A) Meaning and history of landscaping

Landscaping or landscape gardening is an aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with application
of garden forms, different styles, methods and materials with a view to improve the landscape

The fundamental concept of landscape design is problem solving through the use of horticultural
science, artful composition and spatial organization to create attractive and functional outdoor “rooms”
for different uses. The elements (visual qualities)—line, form, texture and colour principles (guidelines)
— rhythm, balance, proportion, unity, focal point, mass effect and level of design are used to create
spaces, connect them and make them visually pleasing to the eye.

The name "landscape architecture" was invented by a Scotsman in 1828. It uses the ancient skill of
garden designers (to compose landform with water, vegetation, structures and paving) and applies this
skill to the man-made landscape. As Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe wrote in The landscape of man (1975): 'It is only
in the present century that the collective landscape has emerged as a social necessity. We are promoting
a landscape art on a scale never conceived of in history'.

B) Preparing a bill of quantity

A Bill of Quantities (BoQ) lists the total materials required to complete the horticulturist's design for a
project, such as landscaping or other structure. The BoQ enables you to get quotes for the project that
are as accurate as possible. BoQs are typically prepared by a horticulturist who has expertise at
estimating the materials required for a project.

STEPS

1. Set up a spreadsheet for your bill of quantities. Include columns for the item numbers, description,
unit of measurement, quantity, rate for the item, labor, and total cost for the item. The columns for the
rate for each item and total costs will be filled in by contractors bidding on the project. You typically
won't have any values in those columns while you're drafting your BoQ.

2. Identify the unit of measurement for each of your materials. This may be a standard unit. For
example, if you've included fertilizers on your list of materials, the unit of measurement may be
kilograms or grams.

3. Once you've determined the materials you'll need, fill them in on your spreadsheet. In the column
for unit of measurement, you would write what the material is. Then you would include the number of
the materials you needed in the quantity column.

Tip: When determining how much you'll need of a material, add 15 to 20 percent for waste. This
accounts for materials that are damaged or defective.

4. Break down the project into specific sections or categories. Since different parts of your project will
likely be handled by different contractors or subcontractors, split up your list of materials into those
sections. That way, each contractor or subcontractor will know exactly what their costs will be for the
project.

5. Estimate the labor required to complete each part. Based on the amount of work to be done,
determine the number of man-hours it will take to finish. This should be a conservative estimate since
some workers are more efficient than others.

6. Draft a schedule based on the estimates in the BoQ. Once you have labor estimates, it's possible to
determine how long it will take to complete your project. Keep this schedule loose to account for things,
such as weather, that could cause delays.

C) Postplanting Operations in Landscaping

1. Watering: Regular watering is critical during establishment of newly planted trees and shrubs. Keep
the root system moist, but not too wet, for the first six to eight weeks after planting. The amount of
water and frequency of application depend on the soil type and the type of plant. Trees and shrubs may
require watering twice a week when there is no rain. Annuals and ground covers may need daily
watering during establishment. Let soil moisture be your guide for watering frequency.

2. Fertilization: There are many slow-release fertilizers on the market that feed plants from six to 12
months with one application. Slow-release fertilizers generally cost more than general-purpose
fertilizers, but they require fewer applications. Follow application guidelines on the bag or container.

Newly planted ground covers benefit from a complete, balanced fertilizer, like 8-8-8 or 10-10-10. An
application rate of 1 pound per 100 square feet is sufficient. When broadcasting fertilizers over the top
of the foliage, be sure the foliage is dry, and water soon after application. Broadcast the fertilizer along
the perimeter of the planting hole.

D) Monochromatic, Analogous, Complementary Color Scheme

i) Monochromatic scheme

A monochromatic colour scheme uses only one colour. In landscaping, this usually means one other
colour besides the green colour in the foliage. One colour can has many light and dark variations, which
can add interest. An example of a monochromatic scheme is a white garden with white flowers, white
variegated foliage and white garden ornaments.

II) Analogous scheme

Analogous (sometimes called harmonious) colour schemes have any three to five colours that are
adjacent on the colour wheel such as red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, yellow, blue or blue-violet
and violet. The colours are related to each other because they typically include two primary colours
mixed to form a secondary and two tertiary colours which means they share common properties.

III) Complementary scheme

Complementary colours are those that opposite each other on the colour wheel. They tend to have high
contrast between them. The most common sets are violet and yellow, red and green, blue and orange.
Complementary colours are often found naturally in flowers and a common pair is yellow and violet.

E) Landscape Preparation

I) SITE PREPARATION

The normal progression of a landscape project is to begin with a design, install the landscape, and then
maintain the landscape. The designer may be present during the construction of a project. However,
many times the landscape crews or landscape contractors must rely on the landscape plans alone. It is,
therefore, critical that landscape contractors be able to read and interpret landscape plans.

II) READING THE LANDSCAPE PLAN

A landscape plan is a design for the property to be landscaped. The plan is produced by a landscape
architect or designer to show the various design features of the site. A landscape plan is like a map. It
shows where individual plants are to be placed and indicates the locations of paths, patios, water
features, and other structures.

Landscape Symbols

Landscape plans are prepared with design symbols. Landscape symbols are artistic representations of
plant materials, hardscape materials, utilities, and other landscape features. The reader must recognize
and understand landscape symbols.

Scale

Knowing how to use an architect’s scale as well as an engineer’s scale is important when reading and
interpreting a landscape plan. In the field, landscapers must be able to translate those measurements to
the life-size landscape.

III) TOPOGRAPHY

Landscaping usually involves working with or adjusting the topography. Topography is an area’s terrain
or the rise and fall of the land. Most new landscapes require some sculpting of the terrain.

Slope

Slope is the measure of the steepness, or incline, of the land. Slope has a major impact on the drainage
of water. Water drains rapidly on steep slopes and slowly on gentle slopes. Slope applies to lawn areas,
patios, decks, retaining wall foundations, and drainage systems. The land around a house should have a
minimum 2 percent slope away from the structure.

Slope is calculated by dividing the vertical distance by the horizontal distance. For example, if a property
drops 4 vertical feet over a horizontal distance of 100 feet, the slope is 4 percent. Surveying equipment
is often used in landscape construction to determine slopes accurately.
Utilities

Before any changes to the land can be made, utilities on the site must be located. Utilities include water,
electric, sewer, and phone lines. Utility companies should be contacted before any digging takes place
so they can mark the locations of buried lines.4

IV) GRADING

The moving of soil and the shaping of the land is called grading. In the process, soil may be added or
removed. Soil added to an area is referred to as fill. Soil removed from a site is known as cut. A common
practice is to remove and stockpile the topsoil. The exposed subsoil is then reshaped with heavy
equipment to create the rough grade. The rough grade is the approximate grade, or slope, ofthe terrain.
It closely parallels the final grade but is usually 4 to 6 inches below the final grade.

Establishing drainage patterns is a major objective of the rough grade. A swale is sometimes installed to
manage water runoff. A swale is a low area that acts as an open drain. Some plans call for the creation of
berms. A berm is a mound of soil. Berms can add interest to a landscape, but care must be taken to
design them so they appear natural rather than human made. Some sites don’t require a major moving
of soil. This is common in landscape renovation projects. In these cases, killing existing grass and
perennial weeds with glyphosate two weeks before working the soil is advisable. This practice reduces
weed problems after the landscape installation. The final grade is established after stockpiled topsoil is
spread over the rough grade. Large soil clumps, roots, rocks, and other debris are removed. The soil is
smoothed and prepared for planting with the use of aluminum landscape rakes. Existing features of the
landscape need to be protected so that they will survive the construction process. This is especially
important if mechanized tools are to be used, such as bulldozers or dump trucks.

Soil Compaction

Soil compaction should be a concern for landscape contractors. Soil compaction is the damage to soil
structure caused by heavy equipment, such as bulldozers, backhoes, and dump4trucks. It prevents the
infiltration and percolation of water in the soil and the exchange of gases. Compacted soils adversely
affect plant growth. Soil compaction is a major cause of death to mature trees. To minimize potential
damage, routes for heavy machinery should be kept away from mature trees. Portable fencing can be
placed around the drip line of a tree or other planting for protection. The drip line of a tree is
established by noting where the outermost leaves of the canopy reach and then projecting an imaginary
line to the ground. Much of a tree’s root system falls within this area. Trenching, cultivating, or digging
within the root zone of a mature plant can severely damage the plant’s root system. Always take
precautions to protect existing plants and their root systems.

V) EXISTING FEATURES

When planning a landscape, existing features frequently need to be removed, whether they are living or
nonliving. Proper tree removal can be accomplished through several methods depending on the size of
the specimen. A small tree or shrub can be dug. A larger tree can be cut down or moved with a hydraulic
tree spade. Removing hardscape materials can be challenging as well as time consuming. Removal of
softer5materials, such as gravel, ties, and flagstone, can be accomplished through manual labor with the
use of spades and wheelbarrows. Removal of concrete or other more permanent materials may require
the use of specialized demolition equipment.

VI) SOIL CONDITIONS

The soil on the landscape site should be analyzed to evaluate its type and quality. Good plant growth
cannot be established or maintained if the soil is of poor quality. Poor soil can be improved with soil
amendments. Soil amendments are materials added to the soil to improve drainage, moisture-holding
ability, and aeration. Some common soil amendments are peat moss, humus, compost, and sand.
Fertilizers are often applied before planting grass, groundcovers, and flowers.

VII) LOCATING ELEMENTS OF THE LANDSCAPE

The final step is to transfer the measurements of the plan to the landscape. The construction supervisor
reads the plan and measures the locations of elements on the plan with a scale. He or she then uses a
measuring tape to plot the exact locations of plants and hardscape materials on the site. A common
practice is for the supervisor to use marking paint to designate the locations of certain materials. Some
companies use stakes to identify locations. The crew members use the markings and/or stakes as a
guide for installation.5