conversion makes use of switched-mode power supplies. A DC/DC switch-
mode supply may be used to provide 12V for accessories in automobiles whose heavy-duty engines
require a nominal 24 V DC cranking supply. Power may be provided at a low DC voltage (from a battery
backup system, for example) in industrial settings like telecommunications racks, with DC/DC switched-
mode converters at each piece of equipment to provide the necessary voltages. An electromagnet and a
series of contacts make up the simple electro-mechanical switch known as a relay. An electromagnet,

rather than a person, flips the switch from the off to the on position in an electrical switch. Relays can be
discovered tucked away in all kinds of unexpected places. Relays were utilised to implement Boolean
gates in the earliest computers. Turning on a relay requires only a little amount of electricity, but the
device it controls may require much more. For instance, your home's air conditioner may be controlled by
a relay. The air conditioner is likely powered by 220VAC at 30A. The relay's control coil may only
require a few watts of power in order to close the connections (fig.7).
Figure 7: A relay and its contacts
A relay is depicted above in schematic form. The uppermost connections are always open (i.e., not
connected). The switch is closed when electricity flows through the coil and a magnetic field is produced
(i.e., connects the top contacts). When the coil's power is cut, the switch often opens again due to a
spring's pull.
Relay Selection:
There are numerous configurations of relays (and switches, for that matter). The most typical
examples are displayed on the right. With just two contacts, Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) switches
are the simplest type. It takes three contacts to make a single pole double throw (SPDT). The common
contacts are labelled COM, the normally open contacts are NO, and the normally closed contacts are NC
(NC). When the coil is not being powered, the Normally Closed contact will be linked to the Common
contact. When the coil is not receiving power, the Normally Open contact will be "open," or unconnected.
Normally Open is linked to Common when the coil is powered on, but Normally Closed is left
unconnected. The only difference between the Single Pole and Double Pole variants is the addition of
two switches that operate as a pair. Relays function similarly to switches. Therefore, the same principle
holds true here. When a relay is used, one or more poles are flipped. Each pole features three throwable
contacts. Simply put, they are Make contact is another name for Normally Open Contact (NO). When the
relay is switched on, the circuit is completed. Inactive relay means circuit has broken. NC contact,
sometimes known as a break contact, is a normally closed contact. Contrary to the NO contact, this is the

case. When the relay is triggered, power is cut off. The switch completes the circuit when the relay is
turned off. Two circuits can be managed by a single contact of the change-over (CO) or double-throw
(DT) variety. They operate a NO contact and an NC contact sharing a terminal. Break before make
contacts and make before break contacts are the two main categories.
Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) is a type of relay having four terminals and a specific
nomenclature. These allow for the joining or splitting of two terminals. The coil can't function without the
other two terminals. The SPDT relay has five contacts and is a single-pole, double-throw design. The
terminals for the coil are the other two. In addition, there is a shared terminal that can be connected to the
other two. Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switches allow a single actuator to operate two independent
circuits. This relay is a DPST, or double pole single throw, and it has six connections. These ends are
separated even more into a pair. Therefore, they can function as two SPSTs that are activated by a single
coil. Coil terminals make up two of the six total. There are eight switches that can be used as relays. Two
of the rows are meant to be used as transfer points. They're a single-coil device that can perform the
functions of two SPDT relays. The relay's contacts must be able to manage the load's voltage and current,
so choose one accordingly. Keep in mind that the initial current draw of some loads (such motors) is
substantially higher than the steady-state current draw. Pick a relay with a manageable coil voltage and
current. To power the AC unit from a 12VDC source, for instance, you would need a 12V DC coil. The
AC and DC ratings of coils will be specified.
E. Types of Relays
A relay that can be turned on or off with a pulse voltage. This relay retains its set or reset condition
after an interruption in input voltage and stays that way until it gets the next inverting input. If the coil of
a latching relay is not supplied with current, the contacts will remain in either the normally open or
normally closed position indefinitely. The relay contacts remember their setting even if the power goes
out, and the power consumption of the switching coil is minimal. The hum that could be produced by a
continually (AC) energised coil is avoided when using a latching relay for remote control of a building's
lighting. Because of this, the latching relay remains energised even after the contacts have been opened.
Reed relays are essentially solenoids including reed switches. The contacts of the switch are made of
magnetic material that causes them to move under the influence of the field of the surrounding solenoid or
an external magnet; the contacts are protected from atmospheric corrosion by an evacuated or inert gas-
filled glass tube. Reed relays with mercury wetting the contacts are known as mercury-wetted relays.
Relays with mercury contacts are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less), low-current signals
where surface contamination may cause poor contact, and high-speed applications where contact bounce
is a problem.
When used as the switching element, mercury is what makes a relay a "mercury relay." They're put
to use in situations where regular relay contacts would erode too quickly. Environmental concerns about
the large amount of mercury used and newer alternatives have caused them to become less popular in
recent years. To boost its sensitivity, a polarised relay positions its armature between the magnet's poles.

In the middle of the 20th century, polarised relays were employed in telephone exchanges to correct
telegraphic distortion and identify weak pulses. The circuit breaker is a straightforward device, requiring
only alternating electricity and a biostable polarised relay for operation. By maintaining the relay contact
in either the ON or OFF position with a pulse input, coil power consumption can be regulated (zero power
consumption when there is no pulse drive). For sequential control of machine tools, transfer machines,
and other industrial machinery, a machine tool relay is the industry standard. They have many contacts
(possibly expandable in the field), can be switched from typically open to normally closed, have coils that
are simple to replace, and can be installed in a control panel with minimal wasted space.
Transmitter/receiver relays are commonly used in transceivers. High isolation is provided between
the terminals of the receiver and transmitter, and the relay contacts are made such that radio frequency
power is not reflected back toward the source. Timing relays are set up so that their contacts don't
activate immediately. A copper disc would be placed between the armature and the rotating blade
assembly to create a very brief (fraction of a second) delay. The release time is increased because the
disk's current maintains a magnetic field for a brief period of time. In contrast to electro-mechanical
relays, solid-state relays (SSRs) are non-moving electrical components that perform the same function.
Instead of a solenoid, a control signal activates a thyristor, TRIAC, or other solid-state switching device
in a solid-state relay, which then switches the controlled load. Control and controlled circuits can be
separated using an optocoupler, which consists of a light-emitting diode (LED) and a photo transistor.
All the functions of an electromagnetic relay's moving elements can be mimicked by a static relay's
electrical circuitry. A Buchholz relay is a safety device for detecting the buildup of gas in big
transformers filled with oil; it sounds an alert at slow buildup and turns off the transformer at rapid
buildup. Instead of using electricity to activate the connections, gas or oil flow pressure is used. Contracts
r'lay with coercion: The relay contacts in a system with "force-guided contacts re" are mechanically
coupled such that they all actuate in unison when the coil is electrified or de-energized. When using a
guiding mechanism (forced guiding), the normally closed and typically open contacts cannot be closed at
the same time. No other contacts in the relay will be able to move if one set of contacts is locked. The
relay's state can be verified by the safety circuit via force-guided connections. There are several other
names for force-guided connections. Some of these names include "positive-guided," "captive," "locked,"
"mechanically linked," and "safety re." Over current prevention is necessary for electric motors to
prevent damage from overloading, as well as from short circuits in connected cables or from internal
problems in the motor winding. Overload sensors are heat-operated relays in which a coil warms a
bimetallic strip or a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary connections. Connected in
series with the coil are these supplementary connections. The coil will be de-energized by the overload if
it detects too much load current.
F. Soledad Valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. An electric current controls the valve
through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve, the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-
port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.
Pressure Range - (10 to 15 bar) Type - Liver Type (Manual Operated)
1) Working of Solenoid Valve: The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensures easy
exhausting of the 5/2 valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slides inside the main bore according to the spool
position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working principle is as follows.
2) Position-1: When the spool is actuated towards the outer direction, the port connected to
‘B’ and ‘S’ remains closed while connected to ‘R.’
Poisition-2: When the spool is pushed in the inner direction, port ‘P’ and ‘A’ get connected and ‘B’
to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.
G. Hose Connector
Connecting one hose to another, a tap, or an item that uses hoses, like an irrigation sprinkler, is what
a hose coupling is designed to do. Common materials include steel, brass, stainless steel, aluminium, and
plastic.
H. Flow Control Valve
A flow control valve is a device used to manage the pressure or flow rate of a fluid. Typically, flow
metres or temperature gauges send signals to control valves, which then react accordingly. Actuators and
positioners are common components of control valves (fig.8).
Figure 8: working module

Conclusion
This initiative has provided us with a wonderful chance to put our limited skills and expertise to
good use. While working on this project, we learned a great deal about project management, procurement,
assembly, and machining. We see project work as a viable means to unlock the doors between academia

and business. We're pleased with how quickly we were able to finish the project. This PLC-controlled
"Loading and Unloading Pnumatic ARM Bot" is performing as expected. We appreciate the challenges in
preserving the specified tolerances and quality. We have utilised all resources to the best of our abilities.
In conclusion, we'd like to offer a few final thoughts on our project's impressions. As a result, we've
created a "Loading And Unloading Pnumatic ARM Bot Using PLC" to shed light on the best means of
implementing cost-effective automation. This system's user interface and operation are both
straightforward enough that anyone can use them effectively. More methods allow for adaptation and
improvement in line with specific uses.
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CENTRAL ASIAN JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL

AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Loading and Unloading by Pneumatic Arm Bot Using Programmable

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Figure 1: Programmable logic controller

and output devices, are all kept in RAM (fig.2).

Figure 2: Hardware blocks of a PLC

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11) Programming Languages

12) Ladder Logic:

Producing energy is an expensive endeavour, and accurate monitoring of consumption necessitates

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Figure 5: Current transformers of various shapes

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1) Input rectifier stage

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3) Voltage converter and output rectifier

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Figure 7: A relay and its contacts

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Pressure Range - (10 to 15 bar) Type - Liver Type (Manual Operated)

Figure 8: working module

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for Efficient Data Transmission in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs),” FMDB

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