Module in Underchassis

Module
In
Under Chassis Components Servicing,
Repairing and Maintenance
(AT 5)
Mr. Joey V. Rubrico
Instructor
UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 1

Table of Contents
Page
Introduction 1
Module 1 2
Lesson 1
Automotive Drive Train and Chassis Unit 2
Lesson 2
The Clutch Assembly 5
Lesson 3
Manual Transmission 17
Module 2 34
Lesson 4
Drive Lines 34
Lesson 5
Differential and Rear Axles 40
Lesson 6
Spring and Suspension System 45
Module 3
Lesson 7
Steering System 51
Lesson 8
Wheel Alignment 55
Lesson 9
Brake System 60

Introduction
The automotive chassis provides the strength necessary to support a vehicle’s
components and the payload placed upon it. The suspension system contains the
springs, shock absorbers, and other components that allow the vehicle to pass over
uneven terrain without an excessive amount of shock reaching the passengers or cargo.
The steering mechanism is an integral portion of the chassis, as it provides the operator
with a means of controlling the direction of travel. The tires grip the road surface to
provide good traction that enables the vehicle to accelerate, brake, and make turns
without skidding. Working in conjunction with the suspension, the tires absorb most of
the shocks caused by road irregularities. The body of the vehicle encloses the
mechanical components and passenger compartment. It is made of relatively light sheet
metal or composite plastics. The components which make up the chassis are held
together in proper relation to each other by the frame.
In this module we will discuss the operational characteristics and components of the
automotive chassis and body. It is also focus on enhancing student basic knowledge
about under chassis component. This module aims to provide information that the
student should be able to do the following:
1. Identify the component parts of the drive trains and chassis units.
2. Analyze and describe the component parts and operation of the drive trains and
chassis components
3. Demonstrate how service and maintain under chassis components
4. Analyze problems, common troubles, possible causes and remedies.
The course is divided into three (3) modules for the three terms, the Prelim, Midterm,
and Final. Each lesson divided equally to meet the objectives of the course.
Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

(Prelim) (Midterm) (Final)
The Automotive Drive and Drive Lines Front Wheels Systems and
Chassis Unit Alignment
The Clutch Assembly Differential and Rear Axles Steering System
Transmission and Springs and Suspension Brake Systems

Transaxle Systems

Module 1
Lesson 1
Automotive Drive Train and Chassis Unit
Objectives
• Identify the component part of the drive train
• Differentiates power train from chassis units
• Discuss the operation of the under chassis components part
Introduction
The drivetrain represent everything that is behind the transmission involved in
propelling the vehicle. The main function of the drivetrain is basically to convey power
from the vehicle’s engine through the transmission to the drive wheel on the vehicle to
control the amount of torque
Drive train
Engine is the source of power in automobile. The fuel charge burned inside the
engine combustion chamber produces high pressure which forces the piston to move up
and down in the cylinder. This movement is carried mechanically by the connecting rod
and causes the crankshaft to rotate. This rotary motion is carried to the car wheels thus
enabling the wheel to move the rotate.
The power developed in the engine passes through a series of mechanism
before reaching the wheel. This mechanism is called the drive or power train and
composed of clutch, transmission, and propeller shaft, universal joints, differential and
rear axles. This is the common system of arrangement. Modern cars which are front
drive differ in arrangement as the engine system is coupled directly to the clutch,
transmission, differential, and axle.
Figure 1 shows the conventional arrangement of drive trains where the engine is
mounted longitudinally while Figure 2 shows the engine mounted transversely and
driving the front wheels.
Figure1.1 The Drive Train Unit (conventional)

Figure1.2 Front-wheel Drive transversely mounted
In addition to front-wheel and rear-wheel drive, some vehicles of various brands have
four-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. Automotive vehicles equipped with car-wheel drive
engines used transmission while front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive engines use
transaxle.
Chassis Unit
The remaining parts which are not directly involved in the development and
transmission of engine power to the wheels is called the chassis unit. It maintains the
smooth transmission of engine power and support the proper operation of the car. The
automotive chassis includes the suspension, steering and braking systems. It also
consists of the frame, active suspension including the springs, shackles, shock
absorbers, stabilizer, radius rods and balances, and tires. The tires provide the contract
between the vehicle and the road.

NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
Guide Question:
1. What is the main function of the power or drive train?
2. Name the components of the automotive power or drive train?
3. What is the main function of the chassis unit?
4. Give the components of the automotive chassis.
5. How does a rear-drive vehicle differ from a front-drive one?
6. Explain briefly the meaning of all-wheel drive engines

Lesson 2
The Clutch Assembly
Objectives
• Describe the basic clutch parts

• Explain the operation of the clutch
• Compare differences in clutch design
• Describe the different methods of releasing the clutch
Introduction
• Clutch
– Found on vehicles with manually shifted transmissions
– Disengages engine from transmission
– Releases engine from transmission during gear shifts
– Driver controls clutch application from inside the vehicle with a clutch
pedal
• Engine does not make sufficient torque at lower rpm to be able to
move the car
• Clutch must gradually couple rear wheels to engine
Purpose of the clutch
The clutch assembly is a form of coupling between the engine and the
transmission. It permits the driver to couple and uncouple and engine to the
transmission. With the engine coupled, power is delivered to the transmission and when
uncoupled the engine runs freely without delivering power to the transmission.
The main purpose of the clutch is to temporarily engage and disengage the
power of the engine to the transmission so that transmission gear can be shifted.
Without this engaging and disengaging action of the clutch, it would be difficult to mesh
or demesh the transmission gears. Any effort to force it will destroy the parts.
Clutch Parts and Operation
• Clutch parts
– Flywheel
– Pressure plate
– Friction disc
– Release mechanism
• Clutch disc pushed against flywheel with enough force

– Disc will rotate with flywheel

Figure2.1 Parts of the Clutch assembly
Clutch Disc
• Characteristics
– Clutch hub: inner part of disc and has splines
– Torsional dampers: absorb shock
– Clutch disc has facings made of friction material
• Contain molded or woven asbestos
– Facings riveted to both sides of cushion plate
• Cushion plate is riveted to disc plate
– Clutch is engaged: air is trapped in grooves
• Clutch is released: trapped air pushes disc away from pressure
plate and flywheel
Figure2.2 Clutch Disc
Pressure Plate
• Pressure plate is cast iron plate
– Part of cover assembly
• Cover assembly is bolted to the flywheel
– Clutch disc is wedged between pressure plate and flywheel
– Space between pressure plate and flywheel is less than thickness of
clutch disc

– Engine and transmission are physically connected when clutch pedal
released
Figure2.3 Pressure Plate
Types of Clutch Covers

Clutch covers types
Coil spring
Diaphragm
Other designs are less common
Figure 2.4 Coil and Diaphragm spring

Coil Spring Clutch
• Pressure plate springs are preloaded when clutch cover assembled at factory
– Springs are compressed further when cover assembly is bolted to flywheel
– Clutch is engaged: pressure plate exerts 1000-3000 pounds force on the
disc
– Disc worn out: ten percent more torque carrying capacity left in the clutch
than engine can deliver
Figure2.5 coil spring clutch
Release Levers
• Attached to cover assembly at pivot points
– Pushing clutch pedal moves pivot lever
• Pulls pressure plate away from flywheel
• Advantages of coil springs
– More coil springs can be installed
– Centrifugal force applies clutch more tightly
• Disadvantages of coil springs
– More pedal pressure required
– Clutch applied less heavily as disc wears
– Must be precisely balanced after assembly
Diaphragm Clutch
• Diaphragm spring replaces release levers and coil springs

– Diaphragm pivots off pivot rings when clutch pedal is depressed
• Advantages
– Requires less effort and takes up less space
– Spring pressure becomes greater as disc wears
– Well balanced
• Dual mass flywheel: reduces noise and vibration
– Allows smoother gear shifting
Figure 2.6 A clutch pressure plate assembly with a diaphragm spring
Pilot Bearing or Bushing

• Engine side of transmission input shaft
– Supported by sealed pilot bearing or sintered bronze bushing
• Some FWD transaxles do not use pilot bearing
Figure2. 7 This front-wheel drive transaxle does not use a pilot bearing
Release Bearing
• Allows pressure plate release mechanism to operate as crankshaft rotates
– Slides on the front transmission bearing retainer
– Lubricated and sealed at the factory

• Self-centering release bearings
– Used on FWD cars
– Do not use pilot bearing in the crankshaft
• Specially designed release bearings
– Found on vehicles that have pressure plates that pull to release
Figure2.8 Release bearing
Clutch Fork
• Release bearing hub has provision to attach it to the clutch fork
– Clutch fork fits between release bearing and clutch cable or linkage
• Has pivot shaft, pivot ball, or raised area in the bell housing off
which it pivots
Figure2.9 The clutch fork fits between the release bearing and the clutch linkage
Clutch Release Methods

• Clutch pedal operates clutch fork using:
– Linkage
– Cable
– Hydraulic cylinders
• Clutch start switch
– Included on the clutch pedal
– Prevents engine from starting unless the clutch pedal is depressed
Clutch Linkage
 Can be very complicated
– Have the right amount of movement and direction without too much pedal
pressure
– Wear
– Motor mounts
– Spring to pull T/O bearing away
– Has to be lubricated
Figure2.10 Clutch Linkage

Clutch Cable
• Some cars use a cable to operate the clutch
– Adjustment remains the same as the engine moves
– Develop friction and wear with repeated use
• Linkage can push on clutch arm
– Cable can only pull on it
• Pivot point of fork
– Must be on the outside of input shaft
• Away from cable end
Figure 2.11 A cable operated clutch release.

Hydraulic Clutch Operation
• Characteristics
– Hydraulic clutches are found on many manual transmission–equipped
vehicles
– Master cylinder input piston: connected to clutch pedal
– Output piston: located in reaction or actuator cylinder (i.e., slave cylinder)
– Difference between clutch master cylinder and brake cylinder
• Clutch master cylinder does not have a fill port or residual check
valve
Figure 2.12 Hydraulic Clutch operation

Clutch Free Travel
• Free travel
– Usually adjusted to about one inch at pedal
• Newer vehicles have self-adjusting clutches
– Maintain contact between release levers and release bearing
• Standard release bearings
– Don’t remain in constant contact with clutch cover
• Some vehicles have self-adjusting cables
– Spring-loaded sector gear pinned to pedal arm
• Clutch released: pawl lifted and raised

Figure 2.13 Comparison of adjustable and self-adjusting slave cylinders.
Note. The spring at the right side of the self-adjusting slave cylinder
Figure 2.14 A clutch cable self-adjuster
Electronic Clutch
The electronic clutch was developed for racing vehicles to improve the getaway
performance. For production vehicles, a strategy has been developed to interpret the
driver’s intention. With greater throttle openings, the strategy changes to prevent abuse
and drive line damage. Electrical control of the clutch release bearing position is by a
solenoid actuator, which can be modulated by signals from the ECU this allows.
Figure 2.15 Electronic Clutch

NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
A. Multiple choices: Select the one correct answer, best, or most

probable answer to each question.
1. The friction disc is splined to the
a. Transmission input shaft c. Flywheel
b. Pressure plate d. Crankshaft
2. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the release bearing pushes the pressure-
plate fingers or lever inwards. This causes the pressure plate to move away from
the
a. Release bearing c. Friction disc
b. Pressure springs d. Transmission
e.
3. To help reduce the shock of engagement, the friction disc has a series of waved
a. Cushion pads c. Cushion springs
b. Facings d. Discs
4. In the friction disc, torsional vibration is observed by the
a. Cushion bolts c. Waved pads
b. Coil spring d. Friction pads
5. Clutch dragging is noticeable
a. When shifting gears c. During acceleration
b. At road speed d. At high speed
B. Discussion
1. What is the main purpose of clutch?
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2. Name the parts of a typical friction clutch and define the purpose of each.
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3. What are the other type of clutches?

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4. How does a friction clutch operate?
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5. Name the different troubles of the clutch. Identify each trouble.
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6. How do you adjust the pedal free play or a clutch in general?
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7. Explain how to remove and disassemble a clutch assembly. (any type).
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8. Name five safety precautionary measure that must be observed by a
mechanics in removing, repair and installation of the clutch assembly.
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9. When should you bleed the clutch hydraulic system and what are the steps in
the procedure?
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10. What are the advantage of a self-adjusting clutch?
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Lesson 3
Manual Transmission
Learning Objectives:
• Identify and describe manual transmission design features and operation.
• Describe transmission power flow.
• Describe manual transmission construction.
• Identify and describe the operation of the following transmission components:
o Synchronizers
o Shift mechanisms
o Key inertia lock mechanism
• Identify and describe gear shift control.
• Describe transmission lubrication.
Introduction
The manual transmission transfers power from the engine to the propeller
shaft. It converts and multiplies rotational speed, allowing engine RPM to remain
in its limited optimal power range while providing a wide range of RPM to the
propeller shaft; which, in turn, controls vehicle speed.
Multiple gear sets within the transmission provide gear ratios to best utilize
the engine’s torque. A gear ratio of about 4:1 in first gear provides high torque to
begin moving the vehicle. In contrast, a higher gear ratio of about 1:1 reduces
engine speed at higher vehicle speeds when less torque is required to maintain
momentum.
Understanding manual transmission design features increases your
knowledge of transmission operation, and provides for easier and more accurate
problem diagnosis.
Component
The rear wheel drive transmission is constructed with three shafts, five
forward gears, and a reverse gear.
Input Shaft

Main Output Shaft
Counter Gear Shaft
Figure 3.1 Components

Input Shaft
The input shaft also known as a main drive gear or clutch shaft is
driven by the clutch disc and drives the counter gear shaft. The input shaft is
supported by the pilot bearing at the end of the crankshaft and a bearing at the
front of the transmission case.
Main Output Shaft
The output shaft also known as the main shaft drives the propeller shaft. It
is splined at the rear to allow a sliding connection to the propeller shaft. The
output shaft gears rotate on the shaft and are locked to the shaft by
synchronizers. The synchronizers are splined to the output shaft. The output
shaft is supported by a pocket bearing at the rear of the input shaft, a bearing at

the intermediate plate and a bearing at the extension housing of the
transmission.
Counter Gear Shaft
The counter gear shaft also known as a cluster gear drives the gears
(1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th) on the output shaft. This shaft is supported by bearings in
the intermediate plate, at the front of the transmission case, and in the extension
housing.
Transmission Construction
A rear wheel drive transmission has three sections: the clutch housing, the
transmission case, and the extension housing.
Gears
Gears transfer engine power from the input shaft, through the counter
gear shaft, to the output shaft. There are five forward gears and one reverse
gear. Only one gear is engaged at a time.
Forward Gears
All forward motion gears are helical gears because of their smooth and
quiet operating characteristics. Helical gears create end thrust under load, and
therefore have a thrust surface on the side of the gear. Gear side clearance is
limited to reduce noise and potential damage, which could result from gear
motion.
Reverse Gears
Reverse requires an additional gear in the gear train. A reverse idler gear
is used to change the direction of the output shaft for reverse. The reverse gear
is a straight cut spur gear and does not have a synchronizer. Spur gears are
suitable for this application because they shift into mesh more easily than helical
gears, and they don’t generate end thrust under load.
Reverse Idler Gear
An idler gear is used to change the direction of the output shaft for
reverse.

Figure 3.2 Reverse Idler gear
Bearings
Bearings and bushings are used to support shafts in the transmission.
Depending upon design, transmissions use a wide variety of bearings, including:
 Needle bearings – can support large side loads but are unable to control end
thrust loads. Individual needles are housed in a single enclosure or a split
bearing holder. They are used in most forward speed gears.
 Ball bearings – can support moderate to high side and thrust loads and are
commonly used for the input shaft and output shaft.
 Roller bearings – can support large side loads but are unable to control end
thrust loads. Individual rollers are housed in a single enclosure.
 Plain bushings – can support large side loads and allow free in−and−out
movement. Bushings are used on the reverse gear and to support the propeller
shaft slip yoke in the extension housing.
Transmission Bearings
Depending upon design, transmissions use a wide variety of bearings.

Figure 3.4 Transmission Bearings
Synchronizer Assemblies
Synchronizer assemblies are used to make all forward shifts and to assist
reverse gear engagement. The role of the synchronizer is to allow smooth gear
engagement. It acts as a clutch, bringing the gears and shaft to the same speed before
engagement occurs. Synchronizers components help make the speeds equal while
synchronizing the shift.
Synchronizer Components
The synchronizer mechanism is constructed of the following components:
 The speed gear is mounted on the output shaft. A needle roller bearing is
installed between the speed gear and the output shaft, allowing the gear to rotate
freely on the shaft.
 The synchronizer ring – also called a blocker ring – is made of brass and is
installed on the conical portion of the gear. Narrow grooves are cut in the inside
area of the synchronizer ring to provide the necessary clutch action of the gear.
Three equally spaced slots are cut on the outside surface for the synchronizer
keys to fit into.
 Two key springs are installed, one on each side of the clutch hub to hold the
synchronizer keys in place against the hub sleeve.
 The clutch hub is fit to the output shaft on splines and is secured by a snap ring.
 Three synchronizer keys are installed in the three equally spaced slots in the
clutch hub and are aligned with the slots in the synchronizer ring.
 The hub sleeve has internal splines that slip over the clutch hub splines,
engaging the spline teeth of the speed gear. An internal groove cut in the center
of the hub sleeve splines centers the hub sleeve. The hub sleeve is indexed by
the three spring loaded synchronizer keys.

Figure 3.5 Synchronizer Components
Synchronizer Operation
When the transmission is in neutral, the hub sleeve groove fits onto the
synchronizer key detent. This allows the gears to free wheel on the output shaft.
As the clutch pedal is depressed and the shift lever is moved into a gear, three
stages are involved for the gearshift to occur.
 First, the sleeve is moved toward the gear by the shift lever and engages the
hub assembly
 Second, the movement of the sleeve causes the inserts to press the blocking
ring onto the cone of the gear
Figure3.6 1st & 2nd Initial Synchronization

 Third, when the components reach the same speed, the synchronizer sleeve
slides over external dog teeth on the blocking ring and over the dog teeth of the
speed gear’s shoulder. This action locks the gear to the main shaft.
Figure 3.7 3rd Stage – Synchronization

Synchronizer Hub Sleeve & Splines
Synchronizer hub sleeves have a slight back cut at the ends of the
splines. This cut matches a similar cut on the spline gear teeth of the
speed gears. This locks the gears in engagement and prevents the
sleeve from jumping out of mesh.
Figure 3.8 Synchronizer Hub Sleeve & Splines
Transmission Power flow

Understanding the power flow through a transmission helps the technician
in diagnosing complaints and determining the proper repairs to be done. The
following illustrations show the typical power flow through a five−speed
transmission.
Power flow in neutral
 The input shaft drives the counter shaft

 All of the gears on main shaft rotate
 The synchronizers are not engaged with any gear
 No power is transferred to the output shaft
Figure 3.9 Power flow in neutral
Power flow in first gear

• The power enters the transmission through the input shaft
• The first/second synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the first gear dog
teeth
• The power is transferred from the input shaft, through the countershaft,
and up to the first gear

• The first gear drives the output shaft
Figure 3.10 Power flow in first gear
Power flow in second gear

• The first/second synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the second gear dog
teeth
and up to the second gear
• The second gear drives the output shaft
Figure 3.11 Power flow in second gear

Power flow in third gear

• The third/fourth synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the third gear dog
teeth
and up to the third gear
• The third gear drives the output shaft
Figure 3.12 Power flow in third gear
Power flow in fourth gear

• The third/fourth synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the fourth gear dog
teeth
• The power is transferred from the input shaft to the fourth gear
• The fourth gear drives the output shaft
Figure3.13 Power flow in fourth gear

Power flow in fifth gear

• The fifth gear synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the fifth gear dog teeth
and up to the fifth gear
• The fifth gear drives the output shaft in overdrive
Figure3.14 Power flow in fifth gear
Power flow in reverse gear

• The reverse gear synchronizer sleeve is engaged with the reverse gear
dog teeth
through the reverse idler gear, and up to the reverse gear
• The reverse gear drives the output shaft in reverse
Figure3.15 Power flow in reverse gear

Gear Shift Mechanism

The gear shift lever and internal linkage allow the transmission to be shifted
through the gears. The shift lever is mounted in the transmission extension housing and
pivots on a ball socket. The shift fork shaft connects the shift lever to the shift forks. A
detent ball and spring prevent the forks from moving on their own. The shift forks are
used to lock and unlock the synchronizer hub sleeve and are mounted on the shafts
either by bolts or roll pins. The shift forks ride in the grooves of the synchronizer hub
sleeves.
Figure 3.16 Gear Shift mechanism
Shift Detent Mechanism

Detents locate the internal shift forks in one of their three positions. The
detent ball rides in one of three notches cut into the shift fork shaft. The center
detent position is neutral. Moving the shift shaft to a detent on either side of
center engages a speed gear. When the shaft is moved either forward or
backward, the ball rides on the shaft and is forced into a notch by the spring. The
spring holds the ball secure in the notch and will not let the shaft move unless the
shift lever applies enough force to overcome the spring tension.
Figure 3.17 Shift Detent Mechanism

Shift Interlock Mechanism

The shift interlock prevents engaging more than one gear at a
time. A set of pins hold the other shift fork shafts in place when one of
the shafts has been moved by the shift lever. This operation insures
that the transmission will not be shifted into two gears at the same
time.
Figure 3.18 Shift Interlock mechanism

Shifting into Reverse
When shifting into reverse, the shift and select lever
contacts the restrict pin protrusion, rotates the pin on the shaft
and causes the spring to coil tighter. The lever can now move
the required parts to engage reverse gear. The spring tension
is relieved when the lever is moved to the neutral position and
the restrict pin returns to original position.
Figure 3.19 Reverse Mis-shift

Transmission lubrication
To prevent overheating, the lower transmission gears run in a
bath of lubricant. As they spin, their motion spreads the lubricant
throughout the case.

Floating gears on the mainshaft or counter shaft of R series
transmissions have oil passages drilled to get lubricant into critical
areas. Some transmissions use scoops, troughs, or oiling funnels
as lubrication paths. Each transmission includes a vent at the top,
to relieve internal pressure (heat) during operation.
Gear Lubrication The transmission gears are lubricated to:
 Reduce friction
 Transfer heat away from gears and bearings
 Reduce corrosion and rust
 Remove dirt and wear particles from moving parts
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Petroleum Institute (API)
Service Classification provide rating systems for selection of proper lubricants for
particular uses. Viscosity is a measurement of fluid thickness and is determined by how
fast a fluid runs through a precisely sized orifice at a particular temperature.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the American Petroleum Institute (API)
Service Classification provide rating systems for selection of proper lubricants for
particular uses.
Viscosity is a measurement of fluid thickness and is determined by how fast a fluid runs
through a precisely sized orifice at a particular temperature.
The following are API gear oil classifications:

 GL−1: Straight mineral oil; used in non−synchromesh transmissions; use
additives; not suitable for modern automobile transmissions
 GL−2: A designation for worn gear drives used in mostly industrial applications
 GL−3: Contains mild EP additives; used in manual transmissions and transaxles
with spiral bevel final drives
 GL−4: Used in manual transmissions and transaxles with hypoid final drives;
contains half the additives found in GL−5
 GL−5: Contains enough EP additive to lubricate hypoid gears in drive axles
An additional classification, GLS (Gear Lubricant Special), is sometimes used to
indicate a proprietary set of specifications determined by the vehicle or gearbox
manufacturer.
Gear Lubrication Type Toyota manual transmissions use the following gear
lubrication types:
 75W−90 GL4/GL5
 80W−90 GL4/GL5
 TOYOTA V160 (Supra 6−Speed V160MT)

Note: Consult the vehicle repair manual for specific lubrication information.
Case Sealants
Toyota transmission cases use Formed−In−Place Gaskets (FIPG).
FIPG gaskets are usually Room−Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV)
or anaerobic sealants. RTV sealant is made from silicone and is one of the most widely
used gasket compounds. It is extremely thick, and sets up to a rubber−like material very
quickly when exposed to air.
Anaerobic sealant is similar in function to RTV. It can be used either to
seal gaskets or to form gaskets by itself. Unlike RTV, anaerobic sealant cures
only in the absence of air. This means that an anaerobic sealant cures only after
the assembly of parts, sealing them together
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings can handle large side loads, but provide no thrust support.
They are located on the engine side of the input and output shafts.
Ball Bearings
Ball bearings are used as support bearings opposite the roller bearing on
the input and output shafts because they can handle a moderate to high thrust
load as well as side load.
Tapered Roller Bearings
Tapered roller bearings handle large side and thrust loads and are used in
pairs with the cones and cups facing in opposite directions on the ends of the
same shaft. Some method of preload adjustment is typically provided for this type
of bearing. The differential on all transaxles and the output shaft on the E series
transaxles are supported by tapered roller bearings. Preload is adjusted by
placement of the correct size shim at the bearing outer race.
NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
A. Multiple Choice: Select the one correct, best, or most

probable answer to each question.
1. Technician A says, in a greatest, speed reduction means torque increase.
Technician B says speed increase means torque reduction. Who is right?
a. A only
b. B only
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
2. A synchronizer does all the following EXCEPT:
a. Prevents gear clash during shifting
b. Uses friction to make the gear and synchronizer ring rotate at the same
speed
c. Locks a gear to the shaft
d. Attaches directly to the shift rail
3. When the gear ratio through the transmission is 1:1 the transmission is in
a. Overdrive
b. Direct drive
c. Under drive
d. Neutral
4. Power leaves the transmission section of a manual transaxle through a
a. Pinion gear
b. Ring gear
c. Cluster gear
d. Counter gear
5. Technician A says when a five speed manual transaxle is in fifth gear, the
second and the third-fourth synchronizer sleeves are in neutral.
Technician B says the fifth synchronizer is disengaged. Who is right?
a. A only
b. B only
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
6. The dual-range transaxle has

a. An input shaft with two ring gear
b. An input shaft with two pinion gears
c. Two counter gears
d. Two overdrive ratios
7. The purpose of an interlock device is to
a. Lock the transmission to prevent theft
b. Complete the electric circuit to the starting motor
c. Prevent locking two gears to the output shaft at the same time
d. Interlock the shift lever to prevent shifting
8. To shift into a gear, the first movement of the gearshift lever
a. Moves the synchronizer
b. Select the synchronizer
c. Meshes the gears
d. Moves the synchronizer sleeve

9. Shift linkage enclosed within the transmission or transaxle case is called
a. External linkage
b. Floor shift
c. Column shift
d. Internal linkage
10. The speedometer drive gear mounts on the
a. Input shaft
b. Counter gear shaft
c. Output shaft
d. Fifth-gear shaft
B. Discussion
1. Explain the importance of transmission to the automobile
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2. Identify the parts of a conventional 3-speed transmission
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3. How does a 4-speed transmission operated from the first gear to reverse
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4. What are the common transmission troubles? Give its causes.
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5. Give the procedure of disassembling a 3-speed transmission
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6. What is the purpose of a transfer case?
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7. Give the ratio of rotation between the clutch shaft and transmission main
shaft in the following position:
a. First or a low speed position
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b. Second speed position
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c. Third and high speed position
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d. Reverse position
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8. What types of vehicle used transaxle, transmission and cite its
advantages.
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9. What safety measures should be observed in removal, service and
installation of transmission?
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10. What are the difference between a four speed manual transmission and a
five speed manual transmission?
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Lesson 4
Drive lines
Objectives;
 Define the drive lines

 Identify the parts of drive lines
 Explain the parts of drive lines
Drive line

The drive lines consist of drive shaft, universal joints and slip joints. The
drive line transmits the torque through varying angles between the turning shafts
particularly when the vehicles is passing rough road.
Figure 4.1 a two-piece driveshaft that uses three universal joints. The front section is
supported at its rear by a center support bearing.
A vehicle with front engine and rear-wheel drive has a long propeller shaft
or driveshaft extending from the transmission to the rear axle (4.1). Front-wheel
vehicles usually have the engine transaxle mounted transversely. Short drive
shafts or half shaft extend front the transaxle to the front wheel. (Pls. see Figure
4.2)

Figure 4.2 Front-wheel-drive lines use (A) equal-length drive shafts or (B)
Unequal - length drive shafts. Torque steer is more noticeable with unequal
Length drives hafts.
Propeller Shaft
From the transmission, the driving power should be transmitted and
delivered to the differential and in turn to the rear wheel axles to enable the
wheels to rotate. Between the transmission and the differential is propeller which
serves as the connecting link. It carries the driven power which makes the
wheels rotate and the car moves.
Design and Constructions of Propeller Shaft

The propeller shaft must be light and strong to withstand the twisting force
(torque) exerted to it during the transmission of power One design uses only one
universal joint or cross joint placed on is font end. This is made up of a solid
piece of metal accessible enough to be enclosed by a torque tube, Another
design requires two universal joints or cross joints. One universal joint is attached
to the transmission lange on the front end and another at the rear end attached
to the differential drive shaft. This type of propeller shaft if called hollowed or
tubular propeller shaft.

On light vehicles where the differential is not too far from the transmission,
only one propeller shaft is placed between the transmission and the differential.
In heavy duty vehicles there are two to three propeller shafts because of the
longer distance between the transmission and the propeller shaft. One propeller
shaft cannot withstand the torque exerted to it during the transmission of power;
hence, manufacturers made it a point to place two to three propeller shafts
between the transmission and the differential. These propeller shafts are
interconnected with each other by several cross joints and supported by center
bearings placed or attached to the cross members.
Universal Joints or Cross Joints
The engine and transmission are more or less rigidly attached to the car
frame. The rear axle housing where the axles and the differential are enclosed is
attached to the frame by the springs. When the moving automobile encounters
irregularities in the road, the springs either compress or expand. This makes a
constant change of the angle between the propeller shaft, transmission, and the
differential. With this constant change of the angle, the transmission of power
would be impossible. Thus, the universal joint or cross joint should incorporate
with the propeller shaft to permit any changes of the angle between the propeller
Shatt, transmission and the differential.
For automobile use, a universal joint or cross provides a flexible connection
between two shafts so that one shaft may turn the other while at an angle with the other
one. A universal joint or cross joint is necessary when two shafts are not constantly at
the same angle or while the angle is varied.
Angularity Limits
The varying angle between the turning shafts must be less than 40
degrees. If it exceeds the maximum allowable angle, the transmission of power is
difficult because the turning force applied to one shaft would just simply turn the
cross around on its other yoke axis without turning the other shaft. Also, as the
angle gets bigger, the friction becomes greater resulting to excessive wear of
parts. It is therefore advisable that the angle should maintain its smaller size.
Types of Universal Joints for Cross Joints

There are various types of universal joints or cross joints but the most
common types used in modern automobiles are the cross and yokes, and the ball
and trunnion. However, the heavy duty vehicles use the constant velocity type.
Cross and Yoke Universal Joints
The exploded parts of a cross and yoke universal joint.

The assembly consists of two yokes which are connected with each other by the cross
or spider. Needle type roller bearings assembled inside the bearing caps are placed on
the trunnions of the spider to allow the spider to move freely between the yokes. The
spider provided with a grease fitting to facilitate greasing of the bearings. The cross or
spider through the bearing caps is locked in the yokes means of snap rings.
Figure 4.3 Cross and yoke universal joint
Ball and Trunnion Universal Joint.

This as different from the cross and yoke type A ball head is fastened to
the front end of the propeller shaft. This ball head had a hole where a trunnion or
a pin is inserted. Two steel halls are placed on both ends of the pin or trunnion
and these balls are fitted into the body Inside these ball are roller bearing that
support trunnion or pin. The body with the gasket and cover is bolted to the
transmission flange
Figure4.4 Ball and Trunnion Universal Joint.
Center Bearing
In the case of long trucks and some passenger automobiles, the drive shaft is
divided in two lengths and a supporting center bearing is utilized. This type of bearing is
used to stabilize the shaft and reduce vibration and “whip”. The whip comes from the
centrifugal force aided by any unbalance that may exist in the shaft.

Figure 4.5 Center Bearing
Propeller shaft and universal joints
The propeller shaft carries the driving power from the transmission to the
differential through universal joints. A universal joint is a coupling for joining two shaft
endwise so that one may turn the other while at angle and in all direction of course at
certain limits
Figure 4.5 Propeller shaft and universal joints
NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. What are the parts of the drive line?

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_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the duties of the drive line?
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3. How do you service the drive line?
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4. Differentiate cross joints from ball and trunnion universal joint.
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5. What are slip joints?
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Lesson 5
Differentials and Rear axles
Objectives:
 Describe the construction and operation of the differentials
 Differentiate live from dead axles

 Diagnose and service differential and axles.
Differential
When the automotive is running on straight roads, the distance travelled by the
left rear wheel is the same as the distance travelled by the right rear wheel, meaning
both rear wheels turn at the same time. However, when the car is turning a curve, the
distance travelled by the rear wheel differs. The inner wheel travels lesser distance than
the outer wheel. This movement is caused by the differential which makes the outer
wheel to turn faster thus preventing the wheels from skidding and eliminating excessive
wear of tires.
Figure5.1 Difference in wheel travel as a rear-wheel-drive vehicle makes a 90-degree

turn the inner wheel turning an a20-foot (6.1 m) radius
Construction of the differential
Figure5.2 A typical differential assembly
Differential drive pinion

This transmits power from propeller shaft to the differential ring gear. It is
supported in the differential carrier by two pinion bearings that keeps it free to rotate
during the transmission of power and also keeps it into proper alignment. Its outer end
is a splined shaft called drive pinion shaft that provides attachment for the differential
flange. The differential flange provides a means of connecting the rear cross joint and
propeller shaft to the drive pinion shaft.
Differential ring gear
This large ring gear is meshed with the drive pinion. This gear is attached to the
differential case and transmits power through it when power is transmitted to the
differential.
Differential case
The differential case which rotates with the ring gear encloses the differential
pinion or spider gears and side gears. It is supported in the differential.
Differential pinions or spider gears
Inside the differential case are two or four differential pinion held by a shaft called
pinion shaft or spider shaft. These gears are meshed with the side gears and permit one
side gear to rotate faster than the other when turns are made.
Differential side gears
Meshed with the differential pinion or spider gears are two side gears. One side
gear is connected to the left axle while the other is connected to the right axle. They
drive the axles when power is transmitted to them. In some designs, the side gears are
provided with internal splines where the splined end of the axles inserted
Axles housing
The axle housing is a steel casing where the axles and differential are encased.
It carries the weight of the vehicle transferred to it by the spring suspension. In turn, it
transfers this load to the supporting wheels through bearings.
Figure 5.3 Banjo type rear axle housing

Axles
Axles are straight shaft usually seen inside the axle housing and provide
attachment for the wheel and wheel hub. These drive the wheel when power is required
to move the vehicle. Their inner ends are splined and supported by the differential side
gears, while thin outer ends are supported by either roller bearing or ball bearing.

Figure 5.4 Plain axle
Rear Axle Troubles

1. Noise when pulling straight ahead
The possible causes of noise experienced when the engine is pulling the
car straight ahead are:
a. Not enough grade of oil
b. Wrong grade of oil
c. Poor quality of oil
d. Ring gear and pinion have excessive backlash
e. Ring gear and pinion worn
f. Pinion shaft bearings worn or loose
g. Pinion shaft end play excessive
n. Ring gear and pinion misaligned because of bent axle
i. Ring gear warped
j. Differential bearings worn or loose
k. Ring gear rivets or screws loose
i. Ring gear and pinion not matched set.
2. Noise when coasting in gear
Any axle noise which is heard when the engine is pulling the car is likely to
be heard when coasting although not as loud as when pulling.
If ring gear and pinion are meshed too tight, the noise will disappear when
the engine is pulling unless the gears are very tight.
3. Intermittent Noise
An intermittent noise maybe caused by any of the following
a. Warped ring gear
b. Loose ring gear rivets or screws
c. Ring gear improperly installed on differential case due to dirt or burrs

between the two
4. Knocks or clicks
A knock or click maybe caused by any of the following:
a. Plat spot on ring gear or pinion tooth or tooth chipped or particle of metal
lodged on tooth
b. Flat spot on bearing
c. Loose axle shaft key
d. Loose splined shafts
5. Noise on turns
This may be caused by:
a. Differential pinions or side gears chipped, scuffed or teeth broken
b. Differential pinions binding on pinion shaft
c. Differential pinions or side gears loose due to worn bushings or shaft
d. Excessive backlash between pinions and side gears
e. Excessive axle shaft end play
f. Contacting surfaces between side gear and differential case burred,
scored or otherwise damaged.
6. Oil leaks at axle ends
a. Oil level too high
b. Oil too light or poor quality
c. Axle shaft oil seals worn
d. Axle shaft bearing retainer loose
e. Hacked rear axle housing
f. Vent (if any) clogged
7. Oil leak at pinion shaft
The possible causes of oil leaks at pinion shaft are:
a. Oil level too high
b. Oil too light or poor quality
c. Pinion oil seal worn
d. Pinion oil seal retainer distorted, loose in housing or improperly installed
e. Universal joint companion flange hub rough, scored or out of round
f. Universal joint companion flange loose on pinion shaft
NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. What composes the rear axle assembly?

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2. How does the differential operate?
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3. What are the most common troubles of differential and rear axles?
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4. What are live and dead axles? Describe each.
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Lesson 6
Spring and suspension system

Objectives:
 Define and explain the function of the suspension system
 Explain the basic types of springs
 Explain the purpose of the shock absorber and how air shock are used in
automatic level
 Describe the construction and rear suspension using spring
 Describe the construction and the front suspension using coil spring, leaf spring
and torsion bars
 Explain electronic-ride control and air suspension and active drive and how they
works
Introduction
The suspension is a part of the car chassis, which is made of:
 The frame: This supports the car weight and engine (supported by the
suspension).
 The suspension system.
 The steering system.
 The tires and wheels.
Figure 6.1 Parts in a vehicle suspension system
Suspension
One of the most important part of your car is the suspension, the suspension
prevent you from shaking your car into pieces as you drive tons of metal at fast

speed on a road no matter how smooth the road is. Car suspension provides a
safe smooth ride to the car and passengers.
Spring
Spring serve as elastic connection between the frame and axles. Made of steel
metal, they absorb shocks produced when the vehicle encounter irregularities of the
road, thus, providing comfortable riding condition for passengers. They carry the weight
of the car to the axles and car wheels and maintain the body under extreme conditions.
Types of springs
They early models of automobile revealed leaf spring as a widely used
suspension medium. In later years, however, there has been a growing trend toward
coil spring and torsion bars in order to reduce friction in the suspension system. Air
suspension is also used as an optional equipment.
Leaf springs
Consist of several layers of metal (called "leaves") bound together to act
as a single unit. To get rid of friction between leaves it can be polished or
separated by plastic layers. They were first used in horse-drawn carriages and
then introduced into cars in the 1985s and they are still used in heavy duty
trucks.
Figure6.2 Leaf springs

Coil springs
Coil springs are the most type used Coil springs absorb the motion of the
wheels. (Springs can’t be used alone, because they are good at absorbing
energy but not good at dissipating it, that’s why we will introduce shock
absorbers).

Figure6.3 Coil spring
Torsion bars
Torsion bars use the twisting properties of a steel bar to provide coil-
spring-like performance. This is how they work: One end of a bar is anchored to
the vehicle frame. The other end is attached to a wishbone, which acts like a
lever that moves perpendicular to the torsion bar. When the wheel hits a bump,
vertical motion is transferred to the Wish bone and then, through the levering
action, to the torsion bar. The torsion bar then twists along its axis to provide the
spring Force.
Figure6.4 Longitudinal torsion bars attach at the lower control arm at the front and at
frame at the rear of the bar.
Anti-sway bars
Anti-sway bars (also known as anti-roll bars) are used along with shock
absorbers or struts to give a moving automobile additional stability. An anti-sway
bar is a metal rod that spans the entire axle and effectively joins each side of the
suspension together. When the suspension at one wheel moves up and down,
the anti-sway bar transfers movement to the other wheel. This creates a more
level ride and reduces vehicle sway. In particular, it combats the roll of a car on
its suspension as it corners.

Figure6.5 Anti-sway bars
Air springs
Air springs, which consist of a cylindrical chamber of air positioned

between the wheel and the car's body, use the compressive qualities of air to
absorb wheel vibrations. The concept is actually more than a century old and
could be found on horse-drawn buggies. Air springs from this era were made
from air-filled, leather diaphragms, much like bellows; they were replaced with
molded-rubber air springs in the 1930s.
Figure6.6 Air springs

Shock absorbers
Shock absorbers work in two cycles.
1. Compression cycle
2. Extension cycle.
Compression cycle
Occurs as the piston moves downward, compressing the hydraulic fluid in
the chamber below the piston.
Extension cycle
Occurs as the piston moves toward too top of pressure tube, compressing
the fluid in the chamber above the piston.
A typical car or light truck will have more resistance during its extension
cycle than its compression cycle. With that in mind, the compression cycle
controls the motion of the vehicle's unsprung weight, while extension controls the
heavier, sprung weight.
Struts and Anti-sway Bars
The shock absorbed provides damping but can’t provide structural support,
that’s why a strut is introduced also to provide damping and stability. Show in figure 6.8

Figure6.7 twin tube shock Absorber
Figure6.8 Struts and Anti-sway Bars

NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. What are the types of springs used in an automobile?

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2. What are the uses of spring?
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3. How do you remove a coil spring? A leaf spring?
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4. Define the role of the shock absorbers.
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5. How a shock absorber does operate?
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Lesson 7
Steering system
Objectives:
 Explain the purpose, construction and operation of automotive steering system.
 Describe the construction and operation of manual and power recirculating-ball,
rack and pinion steering gears.
 Explain the operation of variable ratio steering, variable assist power steering
and four wheel steering.
Steering System
The steering system provides a means of directing the vehicle according
to the driver's will. The direction of the vehicle is controlled through the steering
wheel which is mounted on one end of the steering shaft. The steering shaft is
covered by a tube called steering coulomb. The turning force exerted to the
steering wheel and steering shaft is transformed by steering gear through
steering linkage into a pivotal motion which causes the front wheels to change
from straight ahead position.
Manual steering system
Relies solely on the driver to provide steering force
Power steering
Uses hydraulic or electric power to help the driver apply steering force
Steering Gear
The steering gear converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel into a
straight line motion to move the front wheels during driving operation. It is
basically made up of a worn gear at the lower end of the steering shaft and a
sector where a pitman arm is attached. These parts are assembled inside a
steering gear housing which is bolted to the frame of the vehicle.

Figure7.1 Steering Gear type
Recirculating-Ball and bearing nut type
This type is also called recirculating ball steering gear. A ball nut and sets of steel
ball are used in addition to the worn sector. The ball nut is mounted on the worn through
the steel ball that are designed to provide frictionless drive between the worn and nut.
Figure7.2 Recirculating-Ball and bearing nut type

Steering linkage
When the steering wheel is rotated, the pitman arm is made to swing from
outside to the inside. This movement is then carried to the front wheels and enables
then to swing to the left or right. This connection is made possible through the steering
linkage which connects the pitman arm and steering knuckles.
Idler Arm Pitman Arm

Figure7.3 Steering gear box and Parallelogram linkage.
Rack and Pinion Systems
Most passenger vehicles today use rack and pinion steering systems. In
Generally contained is the one complete housing. The steering shaft connects to a
pinion shaft through a universal joint or coupler. The pinion gear meshes with a rack of
gear teeth.
Figure7.4 Parts of a Rack and Pinion steering gear

NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. State the main function of the steering system.

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2. How does the power steering differ from the manual steering?
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3. Describe the various types of steering linkage.
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4. Name ten possible causes of hard steering if you are operating a manual
steering system.
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5. Name ten possible causes of hard steering if you are operating a power steering
system.
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Lesson 8
Wheel Alignment
Objectives:
 Define the term “wheel alignment”
 Inspect tires, steering, and suspension systems before alignment
 Check and adjust caster, camber, and toe
 Summarize alignment equipment variations
Introduction
• Wheel alignment involves positioning the vehicle's tires so they roll properly
• Essential to safety, fuel economy and tire life
• A vehicle may require an alignment if:
– Damage to any steering or suspension parts or mounting locations
– Engine cradle damage or position change or suspension or steering parts
removed
– Damage to major structural components
Wheel Alignment Basics
• Caster is the angle of the steering axis of a wheel from true vertical, and has little
effect on tire wear
• Positive caster tilts the tops of the steering knuckles toward the rear of the
vehicle
• Negative caster tilts the tops of the steering knuckles toward the front of the
vehicle
• Unequal caster will cause the vehicle to steer toward the side with less caster
• Most common problem affecting caster is worn strut rod and control arm
bushings

Figure8.1 Note the difference between positive and negative caster. Caster affects whether the
car’s steering wheel pulls to the left or right while driving.
Camber
• Camber is the angle represented by the tilt of the wheels inward or outward from
the centreline
• Positive camber has the top of the wheel tilted out, when viewed from the front
• Negative camber has the top of the wheel tilted inward when viewed from the
front
• Camber is controlled by the control arms and their pivots
• Camber is affected by worn or loose ball joints, control arm bushings, and wheel
bearings
Figure8.2 Camber is the tilt of the wheel in or out from the centerline
when viewed from the front of the vehicle.
Toe
• Toe is the difference in the distance between the front and rear of the left- and
right-hand wheels
• Toe is critical to tire wear

• Toe-in: front of the wheels are set closer than the rear
• Toe-out: front of the wheels farther apart than the rear
• Rear-wheel-drive vehicles are often adjusted to have toe-in, front-wheel-drive
vehicles are adjusted to have a slight toe-out
Steering Axis Inclination
• Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is the angle between true vertical and the line
through the upper and lower pivot points
• SAI can be used in structural measurements to diagnose:
– Strut lower misalignment
– Shifted engine cradle or cross member
– Control arm mounting location damage
– Misalignment frame or body structure
Turning Radius
• Turning radius is the different amount each wheel moves during a turn
• Turning radius allows the inside wheel to turn a few degrees more than the
outside wheel
• Tracking is the parallel alignment of the rear wheels
• Rear-wheel tracks should be an equal distance from the front-wheel tracks
• Geometric centreline of the vehicle should parallel the road direction
Thrust Angle
• Thrust angle is the angle between the thrust line and the vehicle centreline
• Positive thrust angle results if the thrust line projects to the right of the centreline
• Negative thrust angle results if the thrust line projects to the left of the centreline
• Included angle is the sum of both camber and SAI angles
Wheelbase
• Wheelbase is the measurement between the center of the front and rear wheel
hubs
• Wheelbase is measured to determine the forward and rearward position of each
wheel
Set-Back
• Set-back is when one wheel is moved back
– May be caused by an impact to a front wheel assembly that moves a
lower control arm, engine cradle, or radius rod backwards
– May be designed into some suspension systems
Pre-Alignment Checks
• Visually inspect everything while the vehicle sits on the shop floor
– Reading tires involves inspecting the tire tread wear and diagnosing the
cause

• Measure the ride height from the shop floor to specific points on the vehicle
• Vehicle load affects the weight on the front suspension and affects alignment
angles
• Load in the trunk takes weight off the front and changes caster and camber
angles
• Inspect the underside of the vehicle with the vehicle raised
• Damaged parts must be repaired before adjusting alignment angles
• Road test the vehicle – check that the steering wheel is straight
• Feel for vibration in the steering wheel and floor of seats
• Notice any pulling or handling problems, and make sure the steering wheel is
cantered
Diagnostic Checks
• First diagnostic check should be a visual inspection of the entire vehicle
• Jounce-rebound check
– Jounce is the motion caused by a wheel going over a bump and
compressing the spring
– Rebound is the motion caused by a wheel going into a dip and extending
the spring
• Jounce-rebound check determines if there is misalignment in the rack-and-pinion
gear
Wheel Alignment Procedures
• The order of adjustment – caster, camber, and then toe – is recommended for all
vehicles
• Refer to the manufacturer’s service manual for details
• Mount the alignment equipment, following the equipment manufacturer's
instructions
• Check steering and axis inclination and camber, caster, turning radius and toe
• Document your readings and adjustment values
Alignment Equipment Variations
• Most modern wheel alignment equipment is computer controlled
• Greatly simplifies the wheel alignment process
• Approximately 80 percent of today's vehicles require front- and rear-wheel
alignment
• Collision repair usually requires at least a four-wheel alignment check
Road Test after Alignment
• After making wheel alignment adjustments, road test the vehicle
• Make sure the vehicle does not pull to one side of the road, vibrate, or exhibit
other troubles

NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. Why must be wheels properly aligned?

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2. How do you adjust for toe-in, toe-out, camber and caster?
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3. What is meant by kingpin inclination?
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4. Explain steering geometry?
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5. Name at least ten possible causes if the car pulls to one side under normal
driving conditions
a. __________ i. _______________
b. __________ j. _______________
c. __________
d. __________
e. __________
f. __________
g. __________
h. _________

Lesson 9
Brake system
Objectives
• Explain the basic principles of braking, including friction, pressure, and heat
dissipation
• Describe hydraulic system operation, including master cylinder, control valves,
and safety switches
• Understand the operation of power brakes
Introduction
• Kinetic energy: energy that wants to stay in motion
– Apply brakes to stop a car: dry friction changes motion energy to heat
energy
• Temperature in brake linings can be 600°F
– Friction resists movement between surfaces
– Coefficient of friction varies
• Temperature, rubbing speed, surface condition
– During a stop
• Vehicle weight shifts to front brakes
• Front breaks wear out faster
Types of Brake
Brakes are classified according to the way and the manner the braking
force is transferred from the foot pedal or hand lever to the brake shoes.
Mechanical brakes
The braking force is transmitted from the foot or hand lever to the brake
shoes by means of rods, shafts, or cables. In operation, the brake shoes contact
the surfaces of the brake drum as the hand lever is operated, pulled, or pressed.
A typical example is the parking hand brake.
Electric brakes
The principle of electromagnetism is applied on this type of braking action.
An electromagnetic device called armature is placed in the wheel brake
mechanisms and is magnetized when current from the battery passes through its
windings. This current is controlled by a switch on the foot pedal or hand lever.
As the switch is put on, the magnetized lever and cam actuate the brake shoes to
move and contact against the surface of the rotating drum.
Hydraulic brakes

The pedal is pressed by the foot which actuates a rod and forces the
brake fluid in a master cylinder to force all the brake shoes to contact the brake
drum based on the liquid or hydraulic principles. This is one of the most
commonly used braking systems in present-day automobiles.
Figure9.1 Depressing the brake pedal moves a piston in a master cylinder
Brake Linings
• Linings are bonded or riveted to disc backing
– Newer pads integrally molded
• Lining types
– Asbestos linings: health hazard
– Semi metallic linings: sponge iron and steel fibers
– Metallic linings: used in heavy-duty and racing conditions
– Ceramic linings: use ceramic and copper fibers to control heat
Drum brakes
• Used on rear of many vehicles
• When applied, brake shoes move outward against rotating brake drum
• When drum slows and stops, wheels also slow and stop
• Economical to manufacture, service, repair
• Used on front of most vehicles and rear of many
• Squeezes brake pads on both sides of rotor or disc attached to wheel
• Wheel slows and stops

Figure9.2 Typical drum brake assembly
Hydraulic Brake Fluid
• Glycol-based fluids are hygroscopic
– Absorb water
• Brake fluid
– Higher boiling point than water
• DOT specifications
– List both dry and wet boiling points
Figure9.3 DOT specification for both dry and wet boiling points of polyglycol brake
fluids
Brake Hose and Tubing
• Steel hydraulic brake tubing
– Runs the length of the vehicle
– Rubber hoses connect steel tubing to other components
• Flexibility needed to allow wheels to pivot
• Brake lines
– Made of double-walled steel tubing coated with rust-preventative material
– Replacing brake lines: copy originals as closely as possible

Figure9.4 Hydraulic lines and hoses connect the master cylinder to the wheel brake
units
Hydraulic System Operation
• Driver depresses the brake pedal

– Linkage applies force to piston at rear of master cylinder
• Master cylinder operation
– Supplies hydraulic pressure to wheel cylinders
• Primary cup compresses fluid when pedal is depressed
• Secondary cup keeps fluid from leaking out
• Seal lips are directional
– Seal installed backwards will leak
Low Brake Pedal
• Low pedal
– Brake pedal moves closer to floor before brakes applied
• Tandem master cylinder
– Cylinder bore with two pistons and chambers
• Master cylinder reservoirs
– Prevented from vacuum locking
• Rubber diaphragm in cover or plastic float
• Master cylinders
– Mounted on bulkhead
Quick Take-Up Master Cylinder
• Some disc brake calipers are designed to have less drag when brakes are not
applied
– More fluid needed to take up clearance
• Quick take-up master cylinder
– Moves larger amount of fluid when pedal first applied
– Rear of primary piston larger diameter than front
– Larger part of bore allows piston to move large volume of fluid more
quickly

Figure9.5 A quick take-up master cylinder has a bulge in the rear casting where the
bore is larger.
Disc Brakes
• Disc brake system has rotor and caliper
– Caliper clamps friction pads against rotor
• Rotors are solid or ventilated
– Lightweight solid used in lighter cars
– Ventilated have more surface area
– Used in heavier vehicles
• Brake calipers
• Caliper pistons hollow and cup-shaped
– Installed with open side against friction pad back
• Rear disc brake systems
– Have fixed or floating calipers
• Linings are fastened to metal back
– May have tabs on pad back that need to be bent during installation
– Some include wear sensor
• Metal tab rubs against rotor when lining wears thin
Figure9.6 Typical disc brake assembly
Hydraulic System Valves and Switches
• Tandem systems have a hydraulic safety switch
– Alerts drivers when half the system fails
• Some master cylinders have a fluid level switch

– Several designs
Figure9.7 Hydraulic System Valves and Switches
Hydraulic Control Valves

Metering valve Used on front disc brakes when car has rear drum brakes
Prevents front brakes applying until rear shoes overcome spring pressure and contact
drums Unnecessary with four-wheel disc brakes
Proportioning valves Prevent rear wheels from locking during hard stop
newer cars Equipped with antilock brakes
Power Brakes
Brake booster allows master cylinder to have larger bore, Brakes apply
with less pedal travel, has check valve to provide reserve braking, vacuum-
suspended power brake metal chamber divided by rubber diaphragm, air enters
through filter behind pedal pushrod boot other power brake types: are hydraulic
power assist, electric power assist, and hydro-boost systems
Parking Brake
Must operate independently of service brakes, cable connected hand
brake or foot brake and to an equalizer, cable from each rear wheel is attached
to both sides, pivots in center and applies each rear parking brake equally
warning light indicates when brake is applied, helps prevent damage to braking
system.
Antilock brake system
The purpose of antilock brake system is to prevent wheels from locking during
braking and friction between tire tread and road actually stops the vehicle
ABS does not mean that vehicle can stop quickly on all road surfaces; ABS uses
sensors at wheels to measure wheel speed. If wheel rotating slower than others,
indicates possible lockup ABS hydraulic controller reduces pressure to wheel for
fraction of second Controller reapplies pressure fraction of second later If wheel starts to
lock up, ABS system pulses brakes on and off to maintain directional stability with
maximum braking force.
NAME: ______________________________________________
DATE:____________________ Year./Course________________
1. What are the duties of the brake system?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What are the different types of brake system according to:
a. Function
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b. Application of brake shoes?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
c. Ways or manner of affecting and transferring the breaking force?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Describe the construction and operation of a mechanical brake.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Identify and describe the parts of a typical hydraulic brake system.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Explain how to bleed the hydraulic brake system.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Describe an air brake system. How does it differ from hydraulic brake system?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7. Enumerate the most common troubles and possible causes of these troubles in a
typical hydraulic brake system.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. How do you flush the hydraulic brake system?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. What precautionary measures must be observed in servicing the brake system?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
10. Enumerate procedure of adjusting brake shoe clearance.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

References
The Automotive Drive Trains and Chassis Unit , Felizardo Y. Francisco, copyright
2000.
Automotive Mechanic (Tenth Edition), William H. Crouse and Donald L. Anglin,
copyright 1993.

Module in Underchassis

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Module

Mr. Joey V. Rubrico

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 1

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 2

Module 1 Module 2 Module 3

The Clutch Assembly Differential and Rear Axles Steering System

Transmission and Springs and Suspension Brake Systems

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 3

Figure1.1 The Drive Train Unit (conventional)

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 4

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 5

2. Name the components of the automotive power or drive train?

3. What is the main function of the chassis unit?

4. Give the components of the automotive chassis.

5. How does a rear-drive vehicle differ from a front-drive one?

6. Explain briefly the meaning of all-wheel drive engines

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 6

• Describe the basic clutch parts

• Clutch disc pushed against flywheel with enough force

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 7

Figure2.2 Clutch Disc

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 8

Figure2.3 Pressure Plate

Types of Clutch Covers

Other designs are less common

Figure 2.4 Coil and Diaphragm spring

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 9

Figure2.5 coil spring clutch

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 10

Figure 2.6 A clutch pressure plate assembly with a diaphragm spring

Pilot Bearing or Bushing

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 11

Figure2.8 Release bearing

Clutch Release Methods

Figure2.10 Clutch Linkage

Figure 2.11 A cable operated clutch release.

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 13

Figure 2.12 Hydraulic Clutch operation

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 14

Figure 2.14 A clutch cable self-adjuster

Figure 2.15 Electronic Clutch

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 15

A. Multiple choices: Select the one correct answer, best, or most

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 16

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 17

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 18

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 19

Counter Gear Shaft

Figure 3.1 Components

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 20

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 21

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 22

The synchronizer mechanism is constructed of the following components:

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 23

Figure3.6 1st & 2nd Initial Synchronization

Figure 3.7 3rd Stage – Synchronization

Figure 3.8 Synchronizer Hub Sleeve & Splines

Transmission Power flow

 The input shaft drives the counter shaft

Figure 3.9 Power flow in neutral

Power flow in first gear

UNDER CHASSIS COMPONENTS 25