TEXT17

Lesson 17
CULTURAL INFLUENCE & GENDER ROLES
Although gender stereotypes are almost universal, and gender roles too are similar across the
globe, still there is evidence that cultural practices and norms have an influence on how different
societies form gender identities. Therefore one can expect to find gender roles and identities
totally different from those traditionally held. Some cultures are exceptional models of how a
culture allocates, and cultivates gender roles. This is an evidence of the fact that gender
differences are a cultural thing and has no solid biological origin.

Israeli zim
The Kibbututzim are collective settlements in Israel. These settlements are an example of a
society practicing social and gender equality in all respects.

There is no distinction of male and female tasks. Sex of a Kibbutzim member is almost
irrelevant in most situations. Both men and women perform all sorts of tasks. They have an equal
share and say in work as well as decision making. Tasks like cooking cleaning, child care and
maintenance of buildings are performed by both men and women.

Child rearing practices are used same for male and female children. Advocates of the socio-
cultural viewpoint use this case as a support evidence for their case. However the supporters of
the biological perspective quote the case of women in the Kibbutzim who did not like the idea of
staying away from their children for longer durations during the day; this gives a clue to the
existence of innate female or motherly instincts (Tiger, and Shepher, 1975).

Margaret Mead’s “Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies”

One of the classic investigations of gender and cultural influences was made by Margaret Mead,
which has been reported in her Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935, 1963).
She studied three primitive societies in New Guinea: Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli.
Her observations reveal how cultures form and shape gender roles; males and females become
what their cultures make them.

Arapesh
o From the conventional western viewpoint, the Arapesh were “feminine” in their
attitudes and behaviors that were extremely similar.
o Both men and women were gentle, sensitive to others and cooperative.
Mundugumor
o The members of the Mundugumor society were cannibals and head hunters.
o Men and women had similar roles like the Arapesh.
o However the Mundugumor were, as opposed to the Arapesh, typically selfish
and aggressive.
o If the Arapesh were “feminine” from one traditional perspective, then the
Mundugumors were “masculine” in approach, both men and women.

Tchambuli
o Gender differentiation was found in Tchambuli.
o Males and females had clearly defined gender roles.
o Men in Tchambuli performed the roles traditionally performed by females in
other societies.
o Tchambuli men were submissive, emotional, and nurturing towards children;
women on the other hand tended to be dominant, and rational (Macionis, 1995).
These three cases show how any person, man or woman can be taught to be masculine or
feminine.
Agents of Socialization and Gender-Roles

Family
Research shows that although parents may not treat male and female children much differently,
the nature of their interaction is different.
Even in infancy fathers may indulge into more “rough-housing” play with boys than with girls
(Mc Bride-Chang, and Jacklin, 1993). Children are encouraged to play with different types of
toys (Etaugh, and Liss, 1992). In case of grown up children, they are assigned household chores
depending upon their sex (Mc Hale et al., 1990).

School
The educational system, the school Curricula, the textbooks, and the teachers’ attitudes contribute
very significantly to gender-role socialization. Teachers reward and encourage sex-appropriate
behaviors (Fagot et al., 1985; Ruble, and Martin, 1998). Teachers have a tendency to pay more
attention to male students; they help them, praise them and also scold them more often than
females (Sadker, and Sadker, 1994). Similarly in textbooks men are usually portrayed as more
capable, able, heroic, professional, wiser and adventurous. Females are usually shown as
indulging into household chores or doing a second rate job, or assisting men.

Media
Media generally portrays women as attractive well mad-up, good looking, but not much
competent, wise, or professional. Men may not be as good looking as females, but are shown to
be more competent, self-reliant, courageous, independent, and professional.