Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit,

brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description
of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context)
and the descriptions could be related to Imhotep who was the first Egyptian physician who
anatomized and discovered the body of the human being.[11] Though other medical documents
of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing
demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions
and only two contain incantations to ward off evil.
Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period,
developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuchẽ (psyche) (from which the first
half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – nous, thumos,
logistikon, etc.[12] Classical Greece (fifth century BCE), philosophers taught "naturalism", the
belief that laws of nature shape our world, as opposed to gods and demons determining human
fate. Alcmaeon, for example, believed the brain, not the heart, was the "organ of thought."He
tracked the ascending sensory nerves from the body to the brain, theorizing that mental activity
originated in the CNS and that the cause of mental illness resided within the brain. He applied
this understanding to classify mental diseases and treatments.The most influential of these
psychologists are the accounts of Plato (especially in the Republic),[13] Pythagoras and of
Aristotle (esp. Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin title, De Anima).[14]
Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as eros defined the
subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological
proposals. For example, concepts such as id, ego and super-ego and libido were interpreted by
psychoanalysts as having been anticipated by Plato, to the extent that "in 1920, Freud decided to
present Plato as the precursor of his own theory, as part of a strategy directed to define the
scientific and cultural collocation of psychoanalysis".[15]
Other Hellenistic philosophers, namely the Stoics and Epicurians, diverged from the Classical
Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the
physiological basis of the mind.[16] The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most
elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic
thought on the topic.
In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, c. 21 BC–61
AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either
veracity or perversity [17]
Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that
is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled
"Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas".[18]
In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system.
Chinese texts from 2500 years ago mention neuropsychiatric illness, including descriptions of
mania and psychosis with or without epilepsy. "Imbalance" was the mechanism of psychosis.
Other conditions described include confusion, visual illusions, intoxication, stress, and even
malingering. Psychological theories about stages of human development can be traced to the
time of Confucius, about 2500 years ago.[19]
In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw
a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test
people's vulnerability to distraction). It has been cited that this was the first psychology
experiment.[20][21]
India had a theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings. Additionally, Indians thought
about the individual's self as being enclosed by different levels known as koshas.[22]
Additionally, the Sankya philosophy said that the mind has 5 components, including manas (lower
mind), ahankara (sense of I-ness), chitta (memory bank of mind), buddhi (intellect), and atman
(self/soul). Patanjali was one of the founders of the yoga tradition, sometime between 200 and
400 BC (pre-dating Buddhist psychology) and a student of the Vedas. He developed the science
of breath and mind and wrote his knowledge in the form of between 194 and 196 aphorisms
called the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. He developed modern Yoga for psychological resilience and
balance . He is reputed to have used yoga therapeutically for anxiety, depression and mental
disorders as common then as now.[23][24] Buddhist philosophies have developed several
psychological theories (see Buddhism and psychology), formulating interpretations of the mind
and concepts such as aggregates (skandhas), emptiness (sunyata), non-self (anatta),
mindfulness and Buddha-nature, which are addressed today by theorists of humanistic and
transpersonal psychology.[25][26] Several Buddhist lineages have developed notions analogous
to those of modern Western psychology, such as the unconscious, personal development and
character improvement,[27][28] the latter being part of the Noble Eightfold Path and expressed,
for example, in the Tathagatagarbha Sutra.[29] Hinayana traditions, such as the Theravada,
focus more on individual meditation, while Mahayana traditions also emphasize the attainment of
a Buddha nature of wisdom (prajña) and compassion (karuṇā) in the realization of the
boddhisattva ideal, but affirming it more metaphysically, in which charity and helping sentient
beings is cosmically fundamental. Buddhist monk and scholar D. T. Suzuki describes the
importance of the individual's inner enlightenment and the self-realization of the mind.
Researcher David Germano, in his thesis on Longchenpa, also shows the importance of self-
actualization in the dzogchen teaching lineage.[28]
Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients with a variety of "diseases
of the mind".[30]
Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850–934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders
related to both the body and the mind.[31] Al-Balkhi recognized that the body and the soul can
be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced". He wrote that imbalance of the body can result
in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger,
anxiety, sadness and other nafs-related symptoms.[31]
Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a
system for associating changes in the mind with inner feelings. Avicenna also described
phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, mania,
nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy and tremor.[32]
Ancient and medieval thinkers who discussed issues related to psychology included:
 ● Socrates of Athens (c. 470 – 399 BCE). Emphasized virtue ethics. In epistemology,
understood dialectic to be central to the pursuit of truth.[4]
● As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental
disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes.[33]
● Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as eros defined
the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern
psychological proposals.[34]
● Alcmaeon theorizes the brain in the seat of the mind.[35]
● In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place.[2]
● Boethius and his work represented an imaginary psychological dialogue between himself
and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman, arguing that despite the
apparent inequality of the world.
● In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early psychological analysis experiment. It has
been cited that this was the first psychology experiment.[36]
● Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-‘ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as
"psychotherapy"),[37]
● Padmasambhava was the 8th-century medicine Buddha of Tibet, called from the then
Buddhist India to tame the Tibetans, and was instrumental in developing Tibetan
psychiatric medicine.[38]
● Patanjali founded Yoga and the method of psychological balance and resilience through
breathing exercises and inner peace.[39]
● Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), described head surgery;[34]
● Ibn Tufail, who anticipated the tabula rasa argument and nature versus nurture debate.[40]
● William of Ockham who has lot of interests in writing about logic and invented occams
razor.[41][42]
● Thomas Aquinas whose works allocated notion regarded emotions.[43]
● Albertus magnus describes metaphysical morals in psychology and philosophical theories.
Maimonides described rabies and belladonna intoxication.[34]
Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His Perspectiva contains much
material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of
idea and on the subconscious.