Section – 11

Storm water Quantity and Quality

Control
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

11 STORMWATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTROL 2

11.1 Stormwater Quantity Control 2

11.1.1 General 2
11.1.2 Retention Facilities 2
11.1.3 Detention Facilities 3
11.1.4 Storage Location and Size 3
11.1.5 Estimating the Storage Volume 3
11.1.6 Stage Discharge Relationship 4
11.1.7 Estimating Peak Flow Reduction 4
11.1.8 Outlet Hydraulics 6

11.2 Storm water Quality Control 12

11.2.1 General 12
11.2.2 Overall Strategy 12
11.2.3 Planning 12
11.2.4 Erosion Hazard 12
11.2.5 Factors Causing Erosion and Compatible Design Principles 13
11.2.6 Erosion Prevention Design Details 13
11.2.7 Temporary Erosion and Sediment Control Practices 14
11.2.8 Urban Runoff Retention Practices 15

11.3 Worked Examples 19

11.3.1 Example 11-1 19
11.3.2 Example 11-2 19

11.4 References 20

FIGURES

Figure 11.1: Typical Detention and Retention Hydrographs (Source: TS 79-225) 2

Figure 11.2: Triangular Hydrograph Method (Source HEC22 1996) 4
Figure 11.3- Pipe Spillway for a Detention Basin (source: TS-79-225, 1979) 7
Figure 11.4: Emergency Spillway (Source: TS 79-225). 11
Figure 11.5: Extended Detention Dry Pond (Source: HEC 22 1996) 16
Figure 11.6: Wet Pond (Source: HEC 22 1996) 17
Figure 11.7: Infiltration Basin (Source: HEC 22 1996) 18

TABLES

Table 11.1: Emergency Spillway Design (Source TS-79-225, 1979) 9

Table 11.2: Permissible Flow Velocities (Source: UNHCS, 1991) 14
Table 11.3: Stage Discharge Tabulation 19

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SYMBOLS used in SECTION 11

ti = duration of basin inflow (hr)

Ao = area of orifice (m2)
d = basin depth (m)
Ts = basin detention time (hr)
K = coefficient
d c = critical depth (m)
C o = discharge coefficient
Qi = discharge per meter width of channel (m3/s)
t i = duration of basin inflow (s)
H p = effective head on the emergency spillway (m)
H o = effective head on the orifice measured from the centroid of the opening (m)
Qsp = flow over the spillway (m3/s)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Qi = inflow rate into the detention basin (m3/s)
Qi = peak inflow rate into the basin (m3 /s)
Qo = peak outflow rate out of the basin (m3 /s)
f c = soil infiltration rate (mm/hr)
Vs = storage volume estimate (m3)
Q = the orifice flow rate (m3 /s)
t p = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph (s)
b = width of the emergency spillway (m)
Vc = critical velocity (m/s)
Qo = peak flow rate (m3/s)
∆S = the change in storage (m3)
I = the inflow (m3/s)
O = the outflow (m3/s)
∆t = the routing time interval (s)
Cw = discharge coefficient
D = orifice diameter (m)
Dw = pipe diameter (m)

H o = effective head on the orifice (m)

Hw= headwater above the top edge of the pipe (m).
Kor= coefficient
Lw= length of the pipe edge (m)
Qw= flow rate over the weir (m3/s)
Sc= critical slope (%)
So= slope steeper than the critical (%)
Vo= velocity in the exit channel (m/s)

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11 STORMWATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTROL

11.1 Stormwater Quantity Control
11.1.1 General

The temporary storage or detention and retention of excess storm water runoff as a means of controlling the
quantity and quality of storm water is a fundamental principle in storm water management and a necessary
element of a growing number of highway storm drainage systems. Previous concepts that called for the rapid
removal of storm water runoff from developed areas, usually by channelization, are now being combined with
methods for storing storm water runoff to prevent overloading of existing downstream drainage systems and
to control their quality.

The storage of storm water can reduce the frequency and extent of downstream flooding, soil erosion,
sedimentation, and water pollution. Detention /retention facilities also have been used to reduce the costs of
large storm drainage systems by reducing the required size for downstream storm drain conveyance
systems.

Storm water quantity control facilities can be classified by function as either detention or retention facilities.
The primary function of detention is to store and gradually release or attenuate storm water runoff by way of
a control structure or other release mechanism. True retention facilities provide for storage of storm water
runoff, and release via evaporation and infiltration only. Retention facilities which provide for slow release of
storm water over an extended period of several days or more are referred to as extended detention facilities.
Typical detention and retention hydrographs are shown in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1 Typical Detention and Retention Hydrographs (Source: TS 79-225)

11.1.2 Retention Facilities

Retention facilities include extended detention facilities. In addition to storm water storage, retention may be
used for water supply, recreation, pollutant removal, aesthetics, and/or groundwater recharge. Retention
facilities are typically designed to provide the dual functions of storm water quantity and quality control.
Design criteria for retention facilities are the same as those for detention facilities except that it may not be
necessary to remove all runoff after each storm.

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Suspended solids, heavy metals, nutrients and organics constitute typical pollutants in a road runoff. For
drainage projects, the quality control measures include (HEC 22 1996):

• infiltration basins;
• extended detention ponds;
• wet ponds;
• wet lands;
• infiltration trenches;
• sand filters;
• erosion control practices;
• vegetative practices;
• water quality inlets; and
• porous pavements

Water quality control measures including retention facilities appropriate to Addis Ababa city conditions have
been discussed in Section 11.2.6 and 11.2.7.

11.1.3 Detention Facilities

Detention storage may be provided at one or more locations within the same catchment. These locations
may exist as impoundments, collection and conveyance facilities, and on-site facilities such as parking lots,
pavements, and basins. Detention ponds are the most common type of storage facility used for controlling
storm water runoff peak discharges. Detention facilities should be provided where they are shown to be
beneficial by hydrologic, hydraulic, health, and cost analysis.

11.1.4 Storage Location and Size

a) Storage Location
Storage can be classified by location as on-site, off-site, upstream, downstream, on-stream and off-stream.
Based on its function, a storage facility may be for a single or multipurpose use with a temporary or
permanent detention. Considerations for the site and size selection include the following:
• The size, shape, and depth of a detention facility must provide sufficient volume to satisfy the
projects' storage requirements. This is determined by routing the inflow hydrograph through the
facility.
• The site must be accessible both for construction and maintenance.
• The geology should be suitable for construction of weir and outlets.

b) Storage Size

Estimating the required volume of storage to accomplish the necessary peak reduction is an important task
since an accurate first estimate will reduce the number of trials involved in the routing procedure. The
following discussion presents methods for determining an initial estimate of storage required to provide a
specific reduction in peak discharge.

11.1.5 Estimating the Storage Volume

A preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow attenuation may be obtained from a
simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow and outflow hydrographs with standard triangular
shapes. This method should not be applied if the hydrographs can not be approximated by a triangular
shape. The procedure is illustrated by Figure 11.2. The required storage volume may be estimated from the
area above the outflow hydrograph and inside the inflow hydrograph as defined by Equation 11.1.

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Vs = 0.5t i (Qi − Qo ) (11.1)

where:
Vs = storage volume estimate, m3
Qi = peak inflow rate into the basin, m3 /s
Qo = peak outflow rate out of the basin, m3 /s
t i = duration of basin inflow, s
t p = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, s

The duration of basin inflow should be derived from the estimated inflow hydrograph.

11.1.6 Stage Discharge Relationship

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the discharge or outflow
from a storage facility. A typical storage facility will have a principal and an emergency outlet. The principal
outlet is usually designed with a capacity sufficient to convey the design flood without allowing flow to enter
the emergency spillway. The structure for the principal outlet will typically consist of a pipe culvert, weir,
orifice, or other appropriate hydraulic control device. Multiple outlet control devices are often used to provide
discharge controls for multiple frequency storms. Development of a composite stage-discharge curve
requires consideration of the discharge rating relationships for each component of the outlet structure.

Figure 11.2 Triangular Hydrograph Method (Source HEC22 1996)

11.1.7 Estimating Peak Flow Reduction

Peak flow reduction can be determined by reservoir routing. The routing is based on the storage equation:

∆S
I −O = (11.2)
∆t
where:
I = the inflow (m3/s);
O = the outflow (m3/s);
∆t = the routing time interval (s); and
∆S = the change in storage that occurs during the time interval ∆t (m3).

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While the inflow hydrograph is known, the objective of the reservoir routing is to compute the outflow
hydrograph. Using the subscripts 1 and 2 to indicate inflow, outflow and storage at two consecutive time
steps, Eq. 11.2 can be written is the following form:

1 1
( I 1 + I 2 )∆t + ( S1 − O1 ∆t ) = S 2 + 12 O2 ∆t (11.3)
2 2

In order to find the outflow hydrograph, it is only necessary to compute the outflow-storage relationship,
which is easily obtained for site data.

A solution for Eq. 11.3 can be obtained by deriving the storage-indication curve, which is the relationship
1
between O and ( S + O∆t ) . Given the storage discharge curve, O vs. S , the following four-step
2
procedure can be used to develop the storage-indication curve:

1. Select a value of O ;
2. Determine the corresponding value of S from the storage-discharge curve;
1
3. Use the values of S and O to compute ( S + O∆t ) ; and
2
1
4. Plot O vs. ( S + O∆t ) .
2

These four steps are repeated for a sufficient number of values of O to define the storage-indication curve.

The objective of the storage-indication method is to derive the outflow hydrograph. There are five data
requirement:

1. The storage-discharge relationship;

2. The storage-indication curve;
3. The inflow-hydrograph;
4. Initial values of the storage and outflow rate; and
5. The routing increment.

The following five-step procedure can be used to derive the outflow hydrograph, with the storage-time
relationship as a by-product:

1
Step 1: Determine the average inflow during the time interval, ( I 1 + I 2 )∆t .
2
1
Step 2: Determine ( S1 − O1 ∆t ) .
2
Step 3: Using Eq. 11.5 and the values from steps 1 and 2, compute
1
( S 2 + O2 ∆t ) .
2

Step 4: Using the value computed in step 3, as input, find O2 from the storage- indication curve.

Step 5: Use O2 with the storage-discharge relationship and obtain S 2 .

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These five steps are repeated for the next time increment until the outflow hygrograph has been completely
computed.

11.1.8 Outlet Hydraulics

Small detention or retention storages use three common type of outlets:
1. A pipe or conduit outlet through the impounding dam, used to drain the lowest level in the
impoundment area.
2. A vertical riser with or without perforations. Perforations are used when the storage does not include
permanent pool.
3. A spillway, usually a broad-crested weir, is designed to limit the elevation of impounded water. They
safely pass downstream the excess runoff from storms rarer than those the facility is normally
expected to handle satisfactorily. The design storms for spillway outlet is usually the 100-year event.
An alternative recurrence interval may be picked as circumstances of potential risk indicate.

The following description covers discharge formulae for frequently used outlets in detention basins.

a) Discharge Pipes

Pipes are often used as outlets for the detention facilities. These outlets can be for single or multistage
discharges. A single step discharge system consist of a single culvert entrance system not designed to carry
emergency flows. A multistage inlet involves the placement of a control structure at the inlet end of the pipe.
The inlet structure is designed in such a way that the design discharge passes through a weir or orifice in the
lower levels of the structure and the emergency flows pass over the top of the structure. The pipe is
designed to carry the full range of flows from a drainage area including the emergency flows.

For the design of a multistage structure, the designer would:

1. develop peak discharges passing through the facility;

2. select a pipe size to pass the peak flow within the allowable headwater and develop a performance
curve for the pipe; and
3. develop a stage-discharge curve for the inlet control structure for basin routing.

Details of the pipe spillway for a detention basin are presented in Figure 11.3. The flow over the top edge of
the riser is computed a flow over a sharp crested weir with the following equation:

Qw = CwLwHw1.5 (11.4)

Where,
Qw = flow rate over the weir (m3/s);
Cw = discharge coefficient;
Lw = length of the pipe edge (m) = pDw (Dw being the pipe diameter); and
Hw = Headwater above the top edge of the pipe (m).

Replacing Cw with Kw and Lw with Dw Equation 11.4 can be reduced to the following form (TS-79-225, 1979)

Qw = KwDwHw1.5 (11.5)

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Figure 11.3: Pipe Spillway for a Detention Basin

Source: TS-79-225, 1979

b) Orifices
For a single orifice, flow can be determined using
Equation 11-6

Q = C o Ao 2 gH o (11.6)
where:
Q = the orifice flow rate (m3 /s)
C o = discharge coefficient (0.40 - 0.60; HEC 22, 1996)
Ao = area of orifice (m2)
H o = effective head on the orifice measured from the centroid of the opening, m
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2

For orifice discharging as a free outfall, the effective head is measured from the centerline of the orifice to
the upstream water surface elevation. If the orifice is submerged, the effective head equals the head across
i.e. difference in elevation of the upstream and downstream water surfaces.

The discharge coefficient has a range from 0.4 to 0.6, depending upon shape of the orifice and the entrance
conditions. A discharge coefficient of 0.6 should be used for square-edged orifice with uniform entrance
conditions. In case of ragged edged orifices, a value of 0.4 should be used. For circular orifices, the following
equation results with Co set equal to 0.6:

Q = K or D 2 H o0.50 (11.7)

where:
Kor = 2.09
D = orifice diameter (m)

A pipe smaller than 0.3 m in diameter may be treated as a submerged orifice as long as H o D is greater
than 1.5. A pipe greater than 0.3 m in diameter should be analyzed as a discharge pipe taking into account
the headwater and the tail water effects. Flow through multiple orifices is the sum of the flow through
individual orifices.

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(c) Emergency Spillway

A broad-crested overflow weir cut through the top of the containing embankment with its horizontal top at an
elevation 0.3 to 0.6 meters above maximum design storage elevation is a suitable emergency spillway for
small detention facilities. A trapezoidal shape of the transverse cross-section cut allows for ease of
construction. Hydraulic computations can be made simple by considering wall of the cut a vertical without a
significant impact on results (TS-79-22, 1979). The equation for discharge is given by the following equation:

Qsp = C sp bH p0.5 (11.8)

where:
Qsp = flow over the spillway (m3/s);
b = width of the emergency spillway (m) ; and
H p = effective head on the emergency spillway (m).

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Hp Spillway bottom width, b, feet

ft. 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0.8 Q 14 18 21 24 28 32 35 - - - - -
Vc 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 - - - - -
Sc 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1
1.0 Q 22 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 70 75
Vc 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
Sc 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
1.2 Q 31 37 44 50 56 63 70 76 82 88 95 101
Vc 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.6
Sc 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6
1.4 Q 40 48 56 65 73 81 90 98 105 113 122 131
Vc 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Sc 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
1.6 Q 51 62 72 82 92 103 113 123 134 145 155 165
Vc 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4
Sc 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4
1.8 Q 64 76 89 102 115 127 140 152 164 176 188 200
Vc 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7
Sc 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3
2.0 Q 78 91 106 122 137 152 167 181 196 211 225 240
Vc 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Sc 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3

Table 11.1 Emergency Spillway Design

Source TS-79-225, 1979

One foot is 0.3048m; one cubic foot is 0.0283 m3

Note: For a given Hp, decreasing exit slope from Sc decreases spillway discharge, but increasing exit slope
from Sc does not increase discharge.

If a slope (So) steeper than Sc is used, velocity (Vo) in the exit channel will increase according to the
S o 0.3
following relationship Vo = Vc ( )
Sc
Table 11.1 presents discharge, critical velocity and critical slope for small spillways of detention basins (TS-
79-225, 1979). The information can be readily used for similar spillways by adjusting the units. The critical
slopes are based on an assumed n = 0.04 for turf cover of the spillway.

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For a paved spillway, the n should be assumed as 0.015. Critical velocity can be computed as follows.

0.33
Q2 
dc =  i  (11.9)
 g 
where:
d c = critical depth (m);
Qi = discharge per meter width of channel (m3/s).
Q
vc = i (11.10)
dc

From Equations 11.9 and 11.10

vc = g 3 Qi0.33 = KQi 0.33

1
(11.11)

with K equal to 2.140. In almost all cases, the hydraulic radius of a rectangular weir down the slope can be
replaced by the mean depth of the overflow down the slope or d c .

Then:

Kn 2
Sc = (11.12)
d c0.33

Use of Equation 11.10 yields

Kn 2Vc0.33
Sc = (11.13)
Qi0.33

It is important to note that K used in Eq. 11.13 is equal to 9.8375 for metric units. Figure 11.4 presents a
typical emergency spillway weir and

Table 11.1 a lists range of outflows from 0.4 to 6.8 m3/s with their related critical velocities and critical slopes
for grass-lined spillways.

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Figure 11.4: Emergency Spillway

Source: TS 79-225

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11.2 Storm water Quality Control

Being located in the most upper part of the Awash basin, drainage of Addis Ababa has significant impact on
the quality degradation of several downstream water bodies of ecological, social and economic significance.
The following discussion covers retention techniques as used in urban road drainage environment to
minimize the threat to the downstream water bodies.

11.2.1 General
There is an increasing awareness to control pollution of waterways resulting from urban road drainage. The
problems generally result from:

ƒ The damages to the road works such as damage to the pavement, culvert inlets and outlets
and undercutting of bridge foundations;
ƒ The use of modern machinery and earth moving techniques which have a high capacity to
impact the environment. It is now possible to construct roads in terrain previously considered
to be too rugged. This means that large areas need to be cleared and runoff patterns may
be altered, magnifying the erosion hazard.
Two distinct phases in the life of a road must be catered for; the construction phase and the in-service
phase. During both phases, the effects on the environment differ, and the measures used to alleviate the
problems are specialized in each case. During the construction phase, the objective is to minimize the
erosion and sedimentation that can occur when large areas of land are disturbed by clearing and earth
works. During the in-service phase, measures are to ensure that erosion of batters is minimized and that
scouring at the out let of culverts is controlled. Not only does this protection minimize erosion and
sedimentation, it also lowers maintenance costs and restoration work.

11.2.2 Overall Strategy

The strategy to control the effects of erosion and sedimentation include two activities:

ƒ control runoff and thus minimize erosion; and

ƒ separate sediment before it leaves the construction site.

The effectiveness of this strategy depends up on planning at the location and design stage, progressive
implementation during construction, regular maintenance and monitoring during both the construction in-
service phases.

11.2.3 Planning
The erosion potential of each route should be made during the planning and road location stage of a project.
This potential should be considered as one of many factors including engineering, social, economic and
environmental impacts which will influence the selection of the final road alignment. Generally, these other
factors have a greater weight in the selection, however, an adverse assignment of the erosion potential of an
area may require a change of alignment. This assignment should also identify problem areas warranting
particular attention during the design and construction stages.

11.2.4 Erosion Hazard

Areas with a high, very high, or extreme erosion hazard should be avoided whenever possible. Where works
are necessary in such areas, projects will have a high cost component resulting from the need for extensive
soil conservation works.

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11.2.5 Factors Causing Erosion and Compatible Design Principles

The extent of erosion depends on;

ƒ volume and velocity of runoff;

ƒ area and slope of exposed land; and
ƒ resistance of the soil to particle detachment and transportation.

a) Soil Erodibility

The erodibility of soil is its potential for the detachment and transportation of its constituent particles by wind
and water. A soil may be considered to be erodible if it has silt plus very fine sand content greater than 25
per cent and is moderately to very dispersible.

b) Design Measures

The following guide lines help minimize the effect of modifications to the existing drainage patterns, the
natural flow lines and sub-catchments:

ƒ avoid placing of culverts at locations already affected by scour;

ƒ locate cross drainage culverts to minimize alteration to existing drainage patterns;
ƒ locate cross drainage culverts in stream beds with the invert on natural surface;
ƒ realign the culvert at a more acute angle to the road to increase the length hence reduce grade;
ƒ introduce an element of roughness within culvert pipes, ie. substitute corrugated metal pipes for
smooth concrete pipes, which may reduce velocity be up to 40 %; and
ƒ provide an energy dissipater at culvert out lets to reduce flow energy and erosion potential.

c) Road Reserve Width

The road reserve provided must be sufficient to contain all the temporary and permanent drainage and
control structures. These will include catch and diversion drains, energy dissipaters, sedimentation basin and
there access tracks.

11.2.6 Erosion Prevention Design Details

a) General

The effectiveness of erosion prevention lies in the control of water flows in order to direct them to locations
where the effects of high water velocities will be negligible. Overland flows may be collected in catch drains,
preferably lined for protection. Flows which may cause problems in one location can be redirected using
diversion drains, and contour banks may be employed to ensure that water volumes do not reach velocities
sufficient to cause significant damage. Finally, energy dissipaters can be installed on channel or culvert
outlet in order to reduce flow velocities to acceptable limits.

b) Surface Drains

In addition to intercepting the flow of surface and seepage water and directing it to the inlets of cross
drainage culverts or diversion drains, the catch drains also reduce erosion on the face of cuttings by
restricting the amount of runoff. For this reason they are constructed on the high sides of cutting to intercept
the surface flow prior to it phasing over the top of the batter. Similarly, catch drains may be located at the
toes of embankments to intercept runoff and prevent undercutting of the batter.

Diversion drains should be provided adjacent to haul roads and access tracks when these are identified as
sites of potential erosion hazard due to their steepness, soil erodibility or concentration of runoff flows. These
flows should be diverted from the track or road to outlet where erosion does not occur. If outlet velocities are
reaching a critical level, the drains may have to be more closely spaced to reduce flow concentration.

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Table 11.2 presents details of the permissible velocity of water, in an unlined drain, for various soil types.

Table 11.2 Permissible Flow Velocities (Source: UNHCS, 1991)

Soil Type Maximum Velocity (m/sec)
Sand 0.4
Sandy loam 0.5
Silty loam 0.6
Stiff clay 1.2
Fine gravel 0.8
Course gravel 1.2

c) Contour Banks
The contour banks should be provided immediately after a site is cleared for maximum effectiveness. The
banks should have a grade of approximately 1 to 1.5 per cent and spaced at intervals of 20 to 100 meters
depending upon the erodibility of the exposed soil.

d) Slope Drains

Slope drains convey water from the tops of embankments down the batter slope to natural ground surface or
channel. In steep areas they may be used to convey runoff from the tops of cuttings down the batter to the
roadway table drain or pipe drainage system.

The inlet to the slope drain should ensure that all the runoff is collected and should not allow water to flow
down the slope adjacent to the channel. The bottom of the drain should have some type of energy
dissipating or erosion control device to prevent scouring at the base of the batter.

e) Channel Lining

Channel lining usually consist of concrete, stone pitching, a combination of the two or bricks. The decision on
the lining materials used principally relies on local custom and the local availability and cost of materials
(UNCHS, 1991). The side slope will generally range from vertical to one to one and should be designed as
retaining walls. The desirable minimum velocity is 0.75 to 1.0 m/sec for self cleansing conditions.

f) Vegetated Channels

Vegetated channel can normally be constructed at less cost where there are no restrictions on right-of-way
width and land slope is compatible. The invert of the channel should be lined for low flows designed with a
capacity of 3 - 5 per cent of the design flow.

11.2.7 Temporary Erosion and Sediment Control Practices

The purpose of erosion and sedimentation measures is to reduce erosive runoff velocity and to filter the
sediment created by the land disturbance. Temporary erosion and sedimentation measures controls are
applied during the construction process. They consist of structural and/or non structural (vegetative)
practices. The control measures are generally removed after final site stabilization.

A wide variety of temporary erosion and sedimentation measures control practices are available consisting of
both structural and non structural practices. This section provides a brief summary of erosion and sediment
control practices.

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(a) Mulching

Mulching refers to the application of plant residues or other suitable materials to disturbed surfaces to
prevent erosion and retard overland flow velocities. It also fosters plant growth by increasing available
moisture and providing insulation against extreme variation of temperature

(b) Temporary/Permanent Seeding

Temporary and permanent seeding are the two types of vegetative controls. Temporary seeding should be
provided in areas that will be dormant for 15 days or more. Permanent seeding is required on areas that will
be dormant for one year or more. Selection of vegetation types depends on the season, site conditions and
costs.

(c) Sediment Basins

A sediment basin is a constructed embankment of compacted soil across a drainage way which detains
sediment-laden runoff. The basin allows runoff to pond and sediment to settle out. Accumulated sediment
within the basin should be removed as necessary.

(d) Check Dams

Check dams are small temporary dams constructed across a drainage ditch to reduce erosive runoff
velocities of concentrated flows. Check dams are limited to use on small open channels draining 4 ha or
less.

(e) Silt Fence

A silt fence is the most widely used temporary sediment barrier. The fence consists of a filter fabric
supported by wooden posts or wire mesh. It is placed across or at the toe of a slope to intercept and detain
sediment and reduce flow velocities.

(f) Brush Barrier

A brush barrier is a temporary sediment barrier composed of spoil material from the clearing of a site.
Material such as, weeds, root mats, soil, rock and other cleared material are pushed together at the
perimeter of a site and at the toe of fills.

(g) Diversion Dike

The diversion dikes are constructed of compacted soil and are used to divert runoff to acceptable locations.
They are placed either at the top of a disturbed area to divert off site runoff, or at the bottom to deflect
sediment-laden runoff to a sediment trapping structure.

(h) Temporary Slope Drain

A slope drain is a flexible tubing or conduit used to convey concentrated runoff from the top to the bottom of
a disturbed area without causing erosion on or below the slope.

11.2.8 Urban Runoff Retention Practices

In this section, an overview of urban water quality practices is provided. Water quality practices are meant to
mitigate the adverse impacts of development activity. Best management practices can be employed for
stormwater control benefits and/or pollutant removal capabilities. Among a number of practices listed in
Section 11.1.2, the following mitigation measures are considered to be relevant to Addis Ababa city
conditions. General design guidance is also provided for each method.
ƒ extended detention ponds;
ƒ wet ponds; and
ƒ infiltration basins.

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a) Extended Detention Dry Ponds

Extended detention dry ponds are basins that temporarily store a portion of stormwater runoff following a
storm event. Water in such ponds is typically stored for up to 48 hours by means of a hydraulic control
structure to restrict outlet discharge. The water quality benefits of a detention dry pond increase by extending
the detention time. Figure 10.5 shows a typical extended detention facility and its components. Extended
detention dry ponds significantly reduce the outflow discharge and hence the frequency of occurrence of
erosive floods downstream, depending on the quantity of stormwater detained and the time over which it is
released. Extended detention are generally preferred in most new development situations.

Figure 11.5:-Extended Detention Dry Pond

Source: HEC 22 1996

Brief guidance related to the factors involved in the design of an extended dry pond are provided below.

1. Storage: The 2-yr. storm event can be used as a standard for water quantity control. The structure
should also safely pass the 100-yr storm (HEC 22 1996).
2. Detention Time: A more precise estimate of detention time can be made using reservoir routing
techniques. Desired detention time is achieved through proper design of the outflow hydraulic
device.

b) Wet Ponds
A wet pond, or retention pond, serves the dual purpose of attenuating the volume of stormwater runoff and
reducing its pollutants. Overflow from the pond is released by hydraulic outlet devices designed to discharge
flows at various elevations and peak flow rates. A typical wet pond and its components are shown in Figure
10.6. Wet ponds are effective water quality managing practices.

Guidance related to dimensions involved in the design of a wet pond are provided below.

1. Volume: Wet ponds are typically employed for drainage areas of 4 ha or more. To achieve the
desired water quality benefits, the permanent pool volume should be at least three times the water
quality volume. The water quality volume is typically determined by applying 13 mm of runoff over
the catchment area.
2. Depth: The permanent pool must be deep enough to satisfy volume requirements. If it is too shallow
(less than 1 m), the pool becomes overcrowded with vegetation. Typical average pond depths are
1.0 to 2.5 m (HEC 22 1996).

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Figure 11.6:- Wet Pond

Source: HEC 22 1996

c) Infiltration Basins

An infiltration basin is a basin that impounds stormwater flow and gradually soaks it through the basin floor
and wall. They are similar in appearance and construction to conventional dry ponds. However, the detained
runoff is soaked though permeable soils removing both fine and soluble pollutants. Infiltration basins can
also be to manage stormwater quantity by attenuating peak discharges from large design storms. They can
serve a drainage areas of up to 20 ha. Figure 10.7 is a schematic presentation of an infiltration basin and its
components. Basins are a feasible option where soils are permeable and the water table and the
impermeable bedrock is situated well below the soil surface.

The following are general design criteria for infiltration basins:

1. Basin Depth: Equation 11.14 can be used to determine the depth of the basin.

f c Ts
d= (11.14)
1000

where: d = basin depth (m)

f c = soil infiltration rate (mm/hr)
Ts = basin detention time (hr)

2. Degree of Infiltration: To achieve significant pollutant removal, the basin should be capable of
completely infiltrating the first flush, equal to the first 13 mm of runoff from the contributing
impervious area. When possible, even greater quantities of infiltration are preferable.
3. Maximum Draining Time: As a general rule, the depth of storage should be adjusted so that the
basin completely drains within 72 hours. Drainage time can be decreased by increasing the surface
area of the basin floor or by reducing the depth of storage or a combination thereof.
4. Storage: The 2-yr. storm event can be used as a standard for water quantity control. The structure
should also safely pass the 100-yr storm.
5. Detention Time: A more precise estimate of detention time can be made using reservoir routing
techniques.

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Figure 11.7:- Infiltration Basin

Source: HEC 22 1996

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11.3 Worked Examples

11.3.1 Example 11-1
Given: The post-developed (improved conditions) hydrograph and a limiting outflow rate from a proposed
detention facility of 0.55m3/s. This limiting outflow is a constraint imposed by the downstream receiving water
course and is the maximum outflow rate from the drainage area for unimproved conditions.

Find: The estimated required storage of a detention facility by using the triangular hydrograph method. Take
the duration of basin inflow ( t i ) as 1.43 hours and the inflow rate into the detention basin ( Qi ) as 0.88 m3/s

Solution: (1) - Triangular hydrograph method

The duration of basin inflow ( t i ) is 1.43 hours (5148 seconds) and the inflow rate into the detention basin
( t i ) is 0.88 m3/s. Due to a local ordinance, the peak flow rate out of the basin ( Qo ) is set to be = 0.55 m3/s.
Using Equation 11-1, the initial storage volume is computed as:

Vs = 0.5t i (Qi − Qo )

V s = (0.5)(5148)(0.88 - 0.55) = 849 m3

11.3.2 Example 11-2

Given: Given the circular orifice:

Orifice diameter = 0.15 m

Orifice invert = 10.0 m
Discharge coeff. = 0.60

Find: The stage - discharge rating between 10 m and 12.0 m.

Solution: Using Equation 11-7 with D = 0.15 m yields the following relationship between the effective head
on the orifice ( H o ) and the resulting discharge:
0.5
Q = 0.047 H o
H o = Depth − D
2
The solution of this equation in table form (Table 11.3) is as follows:

Table 11.3:- Stage Discharge Tabulation

DEPTH STAGE DISCHARGE

(m) (m) (m3/s)
0.00 10.0 0.000
0.20 10.2 0.011
0.40 10.4 0.024
0.60 10.6 0.032
0.80 10.8 0.038
1.00 11.0 0.043
0.20 11.2 0.048
1.40 11.4 0.053
1.60 11.6 0.057
1.80 11.8 0.061
2.00 12.0 0.064

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11.4 References
1. TS-79-225 (1979), Federal Highway Administration “Design of Urban Highway Drainage”,
US Department of Transportation.
2. HEC 22 (1996) - Federal Highway Administration, “Urban Drainage Design Manual”, US
Department of Transportation.
3. Roads and Traffic Authority – RTA NSW (1993), "Road Design Guide, Australia.
4. UNCHS (1991) "STORMWATER DRAINAGE AND LAND RECLAMATION FOR URBAN
DEVELOPMWNT" United Nations Center for Human Settlement (HABITAT), Nairobi, Kenya.

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