1

Yeditepe University MATH 439: Metric and Topological Spaces

Problems and Solutions 4

1. Let (X, τ ) be a topological space and Y ⊂ X. We have defined the

subspace topology on Y as

τ Y = {G ∩ Y : G ∈ τ }

Show that this is indeed a topology on Y .

Solution: We need to show that τ Y satisfies the axioms of a topology.

i) Note that ϕ, X ∈ τ , ϕ = ϕ ∩ Y and Y = Y ∩ X . Thus ϕ, Y ∈ τ Y .
ii) Let Vα ∈ τ Y for α ∈ I. Then there is an element Gα ∈ τ such that
Vα = Gα ∩ Y . We have G = ∪α∈I Gα ∈ τ , since τ is a topology.
Thus
∪α∈I Vα = ∪α∈I Gα ∩ Y = G ∩ Y ∈ τ Y
iii) Let V1 , . . . , Vn ∈ τ Y be a finite number of elements of τ Y . Then there
is an element Gi ∈ τ such that Vi = Gi ∩ Y for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n. We
have G = ∩1≤i≤n Gi ∈ τ , since τ is a topology. Thus

∩1≤i≤n Vi = ∩1≤i≤n Gi ∩ Y = G ∩ Y ∈ τ Y

Thus τ Y is a topology on Y .

2. Let X be a topological space, and let Y and Z be subpaces of X such that

Y ⊂ Z. Show that the topology which Y has as a subspace of X is the
same as that which it has as a subspace of Z.

Solution: Let τ be the topoloy on X. By definition the topology on Y

and Z are

τ Y = {G ∩ Y : G ∈ τ } and τ Z = {G ∩ Z : G ∈ τ }

, respectively since Y and Z be subpaces of X. Thus the topology

(τ Z )Y on Y as a subspace of Z is given by

(τ Z )Y = {H ∩ Y : H ∈ τ Z } = {G ∩ Z ∩ Y : G ∈ τ } = {G ∩ Y : G ∈ τ } = τ Y

since Z ∩ Y = Y .

3. Let f be a continuous mapping of a topological space X into a topological

space Y , If Z is a subspace of X, show that the restriction of f to Z is
continuous.
 2

Solution: Let g = f |Z. If W is an open subset of Y , then f −1 (W ) is

open in X since f is continuous. We also have
−1
g −1 (W ) = (f |Z) (W ) = Z ∩ f −1 (W ) ∈ τ Z = {G ∩ Z : G ∈ τ }

Thus g is continuous.

4. Let X and Y be topological spaces and f a mapping of X into Y . Show

that f is continuous ⇐⇒ f is continuous as a mapping of X onto the
subspace f (X) of Y .

Solution: Let Z = f (X). We first note that for any subset W of Y

f −1 (W ∩ Z) = f −1 (W ∩ f (X))

Thus σ be the topology on Y , and τ be the topology on X. σ Z is

given by
σ Z = {G ∩ Z : G ∈ σ}

f : X → Y is continuous ⇐⇒ ∀W ∈ σ, f −1 (W ) ∈ τ
⇐⇒ ∀W ∈ σ, f −1 (W ∩ Z) ∈ τ
⇐⇒ ∀V ∈ σ Z , f −1 (V ) ∈ τ
⇐⇒ f : X → Z is continuous

5. Let X, Y , and Z be topological spaces. If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are

continuous mappings, show that g ◦ f : X → Z is also continuous.

Solution: If W is an open subset of Z,
then g −1 (W ) is open in Y since g

is continuous. Thus f −1 g −1 (W ) is open in X since f is continuous.
We also have
−1
(g ◦ f ) (W ) = f −1 g −1 (W )

Thus g ◦ f : X → Z is continuous.

6. Give an example to show that a one-to-one continuous mapping of one

topological space onto another need not be a homeomorphism.

Solution: Let X = R with τ d = discrete topology. Let Y = R with

τ u = usual metric topology. Let f : X → Y be the identitiy map,
i.e. f (x) = x for each x ∈ X. Then f is a continuous bijection.
The inverse of f is also the identity map. But f = f −1 : Y → X
is not continuous. For W = {0} is an open subset of (X, τ d ) but
f −1 (W ) = {0} is not open in (Y, τ u ).

7. If X and Y are topological spaces, let X ∼ Y mean that X and Y are

homeomorphic. Show that this relation is reflexive, symmetric, and tran-
sitive.
 3

Solution:
i) X ∼ X since the identity map 1X : X → X is a homeomorphis.
ii) Suppose X ∼ Y . Then X and Y are homeomorphic. Hence there is
a homeomorphism f : X → Y . Then f −1 : Y → X is a homeomor-
phism. So Y ∼ X.
iii) Suppose X ∼ Y and Y ∼ Z. There are homeomorphisms f : X → Y
and g : Y → Z. Then
g◦f :X →Z
is a homeomorphism.So X ∼ Z.

8. Let f : X → Y be a mapping of one topological space into another. Show

that f is continuous

⇐⇒ f −1 (F ) is closed in X whenever F is closed in
Y ⇐⇒ f A ⊂ f (A) for every subset A of X.

Solution: Suppose that f is continuous. If F is closed in Y , then Y − F

is open in Y . Thus X − f −1 (F ) = f −1 (Y − F ) is open in X. Thus
f −1 (F ) is closed in X whenever F is closed in Y .
Now suppose that f −1 (F ) is closed in X whenever F is closed in Y .
Let A be a subset of X.
 
f (A) is closed in Y =⇒ f −1 f (A) is closed in X

Thus
   
A ⊂ f −1 (f (A)) ⊂ f −1 f (A) =⇒ A ⊂ f −1 f (A) =⇒ f A ⊂ f (A)

Now suppose that f A ⊂ f (A) for every subset A of X. Let G be
open in Y . Let A = X − f −1 (G) = f −1 (Y − G). We have


f A ⊂ f (A) = f (f −1 (Y − G)) ⊂ Y − G = Y − G
=⇒ A ⊂ f −1 f A ⊂ f −1 (Y − G) = A =⇒ A = A

So A is closed =⇒ f −1 (G) is open. Hence f is continuous.

9. Let X be a Hausdorff topological space and A ⊂ X. Show that A′′ ⊂ A′ .

In particular A′ is closed.

Solution: Suppose that there is a point x ∈ A′′ but x ∈

/ A′ . Then there
is an open neihgbourhood G of x such that

G ∩ A ⊂ {x}
′
Then G ∩ A′ contains a point y other than x since x ∈ A′′ = (A′ ) .
But

y ∈ G ∩ A′ , G is open an open set containing y

=⇒ G ∩ A contains a point other than y
 4

Thus we must have G ∩ A = {x}. x ̸= y and x, y ∈ G there are

disjoint open sets V and W contained in G such that x ∈ V and
y ∈ W since X is Hausdorff.

y ∈ W ∩ A′ ⊂ G ∩ A′ , W is open an open set containing y

=⇒ W ∩ A ⊂ G ∩ A = {x} contains a point other than y

his implies that x ∈ W ∩ V = ϕ, a contradiction. Thus A′′ ⊂ A′ .

10. A subset A of a topological space is perfect if A = A′ = derived set of A.

Show that a set is perfect ⇐⇒ it is closed and has no isolated points.

Solution: Suppose first that A is a perfect subset of a topological space

X. Then A = A′ . This shows that A is closed. If G is an open set
and G of x such that G ∩ A′ = G ∩ A = {x}, then G ∩ A must contain
a point other than x, a contardiction. Thus A has no isolated points.
Conversely suppose that A is closed and has no isolated points. Then
A′ ⊂ A. Suppose that x ∈ A − A′ . Then there is an open neihgbour-
hood G of x such that
G ∩ A = {x}
,i.e., x is an isolated point of A, a contradiction. Thus A = A′ .

11. If A is a subset of a topological space X, then

(X − A) = X − Int A and Int (X − A) = X − A

Solution: G = X − (X − A) Let A be a subset A of a topological space.

Bd A = ϕ =⇒ Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ∩ (X − A) = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ A =⇒ A is closed
Bd A = ϕ =⇒ Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ∩ A = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ X − (X − A) = Int A
=⇒ A is closed

12. Show that a subset of a topological space has empty boundary ⇐⇒ it is

both open and closed.

Solution: Let A be a subset A of a topological space.

Bd A = ϕ =⇒ Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ∩ (X − A) = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ A =⇒ A is closed
Bd A = ϕ =⇒ Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ∩ A = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ X − (X − A) = Int A
=⇒ A is closed

and

Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ⊂ A =⇒
=⇒ A ∩ (X − A) = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ A =⇒ A is closed
 5

13. Show that a subset of a topological space is closed ⇐⇒ it contains its

boundary.

Solution: Let A be a subset A of a topological space.

A is closed =⇒ A ⊂ A =⇒ Bd A = A ∩ (X − A) ⊂ A ⊂ A
and
Bd A ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ⊂ A =⇒ A ∩ (X − A) ∩ (X − A) = ϕ
=⇒ A ∩ (X − A) = ϕ =⇒ A ⊂ A =⇒ A is closed

14. Show that a subset of a topological space is dense ⇐⇒ it intersects every

non-empty open set.

Solution: We will show equivalent proposition : A subset of a topological

space is dense ⇐⇒ any open set which does not meet it is empty.
Let X be a topological space and A ⊂ X be a subspace of X. For an
open set G, X − G is closed. Hence
G ∩ A = ϕ ⇐⇒ A ⊂ X − G ⇐⇒ A ⊂ X − G ⇐⇒ G ∩ A = ϕ
This shows that if A = X and G is open set such that G ∩ A = ϕ,
then G = G ∩ X = G ∩ A = ϕ. Conversely if G ∩ A = ϕ, implies that
G = ϕ, then


X − A ∩ A = ϕ =⇒ X − A = ϕ =⇒ A = X

15. A topological space Y is Hausdorff if distinct points in Y have disjoint

open neighbourhoods. Let X and Y be topological spaces, Y be Hausdorff,
and A a be dense subspace of X. Let f, g : X → Y be two continuous
functions such that f |A = g|A. Show that f = g.

Solution: Let x ∈ X. We must show f (x) = g (x). Suppose to the

contrary that f (x) ̸= g (x). Then there are open subsets G and H
of Y such that
f (x) ∈ G, g (x) ∈ H, and G ∩ H = ϕ
since Y isHausdorff. We have
x ∈ f −1 (G) which is open in X since f is continuous,
x ∈ g −1 (H) which is open in X since g is continuous.
Thus W = f −1 (G) ∩ g −1 (H) is open in X and x ∈ W . We have
x ∈ X = A. Hence W ∩ A ̸= ϕ. Let a ∈ W ∩ A. We have y = f (a) =
g (a) since f |A = g|A. Thus
a ∈ W ∩ A = f −1 (G) ∩ g −1 (H) =⇒ y = f (a) ∈ G, y = g (a) ∈ G
So y ∈ G ∩ H = ϕ, a contradiction. Hence f (x) = g (x).
 6

16. A countably compact space is a topological space in which every countable

open cover has a finite subcover. Prove that a second countable space is
countably compact ⇐⇒ it is compact.

Solution: Clearly a compact space is countably compact. Thus we only

need to prove the ”if” part. Let X be countably compact and second
countable. Then X has a countable open base B. If U is a basic open
cover, then U is countable since it is a subset of B. Thus U has a
finite subcever, since X is countably compact. But this shows that
X is compact by a theorem we learned.

17. Let Y be a subspace of a topological space X. If Z is a non-empty subset

of Y show that Z is compact as a subspace of Y ⇐⇒ it is compact as a
subspace of X.

Solution: Let τ be the topology on X. hen we know

(τ Y )Z = τ Z

This proves the assertion.

18. Prove the converse of the Heine-Borel theorem: every compact subspace
of the real line is closed and bounded.
19. Generalize the preceding problem by proving that a compact subspace of
an arbitrary metric space is closed and bounded, (It should be carefully
noted that a closed and bounded subspace of an arbitrary metric space is
not necessarily compact.)
20. Show that a continuous real or complex function defined on a compact
space is bounded. More generally, show that a continuous mapping of a
compact space into any metric space is bounded.
21. Show that a continuous real function f defined on a compact space X
attains its infimum and its supremum in the following sense: if

a = inf {f (x) : x ∈ X} and b = sup {f (x) : x ∈ X}

then there exist points x1 and x2 in X such that f (x1 ) = a and f (x2 ) = b.
22. If X is a compact space, and if (fn ) is a monotone sequence of continuous
real functions defined on X which converges point wise to a continuous
real function f defined on X, show that (fn ) converges uniformly to f .
(The assumption that (fn ) is a monotone sequence means that either
f1 (x) ≤ f2 (x) ≤ · · · ≤ fn (x) ≤ · · · for all x ∈ X or f1 (x) ≥ f2 (x) ≥
· · · ≥ fn (x) ≥ · · · for all x ∈ X.
23. All projections, being open mappings, send open sets to open sets. Use
the Euclidean plane to show that a projection need not send closed sets
to closed sets.
 7

Solution 1 Consider the part of the hyporbola y = x1 in the first quadrant;

  
1
T = x, :x>0
x
 
in R2 . Let Zn = xn , x1n ∈ T be a convergent sequence in R2 convergint
to , say, (x, y). Then xn > 0 for each n implies that x = lim xn ≥ 0. We
also have
1
y = lim
xn
If x = 0 we would have y = ∞, a contardiction. Hence x > 0 and y = x1 .
This shows that  
1
lim Zn = (x, y) = x, ∈T
x
Hence T is closed in R2 .

p1 : R2 → R; π 1 (x, y) = 0

be the first projection.

p1 (T ) = (0, ∞)
and (0, ∞) is not closed in R.
Y
24. Let f be mapping of a topological space X into a product space Xi ,
i
and show that f is continuous ⇐⇒ pi f is continuous for each projection
pi .

Solution 2 If f is continuous, then pi f is continuous since the composi-

tion of continuous maps are continuous. Conversely suppose that pi f is
continuous for each projection pi . We must show f is continuous. Let
n
\
p−1


W = ij Uij
j=1

Y
be a basic open set in Xi where each Uij is open in Xij . We have
i
 
n n n
\ \
\
−1
f −1 (W ) = f −1  p−1 f −1 p−1



ij Uij  = ij U ij = pij f Uij
j=1 j=1 j=1

−1

pij f Uij is open in X for each 1 ≤ j ≤ n, since pij f is continuous
and Uij is open in Xij . Thus their intersection f −1 (W ) is open in X.
So the pre image of each basic open set under f is open in X. Thus f is
continuous.
 8

25. Let the index set I consist of all real numbers i in the closed unit interval
[0, 1]. I is to be considered as a set without any structure. Now let each
index i the topological space Xi be a replica of the closed unit interval
Y[0, 1]
with its usual topology. Show that the resulting product space X = Xi
i
is not second countable.
26. Let X, Y be metric spaces. Show that the product space X × Y is metriz-
able.

Solution 3 Let d be the metric on X and σ be the metric on Y . Let

δ ((x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )) = max (d (x1 , x2 ) , σ (y1 , y2 ))

We have seen that this is a metric on X × Y . Let τ be the product topology

and τ δ be the topology on X × Y induced by the metric δ. We will show
τδ = τ.
Let G ∈ τ and (x, y) ∈ G. Then there is a basic open set B × C ⊂ G such
that x ∈ B open ⊂ X and y ∈ C open ⊂ Y . Thus there are positive numbers
s, t such that x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ B and y ∈ Bt (y) ⊂ C. Let r = min (s, t).
Then

x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ B and Br (y) ⊂ C =⇒ Br ((x, y)) = Br (x)×Br (y) ⊂ B×C ⊂ G

Thus G ∈ τ δ .
Conversely let G ∈ τ δ and (x, y) ∈ G. There is a positive number r such
that Br (x) × Br (y) = Br ((x, y)) ⊂ G. This shows that G contains a
open
basic open set Br (x) × Br (y) ⊂ G such that x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ X and
open
y ∈ Br (y) ⊂ Y . Thus G ∈ τ .

27. Let X, Y , and Z be topological spaces, and consider a mapping z = f (x, y)

of the product set X × Y into the set Z. We say that f is continuous in
x if for each fixed y0 the mapping of X into Z given by z = f (x, y0 ) is
continuous. The statement that f is continuous in y is defined similarly. f
is said to be jointly continuous in x and y if it is continuous as a mapping
of the product space X × Y into the space Z.

(a) If all three spaces are metric spaces, show that f is jointly continuous
⇔ xn −→ x and yn −→ y implies f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).
(b) Show that if f is jointly continuous, then it is continuous in each
variable separately. Show that the converse of this statement is false
by considering the real function defined on the Euclidean plane by
f (x, y) = xy/(x2 + y 2 ) and f (0, 0) = 0.

Solution 4 (a) Suppose that f is jointly continuous, xn −→ x, yn −→

y,and z = f (x, y). Let ε > 0. Bε (z) is an open set in Z and hence
G = f −1 (Z) is an open set in X × Y since f is continuous. Moreover
 9

(x, y) ∈ G.since f (x, y) = z. Thus there are open spheres Bβ (x) and
Bγ (y) in X and Y , respectively such that

Bβ (x) × Bγ (y) ⊂ G

There are integers m, k such that

n ≥ m =⇒ xn ∈ Bβ (x) and n ≥ k =⇒ yn ∈ Bγ (y)

Now let N = max (m, k), then

n ≥ N =⇒ xn ∈ Bβ (x) and yn ∈ Bγ (y) =⇒ (xn , yn ) ∈ Bβ (x)×Bγ (y) ⊂ G =⇒ f (xn , yn ) ∈ Bε (z)

This shows that f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).

Conversey suppose that f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y) whenever xn −→ x and
yn −→ y. We assume that

p1 : X × Y → X and p2 : X × Y → Y

are projections. Let A be closed in Z. We must show f −1 (A) is closed.

Since X × Y is a metric space it suffices to show that if (xn , yn ) ∈ f −1 (A)
is a convergent sequence, then lim(xn , yn ) ∈ f −1 (A). Let (xn , yn ) ∈
f −1 (A) such that (xn , yn ) −→ (x, y) ∈ X ×Y . By continuity of the projec-
tions xn = p1 (xn , yn ) → p1 (x, y) = x and yn = p2 (xn , yn ) → p2 (x, y) = y.
Thus by the assumption f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).

f (xn , yn ) ∈ A, A is closed, and f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y) =⇒ f (x, y) ∈ A =⇒ (x, y) ∈ f −1 (A)

This shows that f −1 (A) is closed. Hence f is continuous and hence jointly
continuous.

28. Prove in detail that the open rectangles in Rn form an open base.

Solution 5 Let W = (a1 , b1 ) × · · · × (an , bn ) be an open rectangle and

x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ W . Let

r = min {xi − ai , bi − xi }
1≤i≤n

If y ∈ Br (x), then
v
u n
uX 2
|yi − xi | ≤ d (y, x) = t (yi − xi ) < r =⇒ ai < yi < bi
i=1

for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ W . This shows that W is open

in Rn . Thus it suffices to show that each sphere can be written as a union
of open rectangles. Let Br (x) be an open sphere. Let y ∈ Br (x). Let
r − d (y, x)
δ= √
n
 10

and
Wy = (y1 − δ, y1 + δ) × · · · × (yn − δ, yn + δ)
We clearly have y ∈ Wy . If z ∈ Wy , then
v v
u n u n
uX 2
uX 2 √
|zi − yi | < δ =⇒ d (z, y) = t (zi − yi ) < t δ = δ n = r−d (y, x)
i=1 i=1

for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus

d (z, x) ≤ d (z, y) + d (y, x) < r − d (y, x) + d (y, x) = r

This shows that y ∈ Wy ⊂ Br (x). Hence

[
Br (x) = Wy
y∈Br (x)

29. Show that every closed and bounded subspace of the n−dimensional uni-
tary space Cn is compact.

Solution 6 Let A be a closed and bounded subset of Cn = R2n . There is

a positive number r > 0 such that
2n
A ⊂ [−r, r]
2n
since A is bounded. We know that [−r, r] is compact. Thus [−r, r] is
compact since it is a product of compact spaces. Thus A is compact since
it is a closed subspace of a compact space.

30. A topological space is said to be locally compact if each of its points

has a neighborhood with compact closure. Show that a topological space
is locally compact ⇐⇒ there is an open base at each point whose sets
all have compact closures.

Solution 7 adasdadada

31. Observe that any discrete space is locally compact. Assuming that there
are topological spaces which are not locally compact (we assure the reader
that this is true), show that a continuous image of a locally compact space
need not be locally compact.

Solution 8 adasdadada

32. Let A be a subspace of a metric space X, and show that A is totally

bounded ⇐⇒ Ā is totally bounded.
 11

Solution 9 =⇒ Let A be totally bounded. Given ε > 0 there is a finite

a1 , . . . , an set in A such that
n
[
A⊂ B 2ε (ai )
i=1

Given x ∈ A there is an element a ∈ B 2ε (x) ∩ A. there is i such that

a ∈ B 2ε (ai ). Thus x ∈ Bε (ai ). This shows that
n
[
A⊂ Bε (ai )
i=1

Thus Ā is totally bounded.

⇐=Let A be totally bounded. Given ε > 0 there is a finite y1 , . . . , yn set
in A such that
[n
A⊂ B 2ε (yi )
i=1

For 1 ≤ i ≤ n there is an element ai ∈ B 2ε (yi ) ∩ A. If a ∈ A, then

ε ε ε
a ∈ A =⇒ (∃j) a ∈ B 2ε (yj ) =⇒ d (a, yj ) < =⇒ d (a, aj ) ≤ d (a, yj )+d (yj , aj ) < + = ε
2 2 2
This shows that
n
[
A⊂ Bε (ai )
i=1

Thus A is totally bounded.

33. Show that a subspace of Rn is bounded ⇐⇒ it is totally bounded.

Solution 10 =⇒ Let X be a bounded subspace of Rn . There is a positive

number M such that ∥x∥ ≤ M for all x ∈ X. Let ε > 0.

34. Prove the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem for Rn : if X is a closed and

bounded subset of Rn , then every infinite subset of X has a limit point in
X.
35. Show that a compact metric space is separable.

Solution 11n Let X be a compact

o metric space. For each nn ∈ N , the open o
cover Un = B n1 (x) : x ∈ X has a finite subcover Wn = B n1 (a) : a ∈ An
where An is a finite subset of X, since X is compact. We claim that
[∞
A= An is dense in X. For let U be a non-empty open set in X and
n=1
x ∈ U . There is a positive number r such that Br (x) ⊂ U . Choose n ∈ N
 12

such that n1 < r. There is an element a ∈ An such that x ∈ B n1 (a) since

Wn is a cover of X. Thus x ∈ B n1 (a) =⇒ a ∈ B n1 (x) ⊂ Br (x) ⊂ U =⇒
U ∩ A ̸= ϕ. Thus A is dense in X. A is also countable since it is a
countable union of finite sets.

36. Let A be a subspace of a complete metric space, and show that Ā is

compact ⇐⇒ A is totally bounded.

Solution 12 If Ā is totally bounded, then A is totally bounded since a

subspace of a totally bounded spaces is totally bounded. Thus Ā is compact
=⇒ Ā is totally bounded =⇒ A is totally bounded.
Conversely suppose that A is totally bounded. Let ε > 0. There is a finite
n
[
subset {a1 , . . . , an } of A such that A ⊂ B 2ε (ai ). Thus
i=1

n
[ n
[ n
[
Ā ⊂ B 2ε (ai ) = B 2ε (ai ) ⊂ Bε (ai )
i=1 i=1 i=1

Hence Ā is totally bounded. Ā is a closed subspace of a complete space.

Hence Ā is a complete and totally bounded metric space. Hence Ā is
compact.

37. Let X be a compact metric space and F a closed subspace of C(X, R) or

C(X, C). Show that F is compact if it is equicontinuous and

Fx = {f (x) : f ϵF }

is a bounded set of numbers for each point x in X.

Solution 13 adasdadada

38. Show that R∞ is not locally compact.

Solution 14 adasdadada

39. By considering the sequence of functions in C[0, 1] defined by

fn (x) = nx

for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/n, fn (x) = 1 for 1/n ≤ x ≤ 1, show that C[0, 1] is not

locally compact.

Solution 15 adasdadada
 13

40. All projections, being open mappings, send open sets to open sets. Use
the Euclidean plane to show that a projection need not send closed sets
to closed sets.

Solution 16 Consider the part of the hyporbola y = x1 in the first quad-

rant;   
1
T = x, :x>0
x
 
in R2 . Let Zn = xn , x1n ∈ T be a convergent sequence in R2 convergint
to , say, (x, y). Then xn > 0 for each n implies that x = lim xn ≥ 0. We
also have
1
y = lim
xn
If x = 0 we would have y = ∞, a contardiction. Hence x > 0 and y = x1 .
This shows that  
1
lim Zn = (x, y) = x, ∈T
x
Hence T is closed in R2 .
p1 : R2 → R; π 1 (x, y) = 0
be the first projection.
p1 (T ) = (0, ∞)
and (0, ∞) is not closed in R.
Y
41. Let f be mapping of a topological space X into a product space Xi ,
i
and show that f is continuous ⇐⇒ pi f is continuous for each projection
pi .

Solution 17 If f is continuous, then pi f is continuous since the compo-

sition of continuous maps are continuous. Conversely suppose that pi f is
continuous for each projection pi . We must show f is continuous. Let
n
\
p−1


W = ij Uij
j=1
Y
be a basic open set in Xi where each Uij is open in Xij . We have
i
 
n n n
\ \
\
−1
f −1 (W ) = f −1  p−1 −1 −1



ij Uij
 = f p ij U ij = pij f Uij
j=1 j=1 j=1

−1

pij f Uij is open in X for each 1 ≤ j ≤ n, since pij f is continuous
and Uij is open in Xij . Thus their intersection f −1 (W ) is open in X.
So the pre image of each basic open set under f is open in X. Thus f is
continuous.
 14

42. Let the index set I consist of all real numbers i in the closed unit interval
[0, 1]. I is to be considered as a set without any structure. Now let each
index i the topological space Xi be a replica of the closed unit interval
Y[0, 1]
with its usual topology. Show that the resulting product space X = Xi
i
is not second countable.
43. Let X, Y be metric spaces. Show that the product space X × Y is metriz-
able.

Solution 18 Let d be the metric on X and σ be the metric on Y . Let

δ ((x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 )) = max (d (x1 , x2 ) , σ (y1 , y2 ))

We have seen that this is a metric on X × Y . Let τ be the product topology

and τ δ be the topology on X × Y induced by the metric δ. We will show
τδ = τ.
Let G ∈ τ and (x, y) ∈ G. Then there is a basic open set B × C ⊂ G such
that x ∈ B open ⊂ X and y ∈ C open ⊂ Y . Thus there are positive numbers
s, t such that x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ B and y ∈ Bt (y) ⊂ C. Let r = min (s, t).
Then

x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ B and Br (y) ⊂ C =⇒ Br ((x, y)) = Br (x)×Br (y) ⊂ B×C ⊂ G

Thus G ∈ τ δ .
Conversely let G ∈ τ δ and (x, y) ∈ G. There is a positive number r such
that Br (x) × Br (y) = Br ((x, y)) ⊂ G. This shows that G contains a
open
basic open set Br (x) × Br (y) ⊂ G such that x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ X and
open
y ∈ Br (y) ⊂ Y . Thus G ∈ τ .

44. Let X, Y , and Z be topological spaces, and consider a mapping z = f (x, y)

of the product set X × Y into the set Z. We say that f is continuous in
x if for each fixed y0 the mapping of X into Z given by z = f (x, y0 ) is
continuous. The statement that f is continuous in y is defined similarly. f
is said to be jointly continuous in x and y if it is continuous as a mapping
of the product space X × Y into the space Z.

(a) If all three spaces are metric spaces, show that f is jointly continuous
⇔ xn −→ x and yn −→ y implies f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).
(b) Show that if f is jointly continuous, then it is continuous in each
variable separately. Show that the converse of this statement is false
by considering the real function defined on the Euclidean plane by
f (x, y) = xy/(x2 + y 2 ) and f (0, 0) = 0.

Solution 19 (a) Suppose that f is jointly continuous, xn −→ x, yn −→

y,and z = f (x, y). Let ε > 0. Bε (z) is an open set in Z and hence
G = f −1 (Z) is an open set in X × Y since f is continuous. Moreover
 15

(x, y) ∈ G.since f (x, y) = z. Thus there are open spheres Bβ (x) and
Bγ (y) in X and Y , respectively such that

Bβ (x) × Bγ (y) ⊂ G

There are integers m, k such that

n ≥ m =⇒ xn ∈ Bβ (x) and n ≥ k =⇒ yn ∈ Bγ (y)

Now let N = max (m, k), then

n ≥ N =⇒ xn ∈ Bβ (x) and yn ∈ Bγ (y) =⇒ (xn , yn ) ∈ Bβ (x)×Bγ (y) ⊂ G =⇒ f (xn , yn ) ∈ Bε (z)

This shows that f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).

Conversey suppose that f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y) whenever xn −→ x and
yn −→ y. We assume that

p1 : X × Y → X and p2 : X × Y → Y

are projections. Let A be closed in Z. We must show f −1 (A) is closed.

Since X × Y is a metric space it suffices to show that if (xn , yn ) ∈ f −1 (A)
is a convergent sequence, then lim(xn , yn ) ∈ f −1 (A). Let (xn , yn ) ∈
f −1 (A) such that (xn , yn ) −→ (x, y) ∈ X ×Y . By continuity of the projec-
tions xn = p1 (xn , yn ) → p1 (x, y) = x and yn = p2 (xn , yn ) → p2 (x, y) = y.
Thus by the assumption f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y).

f (xn , yn ) ∈ A, A is closed, and f (xn , yn ) −→ f (x, y) =⇒ f (x, y) ∈ A =⇒ (x, y) ∈ f −1 (A)

This shows that f −1 (A) is closed. Hence f is continuous and hence jointly
continuous.

45. Prove in detail that the open rectangles in Rn form an open base.

Solution 20 Let W = (a1 , b1 ) × · · · × (an , bn ) be an open rectangle and

x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ W . Let

r = min {xi − ai , bi − xi }
1≤i≤n

If y ∈ Br (x), then
v
u n
uX 2
|yi − xi | ≤ d (y, x) = t (yi − xi ) < r =⇒ ai < yi < bi
i=1

for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus x ∈ Br (x) ⊂ W . This shows that W is open

in Rn . Thus it suffices to show that each sphere can be written as a union
of open rectangles. Let Br (x) be an open sphere. Let y ∈ Br (x). Let
r − d (y, x)
δ= √
n
 16

and
Wy = (y1 − δ, y1 + δ) × · · · × (yn − δ, yn + δ)
We clearly have y ∈ Wy . If z ∈ Wy , then
v v
u n u n
uX 2
uX 2 √
|zi − yi | < δ =⇒ d (z, y) = t (zi − yi ) < t δ = δ n = r−d (y, x)
i=1 i=1

for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus

d (z, x) ≤ d (z, y) + d (y, x) < r − d (y, x) + d (y, x) = r

This shows that y ∈ Wy ⊂ Br (x). Hence

[
Br (x) = Wy
y∈Br (x)

46. Show that every closed and bounded subspace of the n−dimensional uni-
tary space Cn is compact.

Solution 21 Let A be a closed and bounded subset of Cn = R2n . There

is a positive number r > 0 such that
2n
A ⊂ [−r, r]
2n
since A is bounded. We know that [−r, r] is compact. Thus [−r, r] is
compact since it is a product of compact spaces. Thus A is compact since
it is a closed subspace of a compact space.

47. Let A be a subspace of a metric space X, and show that A is totally

bounded ⇐⇒ Ā is totally bounded.

Solution 22 If Ā is totally bounded, then A is totally bounded since a

subspace of a totally bounded spaces is totally bounded.
Conversely suppose that A is totally bounded. Let ε > 0. There is a finite
n
[
subset {a1 , . . . , an } of A such that A ⊂ B 2ε (ai ). Thus
i=1

n
[ n
[ n
[
Ā ⊂ B 2ε (ai ) = B 2ε (ai ) ⊂ Bε (ai )
i=1 i=1 i=1

Hence Ā is totally bounded.

48. Show that a subspace of Rn is bounded ⇐⇒ it is totally bounded.

 17

Solution 23 Let A be a bounded subset of Rn . There is a positive number

r > 0 such that
n
A ⊂ [−r, r] = B
n
since A is bounded. We know that [−r, r] is compact. Thus [−r, r] is
compact and hence it is totally bounded.. So A is totally bounded since a
subspace of a totally bounded spaces is totally bounded.
Conversely suppose that A is totally bounded. There is a finite subset
k
[
{a1 , . . . , ak } of A such that A ⊂ B1 (ai ). Let M = max {∥ai ∥ : 1 ≤ i ≤ k}.
i=1
So given any x ∈ A there is 1 ≤ j ≤ k such that x ∈ B1 (aj ). Thus we
have
∥x∥ ≤ ∥x − aj ∥ + ∥aj ∥ < 1 + M
This shows that A is bounded.

49. Prove the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem for Rn : if X is a closed and

bounded subset of Rn , then every infinite subset of X has a limit point in
X.

Solution 24 X is a closed and bounded subset of Rn ⇐⇒ X is a compct

subspace of Rn . But X is a metric space. Thus X is a compct subspace
of Rn ⇐⇒ every infinite subset of X has a limit point in X.

50. Show that a compact metric space is separable.

Solution 25n Let X be a compact

o metric space. For each nn ∈ N , the open o
cover Un = B n1 (x) : x ∈ X has a finite subcover Wn = B n1 (a) : a ∈ An
where An is a finite subset of X, since X is compact. We claim that
[∞
A= An is dense in X. For let U be a non-empty open set in X and
n=1
x ∈ U . There is a positive number r such that Br (x) ⊂ U . Choose n ∈ N
such that n1 < r. There is an element a ∈ An such that x ∈ B n1 (a) since
Wn is a cover of X. Thus x ∈ B n1 (a) =⇒ a ∈ B n1 (x) ⊂ Br (x) ⊂ U =⇒
U ∩ A ̸= ϕ. Thus A is dense in X. A is also countable since it is a
countable union of finite sets.

51. Let A be a subspace of a complete metric space, and show that Ā is

compact ⇐⇒ A is totally bounded.

Solution 26 If Ā is totally bounded, then A is totally bounded since a

subspace of a totally bounded spaces is totally bounded. Thus Ā is compact
=⇒ Ā is totally bounded =⇒ A is totally bounded.
 18

Conversely suppose that A is totally bounded. Let ε > 0. There is a finite

n
[
subset {a1 , . . . , an } of A such that A ⊂ B 2ε (ai ). Thus
i=1

n
[ n
[ n
[
Ā ⊂ B 2ε (ai ) = B 2ε (ai ) ⊂ Bε (ai )
i=1 i=1 i=1

Hence Ā is totally bounded. Ā is a closed subspace of a complete space.

Hence Ā is a complete and totally bounded metric space. Hence Ā is
compact.

52. Let X be a compact metric space and F a closed subspace of C(X, R) or

C(X, C). Show that F is compact if it is equicontinuous and

Fx = {f (x) : f ∈ F }

is a bounded set of numbers for each point x in X.

Solution 27 All we need to show is that We claim that F is bounded.

There is δ > 0 such that

d (x, y) < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (y)| < 1

for each f ∈ F since F is is equicontinuous. Let X be a compact metric

space. The open cover U = {Bδ (x) : x ∈ X} has a finite subcover
k
[
X= Bδ (xi )
i=1

For each 1 ≤ i ≤ k there is a positive number Mi such that

|f (xi )| ≤ Mi

for every f ∈ F . Let M = max1≤i≤k Mi . Now let x ∈ X. There is

1 ≤ j ≤ k such that x ∈ Bδ (xj ). Thus

d (x, xj ) < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (xj )| < 1 =⇒ |f (x)| < |f (xi )|+1 ≤ Mj +1 ≤ M

for every f ∈ F . This shows that F is bounded. By Ascoli’s theorem F is

compact.

53. Let X be the three-element set {a, b, c}, and let the topology consist of
the following subsets of X : ∅, {a}, {a, b}, {a, c}, X. Show that X is not a
T1 −space.

Solution 28 The set {a} is not closed since X − {a} = {b, c} is not an
open set. So X is not a T1 −space.
 19

54. Let X be any infinite set, and let the topology consist of the empty set ∅
together with all subsets of X whose complements are finite. Show that
X is a T1 −space but not Hausdorff space.

Solution 29 Given a point x ∈ X, X −{x} is open since X −(X − {x}) =

{x} is finite. Hence {x} is closed. This shows that X is a T1 −space. Let
U and V be two non empty open sets in X. Then by definition X − U is
finite and X − V is finite. Hence (X − U ) ∪ (X − V ) = X − (U ∩ V ) is
finite. Thus U ∩ V ̸= ϕ since X is infinite. This shows no pair of distinct
points in X can be seperated by open sets.

55. Show that any finite T1 −space. is discrete.

Solution 30 Let X = {x1 , . . . , xn } be a finite T1 −space. {xi } is closed

for each i = 1, . . . , n. Thus given any subset A of X we have
[
A= {xi }
xi ∈A

is closed since finite union of closedsets is closed. Thus each subset B of

X is open since X − B is closed. Hence X is discrete.

56. If X is a T1 −space with at least two points, show that an open base which
contains X as a member remains an open base if X is dropped.

Solution 31 Let B be an open base containing X. Let C = B − {X}. We

must show C is also a base. Let

x ∈ V open ⊂ X

Pick any point y ∈ X such that x ̸= y. Then

x ∈ W = V ∩ (X − {y}) ⊂ V ⊂ X

Thus there is an element B of B such that x ∈ B ⊂ W ⊂ U . But y cannot

be in B since y does not belong to W . Thus B ̸= X. This shows that
B ∈ C. Hence C is a basis.

57. Let X be a topological space, F a Hausdorff space, and A a subspace of X.

Show that a continuous mapping of A into Y has at most one continuous
extension to a mapping of Ā into F .

Solution 32 Let f, g : Ā → F be two continuous functions such that

f (a) = g (a) for each a ∈ A. Let x ∈ Ā. We must show that f (x) = g (x).
Suppose to the conrary that f (x) ̸= g (x). Then there are open sets V and
W in F such that

f (x) ∈ V , g (x) ∈ W , and V ∩ W = ϕ

 20

since F is Hausdorff. Since f, g : Ā → F are continuous, then G =

f −1 (V ) ∩ g −1 (W ) is an open set in A containing x. Thus

∃a ∈ G ∩ A =⇒ f (a) = g (a) ∈ V ∩ W = ϕ

a contardiction. Hence f (x) = g (x).

58. If f is a continuous mapping of a topological space X into a Hausdorff

space F , prove that the graph of f is a closed subset of the product X ×Y .

Solution 33 By definition the graph of f is the set

G = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ X}

If (x, y) ∈
/ G, then y ̸= f (x). Hence there are open sets V and W in Y
such that
f (x) ∈ V , y ∈ W , and V ∩ W = ϕ
since Y is Hausdorff. Since f : X → F is continuous, then L = f −1 (V )
is an open set in X containing x. Thus N = L × W is an open set in
X × Y containing (x, y). If (t, s) ∈ N = L × W , then

t ∈ L, s ∈ W =⇒ f (t) ∈ V , s ∈ W =⇒ f (t) ̸= s since V ∩ W = ϕ

Thus (x, y) ∈ N ⊂ X × Y − G. This shows that X × Y − G is open which

iplies that G is closed in X × Y .

59. Let X be any non-empty set, and prove that in the lattice of all topologies
on X each chain has at most one compact Hausdorff topology as a member.
(It is interesting to speculate about whether a compact Hausdorff topology
can be defined on an arbitrary nonempty set.)

Solution 34 Let τ and σ be topologies on X, τ ⊂ σ, (X, σ) is compact,

Hausdorff, and (X, τ ) is Hausdorff. We claim that τ = σ. This will
show that if a chain of Hausdorff topologies contains a compact Hausdorff
topology, then it must be the smallest one in this chain. Now, let G ∈ σ.
Let x ∈ G. For each y ∈ X − G there are open sets Vy and Wy in (X, τ )
such that
x ∈ Vy , y ∈ Wy , and Vy ∩ Wy = ϕ
since (X, τ ) is Hausdorff. Vy and Wy are also open in (X, σ) since τ ⊂ σ.

X−G is closed in (X, σ) =⇒ X−G is compact =⇒ {Wy : y ∈ X − G} has a finite subcover {Wy1 , . .

Now if Nx = Vy1 ∩ · · · ∩ Vyn , then x ∈ Nx ∈ τ and x ∈ Nx ⊂ G since

n
! n
[ [
Nx ∩ (X − G) ⊂ Nx ∩ Wyi ⊂ (Vyi ∩ Wyi ) = ϕ
i=1 i=1
 21

Thus [
G= Nx ∈ τ
x∈G

This shows that τ = σ.

60. Let X be an arbitrary topological space and {xn } a sequence of points in

X. This sequence is said to be convergent if there exists a point x in X
such that for each neighborhood G of x a positive integer n0 can be found
with the property that xn is in G for all n ⩾ n0 . The point x is called a
limit of the sequence, and we say that xn converges to x (and symbolize
this by xn −→ x).

(a) Let X be any non-empty set, and let the topology consist only of
the empty set ∅ and the full space X. Show that in X any sequence
converges to every point of the space. This is the reason why the
above point x is called a limit instead of the limit.
(b) If X is a Hausdorff space, show that every convergent sequence in X
has a unique limit.
(c) Show that if f : X −→ Y is a continuous mapping of one topological
space into another, then xn −→ x in X =⇒ f (xn ) −→ f (x) in
Y . Prove that the converse of this is true if each point in X has a
countable open base.

Solution 35 (a) Let {xn } be a sequence of points in X and x ∈ X. The

only open set containg x is X. Thus if we take n0 = 1, then n ≥ n0 =
1 =⇒ xn is in X. Hence xn converges to x.
(b) Let {xn } be a sequence of points in X, x, y ∈ X, xn −→ x, and
xn −→ y. If x ̸= y, then there are open sets V and W in X such that

x ∈ V , y ∈ W , and V ∩ W = ϕ

since X is Hausdorff. There are positive integers n1 and n2 such that

n ⩾ n1 =⇒ xn ∈ V and n ⩾ n2 =⇒ xn ∈ W

If m = max {n1 , n2 }, then

xm ∈ V ∩ W = ϕ

a contardiction. Hence x = y.
(c) Let f : X −→ Y be continuous and xn −→ x in X. Let G be an
open set in Y containing f (x). Then f −1 (G) is an open set since f is
continuous and x ∈ f −1 (G). Thus there is positive integers n0 such that

n ⩾ n0 =⇒ xn ∈ f −1 (G) =⇒ f (xn ) ∈ G
 22

Thus f (xn ) −→ f (x) in Y .

Suppose that X has a countable open base B = {Bn : n ∈ N}. Suppose that

xn −→ x in X =⇒ f (xn ) −→ f (x) in Y.

We must show that f is continuous. Let B = {Bn : n ∈ N} be a base for

countable sets in X. Let

{n ∈ N : x ∈ Bn } = {k1 , k2 , . . . , kn , . . .}

where
k1 < k2 < . . . < kn < . . .
We let
n
\
Cn = Bki
i=1

for n ∈ N. Given any open set G such that x ∈ G, there exists kn such
that
x ∈ Bkn ⊂ G
since B is a base for open sets. Thus x ∈ Cn ⊂ G. is countable. Now,
suppose that f is not continuous. Then there is a point x ∈ X such that f
is not continuous at x. So there is an open set V in Y such that f (x) ∈ V
and if G is any open set in X containing x, then f (G) ⊊ V . For each
n ∈ N pick xn ∈ Cn such that f (xn ) ∈ / V . Given any open set G such
that x ∈ G, there exists m such that x ∈ Cm ⊂ G. For each n ≥ m we
have
xn ∈ C n ⊂ C m ⊂ G
Thus xn → x. By our assumption we have f (xn ) −→ f (x) in Y . Thus
there exists N ∈ N such that f (xn ) ∈ V for each n ≥ N . In particular
f (xN ) ∈ V , a contardiction. Hence f is continuous.

61. Show that a closed subspace of a normal space is normal.

Solution 36 Let X be normal and F be a closed subspace. Let A and B

be two disjoint closed subsets of F . Then A and B are also closed subsets
in X since F is a closed subspace. Hence there are disjoint open sets G
and H in X containing A and B, respectively since X is normal. G ∩ F
and H ∩ F are disjoint open sets in F containing A and B, respectively.
This shows that disjoint closed sets in F can be seperated by disjoint open
sets in F ,i.e. F is normal.

62. Show that X is normal ⇐⇒ each neighborhood of a closed set F contains

the closure of some neighborhood of F .
 23

Solution 37 Let X be normal and F be a closed set in X. Let V be an

open set in X such that F ⊂ V . We have F ∩ (X − V ) = ϕ. So F, X − V
are disjoint closed sets in X. Thus there are disjoint open sets G and H
in X containing F and X − V , respectively since X is normal.

G ∩ H = ϕ =⇒ G ⊂ X − H =⇒ G ⊂ X − H = X − H

Since X − H is closed. Thus

F ⊂ G ⊂ G ⊂ X − H ⊂ X − (X − V ) = V

Conversely suppose that each neighborhood of a closed set F contains the

closure of some neighborhood of F . Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets
in X. Then A ⊂ X − B open ⊂ X. Thus there is an open set G such that
open

A ⊂ G ⊂ G ⊂ X − B =⇒ A ⊂ G, B ⊂ X − G , and G ∩ X − G = ϕ

This shows that X is normal.

63. In the text we used Urysohn’s lemma as a tool to prove Tietze’s theorem.
Reverse this process, and deduce Urysohn’s lemma from Tietze’s theorem.

Solution 38 Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets in X. Define f :

A ∪ B → [0, 1] by 
0 x∈A
f (x) =
1 x∈B
f is continuous on A ∪ B. Thus it has a continuous extension, which we
still denote by f , f : X → [0, 1]. If we let
   
1 2
U = f −1 0, and V = f −1 ,1
3 3

Then U and V are open in X since f is continuous. We alse have

A ⊂ U , B ⊂ V , and U ∩ V = ϕ

Hence X is normal.

64. State and prove a generalization of Tietze’s theorem which relates to func-
tions whose values lie in Rn .

Solution 39 Let X be a normal space, A a closed subspace of X and

f : A → R be continuous. Let
2
φ : R → (−1, 1) ⊂ [−1, 1] , φ (x) = arctan x
π
 24

Solution: Then ψ : (0, 1) → R defined by

π 
ψ (x) = tan x : (−1, 1) → R
2
is the continuous inverse of φ. φ ◦ f : A → (−1, 1) ⊂ [−1, 1] has a
continuous extension G : X → [0, 1]. Now let
C = G−1 (−1) and D = G−1 (1)
C and D are closed subsets of X and
A ∩ (C ∪ D) = ϕ
since if a ∈ A, then G (a) = φ (f (a)) ∈ (−1, 1). Thus by Urysohn’s
Lemma there is a continuous function h : X → [−1, 1] such that h (A) = 1
and h (C ∪ D) = 0. Now let
F (x) = ψ (h (x) G (x))
Given a ∈ A
F (a) = ψ (h (a) G (a)) = ψ (G (a)) = ψ (φ (f (a))) = f (a)
Thus F is a continuous extension of f . Now let f : A → Rn be continuous.
f is of the form
f (a) = (f1 (a) , . . . , fn (a))
where fi : A → R is continuous for i = 1, . . . , n. Let Fi : X → R be a
continuous extension of fi . Then the function F : X → Rn defined by
F (x) = (F1 (x) , . . . , Fn (x))
is a continuous extension of f .

65. Show that a compact Hausdorff space is metrizable ⇐⇒ it is second

countable.

Solution 40 This is proved in class.

66. Show that a topological space is connected ⇐⇒ every non-empty proper

subset has a non-empty boundary.

Solution 41 Let A ⊂ X .
Bd A = ϕ ⇐⇒ A ∩ X − A = ϕ ⇐⇒ A ∩ (X − int A) = ϕ ⇐⇒ A ⊂ int A
We know that A ⊂ A and int A ⊂ A. Hence Bd A = ϕ ⇐⇒ A = A = int A.
This proves that if a subset of X set A has empty boundary if and only if
A is clopen. Thus
A topological space is connected ⇐⇒ there is no non-empty proper clopen
subset ⇐⇒ every non-empty proper subset has a non-empty boundary.
 25

67. Show that a topological space X is connected ⇐⇒ for every two points
in X there is some connected subspace of X which contains both.

Solution 42 If X is connected, then every two points in X is contained

in X which is connected. Conversely suppose that every two points in X
there is some connected subspace of X which contains both. Let C = [x] be
the connected component of X containing x. If y ∈ X, then by hypothesis
there is a connected subspace D of X which contains x and y. But x ∈
C ∩ D =⇒ C ∪ D is connected. We have C ⊂ C ∪ D =⇒ C = C ∪ D since
connected components are maximal connected subspaces of X. This shows
that y ∈ X and hence X ⊂ C =⇒ X = C. So X is connected

68. Prove that a subspace of a topological space X is disconnected ⇐⇒ it

can be represented as the union of two non-empty sets each of which is
disjoint from the closure (in X) of the other.

Solution 43 Let A ⊂ X. Let us first assume that A is disconnected. Let

B be a proper subset of A which is both open and closed in A. There is
are open sets G, H in X such that B = G ∩ A and A − B = H ∩ A. Then
H ∩B = H ∩ G ∩ A = (H ∩ A) ∩ (G ∩ A) = (A − B) ∩ B = ϕ =⇒ H ∩ B = ϕ since H is
=⇒ (A − B) ∩ B ⊂ H ∩ B = ϕ
G ∩ (A − B) = G ∩ H ∩ A = (G ∩ A) ∩ (H ∩ A) = B ∩ (A − B) = ϕ =⇒ G ∩ A − B = ϕ since G
=⇒ B∩A−B ⊂G∩A−B =ϕ
Thus
A = B ∪ (A − B) where (A − B) ∩ B = B ∩ A − B = ϕ

Conversely suppose that A the union of two non-empty sets B and C such
that C ∩ B = B ∩ C = ϕ. Then





A = B∪C =⇒ C∩A = C ∩ B ∪ C ∩ C = C and B∩A = B ∩ B ∪ B ∩ C = B
Thus B and C is a diconnection of A by disjoint non-empty closed sets.
Hence A is disconnected.

69. Show that the graph of a continuous real function defined on an interval
is a connected subspace of the Euclidean plane.

Solution 44 Let I be an interval and f : I → R be continuous. Define

g : I → I × R by g (t) = (t, f (t))
Since each coordinate is continuous, then g : I → R2 is continuous. The
graph
Gf = {(t, f (t)) : t ∈ I}
of f is the image g (I). I is connected, g is continuous. Hence Gf = g (I)
is connected.
 26

70. Show that if a connected space has a non-constant continuous real function
defined on it, then its set of points is uncountably infinite.

Solution 45 Let X is connected and f : X → R be continuous. f (X)

is connected. Thus if f (X) is not sinleton. Only non-sinleton connected
subspaces of R are intervals. So J = f (X) is an interval. So X has at
least as many points as J. Thus X has uncountably infinite points.

71. If A1 , A2 , ..., An , ... is a sequence of connected subspaces of a topologi-

cal space each of which intersects its successor, show that (∪∞ n=1 An ) is
connected.

Solution 46 Let (An )n∈N be a sequence of connected subspaces of X, such

[∞
that An ∩ An+1 ̸= ϕ for all n ∈ N. Let A = An . Let C be a clopen
n=1
and non empty subset of A. First note that C ∩ An is clopen and An is
connected for each n ∈ N. Thus either C ∩ An = An in case C ∩ An ̸= ϕ
or C ∩ An = ϕ for each n ∈ N. Let us set

Q = {n ∈ N : C ∩ An = An } and P = {n ∈ N : C ∩ An = ϕ}

Since C ̸= ϕ, then C ∩ Am ̸= ϕ for some m. Thus m ∈ Q. We want to

show that P = ϕ. Suppose that P ̸= ϕ. Let

k = min Q and s = min P

Clearly k ̸= s. If k < s, then k ≤ s − 1 < s. Thus by the minimality of s

we have s − 1 ∈ Q. Hence

As−1 ∩C = As−1 =⇒ ϕ ̸= As−1 ∩As = (As−1 ∩ C)∩As = As−1 ∩(C ∩ As ) = ϕ

a contradiction. If s < k, then s ≤ k − 1 < k. Thus by the minimality of

k we have k − 1 ∈ P . Thus

Ak−1 ∩C = ϕ =⇒ ϕ ̸= Ak−1 ∩Ak = Ak−1 ∩(C ∩ Ak ) = (Ak−1 ∩ C)∩Ak = ϕ

a contradiction. Thus we must have P = ϕ. Thus Q = N and hence

∞
[ ∞
[
C =A∩C = (An ∩ C) = An = A
n=1 n=1

This shows that A is connected.

72. Show that the union of any non-empty class of connected subspaces of a
topological space each pair of which intersects is connected.
 27

Solution 47 Let (Ai )i∈Λ be a non-empty class of connected subspaces of

[
X such that Ai ∩ Aj ̸= ϕ for all i, j ∈ Λ. Let A = Ai . Let C be a
i∈Λ
clopen and non empty subset of A. Since C ̸= ϕ, then C ∩ Ai0 ̸= ϕ for
some i0 ∈ Λ. Let i ∈ Λ. Then we know that Ai0 ∩ Ai ̸= ϕ. Thus Ai0 ∪ Ai
is connected. C ∩ (Ai0 ∪ Ai ) is clopen and non-empty. Hence

C ∩ (Ai0 ∪ Ai ) = Ai0 ∪ Ai

This shows that

!
[ [ [ [
C = C∩A = C∩ Ai = C∩ (Ai0 ∪ Ai ) = (C ∩ (Ai0 ∪ Ai )) = (Ai0 ∪ Ai ) = A
i∈Λ i∈Λ i∈Λ i∈Λ

This shows that A is connected.

73. The product of any non-empty class of connected spaces is connected.

Solution 48 Let {Xi }i∈Λ be Ya non-empty class of connected spaces. Pick

a fixed element (ai ) ∈ X = Xi . For a finite subset F ⊂ Λ define
i∈Λ
Y
AF = Yi where Yi = {ai } for i ∈ Λ − F and Yi = Xi for i ∈ F
i∈Λ

Clearly Y
AF ≃ Xi
i∈F

Thus each AF is connected, since we have proved that a finite product

of non-empty connected spaces is connected. Each AF contains the point
(ai ). Thus [
A= AF
F finite ⊂Λ

is connected. It easy to see that A = X. Thus X is connected.

74. An arbitrary Banach space B is connected.

Solution 49 Let B be a Banach space over the field F where F = R or

F = C. Both of theese fields are connected and given any non-zero x in
B, Fx is homeomorphic to F. Thus [ each Fx is connected. Each of these
sets contain 0 · x = 0. Thus B = Fx is connected.
x∈B−{0}
 28

75. Let B be an arbitrary Banach space. A convex set in B is a non-empty

subset S with the property that if x and y are in S, then

z = x + t(y − x) = (1 − t)x + ty

is also in S for every real number t such that 0 ≤ t ≤ 1. Intuitively, a

convex set is a non-empty set which contains the segment joining any pair
of its points. Prove that every convex subspace of B is connected. Prove
also that every sphere (open or closed) in B is convex, and is therefore
connected.

Solution 50 Let C be a non-empty convex subset of B. Pick a fixed point

a ∈ C. For x ∈ C define

α : [0, 1] → C by α (t) = c + t(x − a) ∈ C

We have
∥α (t) − α (s)∥ = |t − s| ∥x − a∥
Thus α is continuous. This shows
\ that Ax = α ([0,
[ 1]) is connected which
contains a and x. Since a ∈ Ax , then C = Ax is connected. Let
x∈C x∈C
S = Br (a) be a sphere with radius r and center a. If x, y ∈ S and
0 ≤ t ≤ 1, then

∥z − a∥ = ∥(1 − t)x + ty − a∥ ≤ (1−t) ∥x − a∥+t ∥y − a∥ < (1−t)r+tr = r

Thus z ∈ S. This shows that S is convex. The proof for the closed sphere
is similar.

76. Show that an open subspace of the complex plane is connected ⇐⇒ every
two points in it can be joined by a polygonal line.

Solution 51 Let W be a connected open non-empty subset of the complex

plane. Pick a fixed point a ∈ W . Define

P = {w ∈ W : there is a polygonal line in W from a to w}

Let w ∈ P ⊂ W and ℓ be a polygonal line in W from a to w. There is a

positive number δ such that Bδ (w) ⊂ W since W is open. Given any z ∈
Bδ (w) the line segment −→ from w to z is a subset of B (w) since B (w)
wz δ δ
−→
is convex. ℓ∪ wz is a polygonal line in W from a to z. Thus z ∈ P . This
shows that Bδ (w) ⊂ P . Thus P is open.
W
Let z ∈ P = the closure of P in W . There is a positive number δ such
that Bδ (z) ⊂ W since W is open and z ∈ W . Bδ (z) ∩ P ̸= ϕ since
W
z ∈ P and Bδ (z) is open. Say w ∈ Bδ (z) ∩ P . Let ℓ be a polygonal line
in W from a to w. The line segment −
→ from w to z is a subset of B (z)
wz δ
 29

since Bδ (z) is convex. ℓ∪ −

→ is a polygonal line in W from a to z. Thus
wz
z ∈ P . This shows that P is closed. Thus P = W since W is connected.
Thus every two points in it can be joined by a polygonal line in W .
Suppose that every two points in it can be joined by a polygonal line in W .
Pick a fixed point a ∈ W . For x ∈ W pick a polygonal line Ax from \ a to x.
Note that each polygonal line ,s connected. ( Why? ) Since a ∈ Ax ,
x∈C
[
then W = Ax , then W is connected.
x∈C

77. Consider the union of two open discs in the complex plane which are
externally tangent to each other. State whether this subspace of the plane
is connected or disconnected, and justify your answer. Do the same when
one disc is open and the other closed, and when both are closed.

Solution 52 adasdadada

78. Consider the following subspace of the Euclidean plane: {(x, y) : x ̸= 0

and y = sin(1/x)}. Is this connected or disconnected? Why? Answer
the same questions for the subspace {(x, y) : x ̸= 0 and y = sin(1/x)} ∪
{(x, y) : x = 0 and −1 ≤ y ≤ 1}.

Solution 53 adasdadada

79. Prove that the product of any non-empty class of totally disconnected
spaces is totally disconnected.

Solution 54 adasdadada

80. Prove that a totally disconnected compact Hausdorff space is homeomor-

phic to a closed subspace of a product of discrete two-point spaces.

Solution 55 adasdadada

81. Prove that a topological space X is locally connected if the components

of every open subspace of X are open in X.

Solution 56 adasdadada

82. A connected subspace of a locally connected space X is locally connected if

X is the real line. Why? Is this true if X is an arbitrary locally connected
space?

Solution 57 adasdadada
 30

83. Show that a compact locally connected space has a finite number of com-
ponents.

Solution 58 adasdadada

84. Show that the image of a locally connected space under a mapping which
is both continuous and open is locally connected.

Solution 59 adasdadada

85. Prove that the product of any non-empty finite class of locally connected
spaces is locally connected.

Solution 60 adasdadada

86. Show that the product of an arbitrary non-empty class of locally connected
spaces can fail to be locally connected. (Hint: consider a product of
discrete two-point spaces.)

Solution 61 adasdadada

87. Prove that the product of any non-empty class of connected locally con-
nected spaces is locally connected.

Solution 62 adasdadada

88. Prove that C[a, b] is separable.

Solution 63 We first note that [0, 1] is homemorphic to [a, b]. C[a, b] ≃

C[0, 1]. Thus it suffices to prove the claim for [a, b] = [0, 1]. Let f ∈ C[0, 1]
and ε > 0. There is a polynomial p such that ∥f − p∥ < 2ε , Let p (x) =
Xn
ε
αi xi . There is a rational number ri such that |ri − αi | < 2(n+1) =δ
i=0
n
X
for each i = 0, . . . , n whereLet q (x) = ri xi . Then
i=0

n n
X i
X ε
|p (x) − q (x)| ≤ |ri − αi | |x| ≤ δ 1 = δ (n + 1) =
i=0 i=0
2

for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Thus ∥p − q∥ ≤ 2ε . Hence

ε ε
∥f − q∥ ≤ ∥f − p∥ + ∥p − q∥ < + =ε
2 2
Thus the countable set Q [x] of polynomials with rational coefficients is
dense in C[0, 1].
 31

89. Let f be a continuous real function defined on [0, 1]. The moments of f are
Z 1
the numbers f (x)xn dx, where n = 0, 1, 2, .. Prove that two continuous
0
real functions defined on [0, 1] are identical if they have the same sequence
of moments.

Solution 64 Let f , g ∈ C[0, 1] have identical moments and ε > 0. Let

h = f − g. The moments of h are identically 0.
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
n n n
h(x)x dx = (f (x) − g (x)) x dx = f (x)x dx − g(x)xn dx = 0
0 0 0 0
Z 1
ε
Let M = |h (x)| dx. There is a polynomial p such that ∥h − p∥ < M +1
0

Z1 Z1
2
(h(x)) dx = (h(x) − p (x) + p (x)) h (x) dx
0 0
Z1 Z1
= (h(x) − p (x)) h (x) dx + p (x) h (x) dx
0 0
| {z }
0

Z1 Z1
2 ε
(h(x)) dx ≤ |h (x)| dx < ε
M +1
0 0
Z 1
2
Since ε is arbitrary, then (h(x)) dx = 0 =⇒ h2 = 0h = 0 =⇒ f = g.
0

90. Use the Weierstrass theorem to prove that the polynomials are dense in
C(X, R) for any closed and bounded subspace X of the real line.

Solution 65 Let X be a closed and bounded subspace of the real line.

Then X is compact. There is a positive M such that X ⊂ [−M, M ]. Being
a metric space [−M, M ] is normal. Let f : X → R be continuous. Then f
is bounded. Hence There is a continuous extension of f to F : [−M, M ] →
R. Given ε > 0, there is a polynomial p such that ∥F − p∥ < ε. Thus
∥f − p∥ ≤ ∥F − p∥ < ε
Hence the polynomials are dense in C(X, R).

91. Prove the two-variable Weierstrass approximation theorem: if f (x, y) is a

real function defined and continuous on the closed rectangle X = [a, b] ×
[c, d] in the Euclidean plane R2 , then f can be uniformly approximated
on X by polynomials in x and y with real coefficients.
 32

Solution 66 Let A be the set of polynomial functions in two variables x

and y defined on X = [a, b]×[c, d]. Clearly the constant 1 belongs to A and
A seperates points in X. For let A1 = (x1 , y1 ) and A2 = (x2 , y2 ) be two
distinct points in X. The polynomials p and q defined by p (x, y) = x and
q (x, y) = y belong to A. A1 ̸= A2 =⇒ either x1 ̸= x2 or y1 ̸= y2 . In the
first case p (A1 ) ̸= p (A2 ) and in the second case q (A1 ) ̸= q (A2 ). Hence A
seperates points in X. Thus by Stone-Weierstrass Theorem A = C(X, R).

92. Let X be the closed unit disc in the complex plane, and show that any
function f in C(X, C) can be uniformly approximated on X by polynomials
in z and z̄ with complex coefficients.

Solution 67 The closed unit disc X in the complex plane is compact

Hausdorff. We also have if f ∈ C(X, C), then Re f ∈ C(X, R) and Im f ∈
C(X, R). A be the set of polynomial functions in two variables x and y
defined on X. It suffices to show that Clearly the constant 1 belongs to A
and A seperates points in X. For let w1 = x1 + iy1 and w2 = x2 + iy2 be
two distinct points in X. The polynomials p and q defined by p (x, y) = x
and q (x, y) = y belong to A. w1 ̸= w2 =⇒ either x1 ̸= x2 or y1 ̸= y2 . In
the first case p (w1 ) ̸= p (w2 ) and in the second case q (w1 ) ̸= q (w2 ).Thus
by Stone-Weierstrass Theorem A = C(X, R). Now let f ∈ C(X, C) and
ε > 0. There are two polynomials P and Q in two variables x and y such
that
ε ε
|Re f (z) − P (z)| < and |Im f (z) − Q (z)| <
2 2
for all z ∈ X. Thus
ε ε
|f (z) − P (z) − iQ (z)| ≤ |Re f (z) − P (z)|+|Im f (z) − Q (z)| < + = ε
2 2
Now for z = x + iy
 n  m
n m z+z z−z
x y =
2 2i
Thus P and Q in can be rearranged as polynomials in z and z̄ with complex
coefficients. This completes the proof.

93. Let X and Y be compact Hausdorff spaces, and f a function in C(X×Y, C).
Show that f can be uniformly approximated by functions of the form
Xn
fi gi , where the fi ’s are in C(X, C) and the gi ’s are in C(Y, C).
i=1

Solution 68 Before we start to to give the solution let us recall that if X

is a compact Hausdorff space, then it is normal and Hausdorff. LetA be
the set
( n )
X
A= hi wi : hi ∈ C(X, R), wi ∈ C(Y, R), n ≥ 0
i=1
 33

Clearly the constant 1 belongs to A. A seperates points in X × Y . For let

A1 = (x1 , y1 ) and A2 = (x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points in X × Y .
Case 1. x1 ̸= x2 : X is normal and Hausdorff. {x1 } and {x2 } are disjoint
closed sets in X since X is Hausdorff. Hence by Ursohn’s lemma there is
a continuous function h : X → [0, 1] such that h (x1 ) = 0 and h (x2 ) = 1
since X is normal. Thus h · 1 ∈ A and it seperates A1 and A2 .
Case 2: y1 ̸= y2 : This the same as Case1 except in this case we use the
space Y .
Thus by Stone-Weierstrass Theorem A = C(X × Y, R). Now let f ∈
C(X × Y, C). Now let f ∈ C(X × Y, C) and ε > 0. There are two elements
P and Q in A such that
ε ε
|Re f (x, y) − P (x, y)| < and |Im f (x, y) − Q (x, y)| <
2 2
for all (x, y) ∈ X × Y . Thus

|f (x, y) − P (x, y) − iQ (x, y)| ≤ |Re f (x, y) − P (x, y)| + |Im f (x, y) − Q (x, y)|
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
We also have that P (x, y) + iQ (x, y) is a function in C(X × Y, C) of the
Xn
form fi gi , where the fi ’s are in C(X, C) and the gi ’s are in C(Y, C).
i=1

94. Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space, and C1 and C2 disjoint com-
pact subspaces of X. Show that C1 and C2 have disjoint neighborhoods
whose closures are compact.

Solution 69 adasdadada

95. Show that a Hausdorff space is locally compact ⇔ each of its points is an
interior point of some compact subspace.

Solution 70 adasdadada

96. Let f be a mapping of a locally compact space X onto a Hausdorff space

Y . If f is both continuous and open, show that Y is also locally compact.

Solution 71 adasdadada

97. Show that if the product of a non-empty class of Hausdorff spaces is locally
compact, then each coordinate space is also locally compact.

Solution 72 adasdadada
 34

98. If X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, prove that C0 (X, R) is a sub-

lattice of C(X, R).

Solution 73 adasdadada

99. Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space, and show that the weak
topology generated by C0 (X, R) equals the given topology.

Solution 74 adasdadada

100. Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space and S a subset of C0 (X, R)

which separates points and for each point in X contains a function which
does not vanish there. Show that the weak topology generated by S equals
the given topology.

Solution 75 adasdadada