Kinetic Theory of Matter
Volume
Diatomic Molecules
★ hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, uorine, and
chlorine
Noble Gases
★helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
argon
General properties of Gases
★Most gases exist as molecules usually
diatomic. Examples of these gases are
oxygen , (O2 ), iodine ( I2 ) Chlorine ( Cl2)
and hydrogen ( H2)
★ Noble gases such as neon (Ne),argon
(Ar) and helium (He) exist as individual
atoms. They are called monatomic gases.
★Gases have no de nite shape and volume.
★Gases are easily compressed when
pressure is applied.
★Gases expand when heated and contract
when cooled. u
★Gases exert pressure.
★The densities of gases are relatively small
compared to the densities of solid and
liquids.
★The force of intermolecular attraction
between gas particles is negligible.
★Gases mix evenly and completely when
contained in the same vessel.
Pressure
★Pressure is the force applied perpendicular
to the surface of an object per unit area
over which that force is distributed.
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★ The amount of space occupied by a
substance
★ Is a measure of the amount of space that
a substance or an object takes up
★SI unit - cubic meter ( m3) ( cm3 , mL , L , )
★Amount of gas or number of Moles
mole is a measure for the amount of
substance present in the given sample
★SI unit is mole
★ number of moles= mass of the gas
Using symbols n= mass
molar mass
Density
★ The density of gases are very small
compared with those solid and liquids.
★ Computed by dividing the mass of the
gas by its volume.
D= m/v
Units ;
g/L , g/ cc
Temperature
★ A measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles in an object
★Most common temperature scales
are Fahrenheit ( 0F), Celsius ( 0C), and
Kelvin ( K)
 temperature is inversely proportional to its
pressure.
✦Pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume or PV=k where P is the pressure of
the gas, V is the volume of the gas,
and k is a constant.
✦The relationship for Boyle’s Law can be
expressed as follows: P1V1 = P2V2, where
P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and
volume values, and P2 and V2 are the
values of the pressure and volume of the
gas after change.

✦ Boyle’s law refers to a relation concerning

the compression and expansion of a gas at
constant temperature.
✦ Boyle’s Law holds true only if the number
of molecules (n) and the temperature (T)
are both constant.
✦ Boyle’s Law is used to predict the result of
introducing a change in volume and
pressure only, and only to the initial state of
a xed quantity of gas.
Example:
Boyles Law 1. An ideal gas occupying a 2.0 L ask at
✦Robert Boyle was an Anglo-Irish chemist 760 torr is allowed to expand to a volume
who was able to investigate the of 6,000 mL. Calculate the nal pressure
relationship between pressure and volume in atm.
at constant temperature.
✦When gas is under pressure it takes up
less space
✦The higher the pressure the smaller the
volume
✦Boyle’s Law tells us the relationship
between the volume of a gas and its
pressure at constant temperature
✦Boyle’s Law, states that the volume of a
given mass of gas held at constant
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 2. A sample of gas has an initial pressure of
44 atm and an initial volume of 4.01 L. Its
pressure changes to 1.93 atm. What is the
new volume if temperature and amount are
kept constant?

Charles’ Law
★French physicist, performed an experiment
using a balloon, hot water, and cold water
★He found out that various gases expanded
by the same amount when heated through
the same temperature interval.
★He proposed the Charles’ Law which
states that the Kelvin temperature and the
volume of a gas are directly related when
there is no change in pressure.
★States that the volume of a xed mass of
gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin
temperature if the pressure is kept
constant.
Example:
1. A balloon in ated in a room at 24oC has a
volume of 4.00 L. The balloon is then
heated to a temperature of 58oC. What is
the new volume if the pressure remains
constant?

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 Biomolecules
★ Any molecules that produced by a living
organisms, including large macromolecules
such as proteins , carbohydrates , nucleic
acids or lipids
1. Carbohydrates
★ ■Carbohydrates are the major source of
energy in our body
★These are simple sugar, starch sugar and
cellulose.
★All carbohydrates contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
Classifications of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides
★ “mono” means one and saccharides also
known as carbohydrates.
★They often called simple sugar that
cannot be hydrolyzed to simple sugar.
★ Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most
important of the monosaccharides . It is
found in the free state in the plant and
animal tissue. It is the major carbohydrates
of the body and it is carried by the
bloodstream to all parts of the body. It is
sometimes known as blood sugar
because it is most abundant carbohydrates
in the blood found in urine of those who
have diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes).
★ Examples:
• Honey, dried fruits such as apples, dates
and sultanas.
• Canned fruits such as pineapple,
strawberry and plum, fresh fruits including
grapes, apples, pear, kiwi & banana
• The most important monosaccharides in
fruits and vegetables are the hexoses,
glucose and fructose
2. Disaccharides
★ Are carbohydrates that yield two
monosaccharide molecules upon
hydrolysis
★The three disaccharides that are
separately important from the biological
point of view are sucrose ( table sugar),
lactose (milk sugar), and maltose ( malt
sugar)
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★ Examples:
• Sugar cane and sugar beet, table sugar,
• Manufactured foods, such as cakes,
cookies, and dark chocolate, sweet root
vegetables such as beetroot and carrots
★ Three Disaccharides
• Sucrose (C12H12O11), glucose + fructose
-commonly known as table sugar in the
free state throughout the plant kingdom.
Good sources of sucrose are sugar cane,
sugar beets, maple syrup and sorghum.
• Lactose (C12H12O11), glucose +
galactose-or milk sugar is found in nature
mainly in the milk of mammals. Human milk
contains about 6.7% lactose and cow’s
milk contains about 4.5% of the same.
• Maltose, glucose + glucose-is found
much less commonly in nature than either
sucrose or lactose. It is found in sprouting
grains.
3. Polysaccharides
★ Are also called complex carbohydrates
and can be hydrolyzed into many
monosaccharide units’, examples,
vegetables, fruit, nuts, cereal bran.
★ Most Important Polysaccharides
‣ Starch
• A polymer of glucose.
• It is found mainly in the seeds, roots and
tubes of plants.
• The chief sources of starch are corn,
potatoes, rice, and cassava whose uses
are for foods
‣ Cellulose
‣ like starch, is also a polymer of glucose
• It di ers from starch in a way the cyclic
glucose unit are linked together to form
chains.
• It is the chief structural components of
plants and woods.
‣Glycogen
• The reserve carbohydrates of the animal
kingdom and it is often called animal
starch.
• It is formed in the body by polymerization
of glucose and stored, especially, in the
liver and muscle tissue.
 ★Possibility of utilization by living
organisms.
Importance of Carbohydrates
★Carbohydrates are the main energy source
for human bodies. Our bodies either use
the energy from carbohydrates
immediately or store the energy for later
use
★Carbohydrates help fuel your brain,
kidneys, heart muscles, and central
nervous system. For instance, ber is a
carbohydrate that aids in digestion, helps
you feel full, and keeps blood cholesterol
levels in check.
★Counting carbohydrates (carbs)is a key
strategy for meeting blood glucose levels.

Lipids
★ Derived from a Greek word “lipos” which
means fat
★ Lipids are diverse organic compound,
found to be water insoluble (hydrophobic),
but they are found to be soluble in fat
solvent
★ Have the “job” of storing energy for later
use.
★ Lipids are not generally classed as
macromolecules, even though they share
some features of macromolecules ■Lipids
are molecules that consist of hydrocarbons
and bring up the building blocks of the
composition and function of living cells.
★Examples of lipids involve fats, oils,
waxes, certain vitamins (such as A, D, E
and K), hormones and nearly all the cell
membrane that is not made up of protein.
★A common lipid is made of 3 fatty acids
chains connected to a glycerol a type of
alcohol. The backbone of fats.
Characteristics of Lipids as
compound
★They are insoluble in water.
★Solubility in one or more organic solvents,
such as ether, chloroform, Benzene,
Acetone which are generally called as fat
"solvents".
★Some relationship to the fatty acids as
esters either actual or potential.
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Two types of fatty acids
1. Saturated fats
★Acids are solid at room temperature. They
are mostly found in animals. Lard,
margarine, and butter are examples of
saturated fatty acids
2. Unsaturated fatty
★ acids occur in liquid state at room
temperature.
★■They are found mostly in plants.
Vegetable oil and corn oil are examples of
unsaturated fatty acids.
★■ Unsaturated fats are believed to be
healthier sources of fats compared to
saturated forms.
Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids
★Are divided into two classes namely,
Neutral fats and waxes. It contained esters
of fatty acids with various alcohols.
A.Neutral fats / True fats
★ Esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
Triacylglycerol is an example for Neutral
fats. Oils are fats in the liquid state.
B. Waxes
★ Waxes are esters of fatty acids with higher
mono hydroxy aliphatic alcohols. True
 waxes, cholesterol esters and vitamin A
and D esters are example for waxes.
★Waxes are found almost everywhere.
★Fruits and leaves of many plants have
waxy coatings, that can protect them from
small predators and dehydration.
★Fur of a few animals and the feathers of
birds keep same coatings serving as water
repellants.
★Carnauba wax is known for its water
resistance and toughness (signi cant for
car wax).
2. Complex Lipids
★ They are the esters of fatty acids
containing groups, other than and in
addition, to an alcohol and fatty acids.
A. Phospholipids
★In addition to fatty acids and alcohol
presence, they also contain phosphorous,
nitrogenous bases and other substitution
groups. Lecithin and cephalins are
examples for phospholipids
B. Glycolipids
★Lipids containing carbohydrates are
referred as glycolipids. They contain a
special alcohol moiety called sphingosine
or sphingoid and nitrogenous base. They
do not have phosphorous.
★Gangliosides and cerebrosides are
examples of compounds lipids
C. Sulpholipids
★Lipids with sulfate groups are referred as
sulpholipids
★Also called sulfatides or cerebroside
sulfate
★Present in low levels in kidney , liver ,
lungs , spleen, skeletal muscle and heart
★its function is not yet established
D. Lipoproteins
★When lipids contain protein then they are
known as lipoproteins.
★It is biochemical assembly that contains
both protein and lipids , bound to the
protein which allows fats to move through
the water inside and outside cells
★Examples
• Chylomicrons also known as ultra-low-
density lipoproteins (ULDL), are
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lipoprotein particles that consist of
triglycerides.
• Triglycerides are fat molecules that make
up most of your body fat and the fat found
in food.
• High triglyceride levels can increase your
risk for heart disease, stroke, and nerve
damage. There is a link between
chronically elevated triglyceride levels and
atherosclerosis as well as insulin resistance
• VLDL-Very-low-density lipoprotein is
produced in the liver and released into the
bloodstream to supply body tissues with a
type of fat (triglycerides).
• HDL- High-density lipoproteins “Good
cholesterol”, is stable and carries a “bad
cholesterol” away from the arteries.
• LDL- Low-density lipoproteins “Bad
Cholesterol.
• Trans fat free, it does not mean it is free of
trans fats. It means the food has less than
0.5g of trans fat per serving.
Nucleic Acids
✦!“PCR” stands for “polymerase chain
reaction” which is a way of amplifying the
nucleic acids in your sample
✦!According to the FDA (Food and Drug
Administration), the polymerase chain
reaction converts any virus RNA in your
sample into DNA and “ampli es” it by
making millions of copies of the DNA
which the molecular test can then detect.
✦ ◦It is the largest and the most complex.
organic molecules
✦Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic
acids in 1871.
✦Nucleic Acid was rst discovered in the
nuclei of cells. He called this substance
‘nuclein,” because it seemed to be
speci cally associated with the nucleus.
Proteins
✦Protein is a complex nutrient essential to
many important functions in the body.
✦Proteins are made up of the elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulfur.
✦Di ers from carbohydrates and fats
because of the presence of nitrogen.
 ✦The body has at least 30,000 types of
protein, each with a di erent job. Function of a Protein
✦The building blocks of all protein molecules 1. Build and maintain tissues
are amino acids. 2. Make important compounds
✦There are 20 di erent amino acids that 3. Regulate mineral and uid balance
create di erent combinations for speci c 4. Maintain acid-base balance
functions in the body.
✦The protein we consume can be altered 5. Carry vital substances
and changed but can never return to its 6. Provide energy
initial form. This is called denaturation.
✦ This can be seen when you add heat to an
egg (it changes from a runny uid to a solid
mass). The shapes of the protein
molecules in these foods have changed
Factors that cause denaturation
1. Heat
2. Acids
3. Bases
4. Alcohol
Types of Amino Acids
1. Despensable Amino Acids:
✦Your body can produce these on its own.
✦Your body can synthesize 11 of the amino
acids from the other amino acids
2. Indespensable Amino Acids:
✦The remaining 9 amino acids must come
from your diet – also called essential amino
acids
✦You need all the amino acids to make the
proteins your body needs for good health
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