3 Agricultural Extension and Communication

Agricultural Extension
and
Communication
Contributors:
Ms. Filma C. Calalo
Prof. Nelita M. Lalican
Dr. Ramiro F. Plopino
Dr. Blanda R. Sumayao
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 1

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION
I. Specific Knowledge Areas and Competences

Knowledgeable and competent in agricultural teaching methods and communications
specifically in the areas of extension objective, principles and programs, procedure of
different extension teaching methods, and purposes, scope and levels of communication.
II. Professional Core Subjects in Specific Areas
Extension and Communication

objectives, programs and principles of extension
interrelationship of research and extension
communication processes and elements. scope and levels as they relate to extension
factor to consider in effective communication like the adoption process, types of
adopters and attributes of technology.
Includes methods of extension and their relationship to adoption process and approaches to
extension
1. Overview of Agricultural Extension

1.1 Definition of terms
Extension
Agricultural Extension
Communication
Technology
1.2 History of Extension
1.3 Philosophy, Principles and Objectives of Extension
2. Extension as One of the Major Functions of a University/College

2.1 Functions of a University
2.2 Interrelationship of the different functions of a college/university
2.3 Sources of lnformation and Technologies
3. Communication in Extension
3.1 Importance of communication
3.2 Elements of communication process
3.3 Levels of communication
3.4 Extension Workers as a Communicator
3.5 Barriers to effective communication
4. Extension as an Intervention
4.1 Technical Intervention vs. Intervening with People
4.2 Methods for Influencing Human Behavior
4.3 Strategies for Influencing Farmer’s Behavior
4.4 Considerations in the Choice of Strategy

5. The Adoption Process
5.1 Stages of Adoption Process
Awareness
Interest
Evaluation
Trial
Adoption
5.2 Types of Adopters

Innovators
Early Adopters
Early Majority
Late Majority
Laggards
6. Attribute of Technology
Relative Advantage
Complexity
Compatibility
Trialability
Observability
7. Methods/Techniques of Extension
7.1 Definition of Methods/Technologies
7.2 Factors to consider in the choice of extension teaching
7.2.1 Human Factors (Source and Receiver)
Knowledge/skills
Attitudes
Socio-cultural Environment
7.2.2 Objectives
7.2.3 Subject matter/Technology
7.2.4 Time (preparation on time and time of the day)
7.2.5 Budget
7.2.6 Other factors
7.3 Extension teaching methods according to number of clientele to be observed
7.3.1 Mass Methods
7.3.1.1 Mass Media
7.3.1.1.1 Mass Media
7.3.1.1.2 Television
7.3.1.1.3 Print
Folders/Leaflets/Pamphlets
Posters
Newspaper
Wall Newspaper
Fact Sheets
7.3.1.2 Exhibits
7.3.1.3 Educational Campaign

7.3.1.4 Projected Visuals
7.3.1.5Lantern Slides
7.3.2 Group
7.3.2.1 Lecture
7.3.2.2 Demonstration
7.3.2.3 Tours and Field Trips
7.3.2.4 Field Day
7.3.2.5 Meetings
7.3.2.6 Group Discussion
7.3.2.6.1 Phillip 66 (6 person, 6 min. discussion)
7.3.2.6.2 Brainstorming
7.3.2.6.3 Panel
7.3.2.6.4 Symposium
7.3.3 Individual
7.3.3.1 Farm and Home Visit
7.3.3.2 Office Calls
7.3.3.3 Telephone Calls
7.3.3.4 Personal Letters
7.3.3.5 Informal contact
7.3.3.6 Electronic Media
Fax
Internet
Email
8. Approaches in Extension
8. I Mass Approach
8.2 Commodity Approach
8.3 Area Approach
8.4 Team approach
8.5 Individual Approach
8.6 Integrated Approach
8.7 Training and Visit Approach
9. The Decentralized Agricultural Extension in the Philippines
10. Agricultural Extension and the AFMA

References:
Adhikarya, Ronny. Strategic Extension Campaign. A Participatory-Oriented Method of

Agricultural Extension. A Case Study of FAO’s Experiences. Rome, Italy. 1994
Beal G. et al. Leadership and Dynamic Group Action
Berlo, David K. Process of Communication Introduction of Theory and Practice. Holt,

Rinehart and Winston New York; 1960.318 pp.
Chang, Chi-Wen. Rural Asia Marches Forward . University of the Philippines. College of
Agriculture, College, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 1969
Dacanay, Remedios C. Extension Methods and Approaches. Mimeographed.
Di Franco T. Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

Sciences of the OAS_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. May 1963, Vol.
DiFranco T Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

Sciences of the OAS_AID Turralba, Costa Rica. January 1966, Vol II.
Effective Delivery of Extension Services and the Masagana ‘99 Program – 1st Agricultural
Proceedings.
Maunder, Addison H. Agricultural Extension - A Reference Manual Food and Agriculture

Association of the United Nations. Rome 1972.
Medina, Amadea& Rufina R. Ancheta. Agriculture and Home Extension: In the Philippine
Setting. Publisher’s Press, Quezon City, Philippines. 1978
Mercado. Methods in Agricultural Extension Teaching Manual
Report of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension. Rome, Italy, December 4-8,
1989. Prepared by the Agricultural Education and Extension Service (ESHE).
Human Resources; Institutional Agrarian Reform Division with the editorial
Assistance of Burton E. Swanson. Food and Agriculture Organizations of the
United Nations Rome 1990.
Sanders, H.C. The Cooperative Extension Service. Prentice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N. 1.
1969

THE BEGINNlNGS OF EXTENSION
The Distant Origins
In Mesopotamia (present day Iraq), archeologists have unearthed clay of

tablets of time on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and
1800 BC getting rid of rats.
Some hieroglyphics on Egyptian columns gave advice on avoiding crop

damage and loss of life in Nile’s floods
Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical farming

experience which aimed to help Roman landowners to maintain and
2nd century BC improve their estates and revenues.
to 3rd century
BC
In Imperial China, dissemination of agricultural information was a matter
of concern to the state since it heavily relied on taxes and revenues from
landowners and tenants.
The 19th Century England
The term “University Extension” or “Extension of the University” was first

1840s recorded in Britain.
Discussions began in two ancient universities (Oxford & Cambridge) about

1850s how they could serve the needs of the rapidly growing population in the
industrial and urban areas.
First practical steps were taken by James Stuart, Fellow of Trinity College
1867-1868 in Cambridge, gave lectures to women’s associations and men’s clubs in the
North of England; Stuart is often considered the ‘Father of University
Extension’
James Stuart appealed to authorities of University of Cambridge to

1871 organize centers for extension lectures under the university’s supervision.
1872 University of Cambridge adopted the system.
1876 University of London followed Cambridge
1878 University of Oxford followed the system.
The system became well-established and developed and was referred to as

1880 extension movement; the University extended its use beyond the campus;
thus, extension became more institutionalized function of the universities.

Birth of modern Agricultural Extension Services
 In EUROPE
1841 Founding of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society (RAIS) in Britain
1845 The first agricultural extension service came into existence as a result of
the outbreak of the potato blight in Ireland where the predominantly
peasant community relied on potatoes as staple food.
1847 The Earl of Claredon urged the RAIS to appoint itinerant lecturers to travel
around the distressed districts to help farmers improve their cultivation
and grow nutritious crops.
1890s The Universities began to cover Agricultural Subjects in lectures.
 In USA There are two developments significant to the evolution of the agricultural
1850s extension in USA; (1) Morill Act of 1862 was signed by Pres. Lincoln during
the Civil War providing for the creation of Land Grant Colleges and
Universities. Funds were made available from the Federal Government to
establish demonstration centers/experimental stations. (2) The beginning
of Farmers Institute Movements which organized one-to-two day meetings
for the farmers and invited professors from the state colleges and
universities as speakers.
1890 American Society for Extension of University Teaching was established.
Second Morill Act was passed which extended Land-Grant concept in other
areas of USA. The Farmers Institute Movement has been institutionalized
with Federal support and supervision.
1891 The University of Chicago and Wisconsin began organizing extension

program which lead to the establishment of Land Grant College and the
formal establishment of agricultural extension work in the country.
1914 Passage of the Smith-Lever Act which established the Cooperative Extension
Service-a tripartite cooperation between the federal, state, and local
government together with the state colleges and universities as extension
agency.
Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries
1940s - 1960s Agricultural extension organizations were established in Latin America

and the Caribbean.
1960s - 1970s Most extension organizations were started in many African nations.

AGRlCULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES: HlSTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
(Source: Sison, Obdulia F., 1987)
DATE SIGNIFICANT EFFECT

1565 The beginnings of extension work thru the Granjas Modelos or model farms
that were set up. They served as:
• Experimental stations of the Spanish government

• Demonstration centers for farmers
Towards end of Extension also had regulatory functions such as supervision of tobacco fields
the 18th Century and grading of tobacco leaves for export.
October 8, 1901 Beginning of extension work under the American regime
April 30, 1902 Establishment of the Bureau of Agriculture under the Department of Interior
July 1910 Demonstration and Extension Division was created in the Bureau of
Agriculture making it the first formally organized government department
implementing extension and research programs.
Several experiment stations and demonstration farms were set up in

strategic places in the country.
Agricultural schools were also established to educate and train government

agricultural extension workers and others engaged in agriculture. (Note: The
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines was established on
March 6, 1909).
July 10, 1919 The extension service organization was made a separate unit of the Bureau
of Agriculture as the Demonstration and Extension Division. Its expanded
operations included:
• Farmers’ cooperative organizations

• Rural credit
• Marketing
• Animal insurance
Persons engaged in this work were called farm advisers.
1923 The name of the Division was changed to Agricultural Extension Service.
Other events that took place:
• Start of the Home Extension work (later known as the Division of Home
Economics) under the Division of Organic Chemistry of the Bureau of
Science. Main service was on food preservation.
• Miss Maria Y. Orosa founded the home extension service.

1929 Bureau of Agriculture was reorganized. The Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI)
and the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) were formed. Both Bureaus continued
to expand their extension activities.
1936 Commonwealth Act 85 was passed. lt established the provincial extension

services financed by the provincial and municipal governments. Some
significant results:
• A broader and more comprehensive agricultural system emerged

• Extension service in the Philippines became a serious organized business
• The positions of the Provincial Agriculturists were created
• Farm advisers were now called extension agents.
Some constraints:
• The home economics group were in the Plant Utilization Division of the BPI
• Insufficiency of funds
• Unsystematic, scattered, and decentralized agricultural extension.
No Date Enactment of Commonwealth Act 649 which increased the budget for
extension work.
1942-1945 Japanese Occupation
• Home economics and agricultural extension work, particularly in the

provinces suffered drawbacks. Extension work was paralyzed
1947 The Home Extension Unit of the Plant Utilization Division of BPI was fused
with the Agricultural Extension of the Bureau.
1950 Upon request of the President of the Philippines to the President of the USA
to send to the Philippines an Economic Survey Mission “to consider financial
problems of the country and to recommend measures that will enable the
Philippines to become and remain self-supporting”. The Bell Survey Mission
came to the Philippines. Its recommendation among others: The
consolidation of the scattered extension organization in the different
Bureaus (BPI, BAI, Bureau of Soils, Bureau of Forestry, and Bureau of
Fisheries) into one bureau that would adequately extend information into
farm families on improved methods of farming, homemaking, and rural
organization.
July 1952 Creation of the Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) through RA No. 680
enacted by the Congress of the Republic of the Philippines. This was in
response to the Bell Mission’s recommendation. All extension activities of the
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources became the responsibility
of BAEx.

August 8, 1963 The BAEx was renamed the Agricultural Productivity Commission (APC)
placed under the Office of the President. Under the APC, the Agricultural
Tenancy Commission was organized as a separate office.
The APC, the Land Authority, the Agricultural Credit Administration, and the
Land Bank were placed at the “Crest of the land reform program”.
Positive Consequence: A concentrated technical assistance because of the

teaming up of agriculturist, home demonstrators, and 4~H club officers in
carrying out the responsibility in the integrated national land reform
program.
Negative Consequence: It revived the all intra-departmental jealousies.

Resentments arose from other agencies that were covered by the program.
No Date Creation of the Rice and Com Authority (RCA) through Executive Order No.
62. RCA extended credit for seeds, pesticides, and harvesting. It also had a
fertilizer subsidy program for participating farmers.
1965 Reconceptualization of the rice self-sufficiency program to include rice

production, marketing, and distribution and the consolidation, integration,
and the concentration of government as well as private sector resources.
1969 The National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) emerged by Virtue of
Executive Order No. 183. It was given full control of the food production
program and so controlled a large portion of funds for agriculture and the
funding from the U.S. Administration for international Development (USAlD).
The NFAC assumed a major responsibility for overseeing the effective
delivery of the agricultural extension services for the entire country.
1972 Declaration of Martial Law. Several organizational changes affecting

agricultural extension took place.
• Presidential Decree No.1 and Presidential Letter of Implementation

(Nov. 1, 1973) reverted the APC to its original name, BAEx.
• Functions and personnel in cooperatives were transferred to the
Department of Local Government and Community Development
(DLGCD).
• PD 970 abolished the Bureau of Farm Management of the Department
of Agrarian Reform and transferred its extension function to BAEx.
July 1, 1973 BAEx was again placed under the DA. Also, the Abaca and other Fibers Board
was fused with the BAEx.

1977 The World Bank Mission was requested by the Philippine Government to
appraise the country’s agricultural extension service. Results:
• The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit (T&V) system

• The proposal for the National Extension Project (NEP) was approved
and became operational on March 27, 1979.
• The World Bank approved a loan of US $35 M.
• The Philippine agricultural extension service was strengthened with
facilities and resources acquired through the World Bank-Assisted NEP.
1978 Ministry-wide regional offices were created in the Ministry of Agriculture by

virtue of PD 1579. With this structural set-up, 12 ministry-wide Regional
Directors and 24 Asst. Regional Directors (one for livestock and one for crops
in each region) were appointed. This was followed by the designation of 75
Provincial Agricultural Officers in 1980.
1982 By Virtue of EO. 803, the province under the leadership of the governor was
designated as the political unit of management for including agricultural
development, coordination and supervision of operations of the various
agencies involved in the delivery of the agricultural services. This means the
provincial governments were empowered to have their own extension
services as provided for in RA. NO.5 185 (1967) known as the
Decentralization Act.
The Organizational Structure for the Implementation of the Integrated

Agricultural Extension Program
• The Regional Director were directly under the Minister of Agriculture
• The Regional Director directly supervised the Provincial Agricultural
Officer (PAO)
• The PAO was responsible for all municipal agricultural officers(MAO’s)
At the provincial level, the PAO was assisted by:

• The Senior Home Management Technician (SHMT)
• The Rural Youth Development Officer (RYDO)
• The Provincial Subject Matter Specialist (SMS)
The Mao is directly responsible for all Agricultural Food Technologists

(AFTs) in the municipality.

1987 By Virtue of ED. No.1 16, the BAEx, the Philippine Agricultural Training
Council, and the Philippine Center for Rural Development were merged into
the Agricultural Training Institute (ATI). Thus, the “birth” of ATI meant the
“death” of BAEx.
The ATl is mandated by E.O. 116 to be “responsible for the training of all
agricultural extension workers and their clientele, who are mostly farmers
and other agricultural workers: ensure that training programs address the
real needs of the agricultural sector; ensure that the research results are
then communicated to the farmers through appropriate training and
extension activities”.
1991 The agricultural extension services of the DA were devolved to the local
government units (LGUs) by virtue of R.A. 7160 otherwise known as the
Local Government Code (1991).
1997 The creation of Republic Act 8435 also known as Agriculture and Fisheries
Modernization Act or AFMA

MEANINGS AND TERMINOLOGY FOR EXTENSION IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES
(Compiled by Dr. B.R. Sumayao, DAERS, UPLB-CA)
COUNTRY WORD FOR EXTENSION MEANING

Netherlands Voorlichting Lighting the pathway ahead to help people
find their way
Germany Beratung An expert can give advice on the best way to

reach one’s goal but leaves the person the
final responsibility for selecting the way.
Aufklarung Enlightenment, so that one knows clearly

where he/she is going.
Erziehung Education, that is, to teach people to solve

their problems themselves
Austria Forderung Furthering or stimulating one to go in a

desirable direction
France Vulgarisation Simplification of the message for the common

man
Spain Capacitation Improving the abilities of people, normally

through training
USA Extension Education
Indonesia Penynluhan Lighting the way ahead with a torch
Malaysia Perkembangan Education the way USA interprets it
Korea Rural guidance

COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Agricultural Extension:
“A professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce
change in voluntary behavior with a presumed public or collective unity.”
-Niels Roling, 1988
COMMUNICATION: comes from the Latin word “communis” meaning to make common or to
establish commonness between two or more people.
Communication is a process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of
some channel in order to produce a response from the receiver, in accordance to the
intention of the source.
Key points in the definition:
• Communication is a process (it is a on-going, cyclic, ever-changing, with no
beginning or end, interdependent, interrelated)
• Consists of 5 basic elements (source, message, receiver, channel, response)
• Effectiveness is achieved if receiver’s response matches with intention of source.
• Has 4- attributes
o Dynamic - has an ever-changing character, fluctuates constantly never fixed,
no clear beginnings and endings
o Systemic - as a system, it consists of a group of elements which interact to
influence each other and the system as a whole
o Interaction thru symbols - essential in communication that what symbols we
select and how they are organized affect other’s interpretation of our
messages
o Meaning is personally constructed - no two people construct the same
meaning even if they hear or see the same thing.
Purpose of Communication: concerned with eliciting specific behavioral changes
with what they know (knowledge), what they feel (attitude) and what they do
(practice)
Persuasive Communication: The process which involves a conscious attempt by one

individual to change the attitudes, beliefs, or overt behavior of another individual or
group through the transmission of some messages.
COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION
EMPATHY
- The ability to project ourselves into other people’s personalities;
- The ability to project oneself imaginatively into another’s position.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
- Verbal communication is the transmission of ideas, opinions, feelings, emotions
or attitudes through the use of oral language.
- Non-verbal communication refers to the sending of messages to another person
using methods or means other than the spoken language.

a. Visual
 Posture – the way we stand or carry ourselves speaks so much of our
personality.
 Gestures and body movements – raising hands, nodding, shaking the
head, etc.
 Facial expression – movement of the eyebrows and mouth
 Eye movements – “the eyes are the windows of the soul”
 Proxemics – communicating by the use of space in relation to other
people.
 Geographic location – the position of the interactants during a
communication situation shows the kind of relationship between
speaker and listener.
 Time – a person’s observation of time reveals a lot about his
personality (punctuality, tardiness)
 Artifacts – things or objects put on the body speaks so much of
ourselves.
 Physical characteristics – color of one’s skin, the size and shape of
one’s body, color of one’s hair or eyes convey a message.
b. Auditory
 Silence – “silence speaks louder than words”
 Paralanguage – non-verbal features in speech such as intonation, pitch,
loudness, intensity
 Tactile – communication through touch, conveying feelings without
words.
c. Olfactory – refers to smell
d. Gustatory – communication through taste
FIELD OF EXPERIENCE: the sum total of an individual’s experiences, including one’s culture
and language which influences his ability to communicate.
Let us look at the two overlapping circles, each circle representing the field of
experience of communication participants A and B.
The overlap in the two circles represents the common field of experience of A and B,
or their shared similar experiences.
- The wider the common field of experience between two people, (or the more
similar the experience they share), the greater is the likelihood that they can
communicate effectively.
- If the common field of experience is narrow, the communication that can take
place is limited or is likely to be successful or effective.

FEEDBACK: the information that is sent or fed back by the receiver, intentionally or
unintentionally, to the source
- Feedback is the link that connects the source and the receiver.
- It is the receiver’s response to the communication messages as perceived by the
source of the message.
- Use of Feedback - serves as corrective function by preventing communication
breakdown. Feedback helps determine whether or not a message was perceived
as intended. If not, adaptations, modifications can be made.
- Characteristics of Feedback:
a. Observable or overt not covert - The source should be able to perceive
(that is, receive through one or more of the five senses) the feedback
coming from the receiver.
- Feedback vs responses:
1. A receiver’s response may be observable (overt) or
unobservable (covert).
2. One covert response is a positive change in attitude toward
the source, the message, or the strategy.
3. Only if there is an overt manifestation of the covert response
(such as smiling, clapping, etc.) can the sources receive
feedback about that change.
b. Verbal or non-verbal - The source can receive verbal feedback through
oral and written communication.
- Non-verbal feedback can be received through the receiver’s use
of symbols or body language (e.g., facial expressions, gestures,
etc.).
c. Internal or external
- Internal feedback occurs when you hear and feel yourself respond
(e.g., when you mispronounce a word and you repeat it with the
correct pronunciation).
- External feedback occurs when you respond to the receiver’s
message (e.g., when you raise your hand to ask a question).
d. Intentional or unintentional
- Intentional feedback - messages that are consciously sent by the
feedback giver, whether these messages are verbal or non-verbal
(e.g., asking questions, giving comments and suggestions, nodding
the head, clapping of hands, etc.)
- Unintentional feedback - messages that are unconsciously sent but
nevertheless are perceived by the source.
- Many non-verbal feedback are not consciously intended by the
receiver, but they are often more accurate in revealing the feelings
of the responder than the verbal feedback (e.g., yawning, evasive
eye movements, etc.)
e. Directive or non-directive
- Directive feedback communicates an evaluation by the responder
about the source, the message or the strategy. Directive feedback
may be positive or negative, rewarding or disturbing.

- Non-directive feedback is non-evaluative. It aims to describe,
report what is observed or felt, ask questions and avoids judgment.
f. Formal or informal
- Formal feedback is solicited by the message sender usually in
writing or through other mediated means (e.g., telephone) using
structured evaluation instruments such as questionnaires,
attitude/opinion rating scales, and interview schedules.
- Informal feedback may be solicited from or spontaneously given by
the audience in a face-to-face setting (e.g., when a facilitator pauses
to ask if there are questions, or a member of the audience asks for
clarification.)
PURPOSE: tells the source whether the receiver is paying attention to the message,
understands it, is not bored, or likes the presentation. The source is formed whether s/he
should revise his communication act.
Relationship of Elements of Communication
Effect
Feedback
MESSAGE
SOURCE RECEIVER
CHANNE
SOURCE: sends message/information to receiver

Characteristics of the Source:
 Credibility — refers to a set of perception about the source held by receiver in
terms of competence, trustworthiness and dynamism
o Dimensions of Credibility
- Character - When a source is perceived as honest, trustworthy,
friendly, reliable, pleasant, warm, etc. his or her credibility is
based on the character dimension.
- Competence - when a source is perceived as well-trained,
competent, intelligent, experienced, witty, bright, etc. his or her
credibility is based on the competency dimension.
- Composure - when a source is perceived in terms of self-
confidence, poise, dignity, level-headedness, etc. his or her
credibility is based on the composure dimension.
- Dynamism - when a receiver rates a source in terms of being
bold, aggressive, extrovert, etc. his or her credibility is based on
the dynamism dimension.
o Socio-cultural context
- role in society
- group he/she belongs to
- prestige other people attach to the source
- norms or rules he abides by
- beliefs and values he holds
 Homophily — refers to the degree to which a receiver perceives the source
assimilar to him in certain attributes such as age, sex, language, regional background,
beliefs, values, etc.
Attitude- predisposition to respond to any situation
 Towards receiver/source
 Towards subject matter
 Towards himself
Knowledge
 subject matter
 audience
 communication process
FACTORS SALIENT TO A RECEIVER’S PERSUASIBILITY
Psychological orientation:
Selective processes
1. Selective exposure – receivers tend to expose her/himself only to information that
agrees with or supports his/her existing behavior.
a. When individual holds two or more cognition (i.e., beliefs, attitudes, values)
that contradict each other, the individual will feel some kind of cognitive
dissonance (or psychological discomfort).
b. As a result, s/he will try to remove such dissonance by trying to avoid
information that will cause psychological discomfort.
2. Selective perception - receivers tend to “notice” or assign meaning only to messages
that
a. Serve some immediate purpose
b. Reinforce his or her mood
c. Fits his/her cognitive structure
d. Are meaningful for him/her
3. Perception - is influenced by
a. Past experiences
b. Needs and motivations
c. Mental set
d. Interests
4. Selective retention - receivers tend to learn or remember only information that
supports or agrees with his/her attitude, beliefs, behaviors.
5. Selective discussion – receivers tend to discuss only those information which might
be of interest to them and to their listeners.
SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIENTATION
 Open-mindedness
 Self-esteem
 Beliefs and values
 Achievement motivation
 Risk orientation
 Group membership
 Roles and functions in membership groups
 Reference groups
 Norms and values of membership groups
 customs and traditions
MESSAGE: sign or symbol that has meaning to both sender and receiver
Message Factors:
 Code- symbols used in communicating; both sender and receiver should
understand in order to communicate.
 Content- the idea or substance selected to express the purpose of the sources
for communicating
 Treatment- the manner by which the materials are arranged in order to be
meaningful to the receiver.
Dimensions of Meaning:
 Denotative or referential meaning – the relationship between a word-sign and
an object or the sign-object relationship.
 Denotative meaning is concerned with the existence of objects in the
physical world.
 Domain: Physical Reality
 Connotative meaning – meaning associated with the personal experiences of
the person using the word, and is closely related to who and what he is as a
person.
 Connotative terms do not refer primarily to the quality of an object, but
to the state of the organism, the response of the individual perceiving
the object.
 Connotative terms are figurative; what they suggest
 Domain: Social Reality
CHANNEL: the medium through which the message is sent from the source to the receiver.
Dimensions of Channel
 Mode of encoding or decoding so that a message can be
 seen
 heard
 touched or felt
 smelled
 tasted
 Message vehicles in the form of:
 Interpersonal channels
 Mediated channels
 Mass media channels
 Folk media channels
 Interpersonal Channels:
 Also called “face-to-face”
 Most universally used extension method
 Atmosphere is usually informal and relaxed
 Learning is an individual process
 EA has personal influence over the farmer
 Builds confidence between EA and farmer
 “Gatekeeper” – someone who:

 Controls the flow of information
 Decides what information to transmit and to whom he will transmit it
 Evaluates the content to determine its relevance and value to the
potential receivers
 Has the power to delete, alter the flow, add, subtract, or distort the
message
 Example:
 In a village:
o an affluent person who is exposed to the mass media and
other sources of information
o a member of the village who works in the city
o the barangay captain
 In print media
o publisher
o editor
o reporter
 In broadcast media
o writers
o producers
o directors
 “Opinion-leader” – a person who is
 approached by others for advice on certain matters
 perceived as credible, influential, authoritative in the
community
o barangay captain
o rural health workers
o school teachers
o Extension agents
o Priests
 Mass media channels:
 Channels used to communicate with people not seen and
generally not personally known.
 Important for making a large group of people aware of
innovations and for stimulating interest.
 Can accelerate existing change processes but not bring changes
in behavior by themselves.
 Examples: broadcast media channels, printed media channels
 Mediated channels:
 SMS
 Emailing
 Use of social networks (Facebook)
 Folk media/traditional channels:
 Also referred to as mass media channels but more traditional
(preceded the invention of paper and ink and the printing
press).
 Examples: local story-teller, town crier
RECEIVER: receives, analyzes, understands and interprets the message; also referred to as
decoder.
EFFECT: the difference between what the receivers think, feel and does before and after
exposure to a message.
- Communication effects – the changes that take place in the behavior of the
respondent or receiver of communication as a result of exposure to stimulus.
- Determinants of communication effects:
E = Sc + Mc + Cc + Rc + Re
Characteristics of the source (Sc)

Characteristics of the message (Mc)
Characteristics of the channel (Cc)
Characteristics of the receiver (Rc)
Resources available to the source and the receiver (Re)
- In extension-communication, the desired effect is usually the adoption of an

innovation.
• Cognitive effect - knowledge, awareness, thought and skills

• Neutralization - shifting of an existing attitude to the neutral zone
• Boomerang effect - a shift opposite to that direction that is intended
• Conservation - maintenance of existing attitude
• Attitude reinforcement or strengthening of existing attitude.
• Shift to the opposite sign, from (+) to (-) and vice versa
COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
- Failure of the human communication system;
- Results from different types of barriers that prevent communication to take place.
Noise
- Anything that interferes with or hinders the transmission and reception of a
message;
- May either be physical or psychological.
Barriers to effective communication originating from the source:

• Language or the use of jargon
• Inflections – “the emphasis is where?”
• Personal interests – “I, me, and myself”
• Emotions – “watch out for the red flag”
• Wordiness - “what is it that you want to say?”
• Perception – “people interpret or see things differently”
• Pre-conceived notions - “I thought you meant …”
• Attention - “physically present, mentally absent”
• Inferences - “I thought you said …”
PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION
Defining Philosophy
• The body of principles underlying a given branch of learning or major discipline, a
religious system, a human activity or the like.
• A guide to a person’s actions.
• A view of life - what ought to be and its components of “what is” and “how to bridge
the gap” between “what is” and “what ought to be”.
Diagrammatically:
WHAT OUGHT TO BE (The ideal view of life)

(What the people should or could be as a result of the extension program/activities expressed in
objectives)
How to bridge the gap (the educational

The Gap (the problem area or needs of means to attain the objectives-methods,
the people) procedure used in relation to needs of the
people that have to addresses by
extension)
WHAT IS
(The present state of the people/client in terms of knowledge, skills attitudes, etc. they possess;
their resource, present level of living, and others)
Fig.1. A scheme within which Extension may be viewed in relation to a view of

life(Philosophy).
 A Philosophy of Extension includes the Set of Beliefs and Principles that serves as
basis for making decisions and judgments in the field of extension.
WHY A PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION IS NEEDED?

 It establishes parameters of our field—help us judge whether our programs, values,
or educational approach is or is not an extension practice.
 Articulates the rationale for analysis, diagnosis, decision making, action—tells us
why we do what we do

 Makes us aware of our values, thus promotes ongoing self-examination and
evaluation—good for the ”health” of the extension organization by encouraging
creativity, and organizational renewal.
 Tells the extensionists how to define the world
 Describes the nature of knowledge and whether we believe it is acquired or
transmitted.
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

 Humanism- Man, his interest and development are central and dominant
 Pragmatism - the value of the ideas, knowledge and skills that extension offers
its clientele is measured in terms of the practical consequences to these
people for whom extension efforts are directed.
SOME PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

 Communication and Education
o Extension agent's role- communicator and educator
- As communicator - pass on useful information or technology to people
who need them
- As educator - help rural people acquire the knowledge, skills and
attitude that will help them effectively utilize the information or
technology
 Works with Rural people
o For impact and sustainability, work with and not for the people
o People must participate and make decision that will benefit them; extension
agents must assistthem by providing them with all the information needed
and possible alternative solutions to clientele problems
 Accountability to the Clientele
o Extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action he/she takes
and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or
information given to them
o The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure of the
extension program
 Two-way Process Linkage
o Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback from
clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled
o Learn from the clientele the wealth of their experiences
 Cooperate with Other Agencies
o Extension is only one "aspect of the many economic, social, cultural and
political activities that hope to produce change for the betterment of the rural
masses
o Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and
NGOs to accomplish above
o Extension can't be effective on its own as its activities must be
interdependent on other related activities
 Work with different Target Groups
o Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different needs,
social status, cultural and economic background
o Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its clientele
due to this heterogeneity.
o There must therefore be targeting of extension, meaning different programs
and technology packages for different target groups
 Extension:
o Starts with what people know, what they have, what they understand
o Essentially an education process and is dependent on the voluntary
participation of people with whom extension works
o Teaches the people new knowledge and skills in relation to their current
interests and needs
o Employs a wide variety of extension communication strategies
o Identifies and works accordingly with target categories in the community.
o Links and establishes cooperative/ collaborative relationships with person/
organizations whose purpose is devoted to development in the rural areas
o Nurtures and sustains the natural environment
o Works with local leaders and encourages the spirit of self-help
o Conducts regular evaluation/ assessment of its work
PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Informative extension
o Helps people make well-considered choices among alternatives provided by
extension for the individual to achieve his/her goals
 Emancipatory extension
o An instrument touplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to correct structural
problems
o Paolo Freire calls it pedagogy of the oppressed.
 Formative Extension or HRD
o An instrument for developing, 'forming' an individual or enhancing his/her
capabilities to make decisions to learn, to manage, to communicate, to organize,
etc.
 Persuasive Extension
o A policy instrument to induce preventive behavior with respect to societal
concerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalisms, drug
addiction, rape, etc. such preventive behavior is in the interest of the society as a
whole or of the future generation.
NATURE/DIMENSIONS OF EXTENSION
 Altruistic dimension - Extension aimed at helping farmers. This is a basic premise of
extension that must be observed by practitioners.
 Educational dimension - Extension is a non-formal method of adult education. As such,
extension professionals must be imbued with knowledge on how adults learn.
 Communication dimension - Extension is a communication intervention. Knowledge
of basic communication process and its dynamics must be adequately understood.
 Behavioral dimension - Extension is aimed at inducing behavioral changes among
farmers. Behavioral change is the end goal of extension.
 Technology dimension - Extension helps in the transfer of technology. Extension
should be able to help identify technologies appropriate to clientele. The need for
more alternative approaches and methods for diagnosing technical problems should
be recognized.
 Research dimension - Extension aims at linking research with the farm. Ways to
foster closer links between the farmers and the researchers need further
understanding.
 Input dimension - The provision of technical inputs plays an important linking
function in the transfer of technology.
 Income dimension - Extension is aimed at increased income through increased
production and productivity.
 Management dimension - Extension aims to function according to sound
management principles.
FUNCTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY

 Instruction -offers degree programs from the baccalaureate to doctoral programs
 Research - conducts basic and applied research from social science to natural science
 Extension - disseminates research results or breakthroughs to various clientele in
various forms
AGRICULTURE’s One Objective is:

 Disseminate research findings and technology in a form or package suitable for
adoption by extension workers and farmers; help train/retrain extension workers;
provide technical backstop to extension technicians in the field whenever necessary;
and conduct pilot action/research projects on agriculture and rural development.
EXTENSION: An instrument of premeditated, deliberate intervention to achieve the

intervener's goal; can beeffective by inducing voluntary change and hence satisfying client's
goals.
INTERVENTION: a systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate

seemingly casual elementsin an ongoing social process to permanently reorient that process
in directions deemed desirable by theintervening party.
METHODS FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Compulsion or Coercion
o Power is exerted by an authority forcing somebody to do something. People
applying coercive power must
- have sufficient power
- know how they can achieve their goal
- be able to check whether the person being coerced is behaving in the desired
manner
2. Exchange
o Goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or groups
o Conditions necessary for applying this method:
- Both parties consider the transaction to be in their favor
- Each has the goods or services desired by the other
- Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have been
delivered by the other.
3. Advice
o Used if
- Farmers agree with extension agent about the nature of their problems and
the criteria for choosing the "correct" solution
- Extension agent (EA) knows enough about the farmers' situation and has
adequate information to solve their problems in a way which have been
tested scientifically or in practice
- Farmers are confident the extension worker can help them with a solution to
their problems
- EA does not think it necessary or possible for farmers to solve their problems
themselves
- Farmers have sufficient means at their disposal to carry out the advice
4. Openly Influencing a Farmer's Knowledge and Attitudes
o Apply when
- EA cannot solve their problems because of insufficient or incorrect
knowledge and their attitudes do not match their goals
- EA thinks that farmers can solve their problems if they have more knowledge
and/or have changed their attitudes
- EA is prepared to help farmers collect more and better knowledge to help
them change their attitudes
- Farmers trust the EA's expertise and motives and are prepared to cooperate
with EA
5. Manipulation
o Carried out if
- EA believes it necessary and desirable for farmers to change their behavior in
a certain direction
- EA thinks it is necessary for farmers to make independent decisions
- EA controls the techniques to influence farmers without them being aware of
it
- The farmers do not actively object to being influenced in this way
6. Providing means
o Apply under the following conditions
o Farmer is trying to achieve goals which EA considered to be appropriate
o Farmer does not have the means available to achieve these goals or does not wish
torisk using these means
o EA has these means and is prepared to make them available to the farmer on
atemporary or permanent basis
7. Providing Service
o Use if

- EA has the knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better or
moreeconomically than the farmer
- EA agrees with the farmer that it is useful to perform these tasks
- EA is prepared to perform them for the farmer
8. Changing the Socio-economic structure
o Used when
- EA agrees with the farmers about their optimal behavior
- Farmer is not in a position to behave in this way because of barriers in the
economic and or social structure
- EA considers changes in these structures to be desirable
- EA has the freedom to work toward these changes
- EA is in a position to do these, either through power or through conviction
Extension Practitioner’s Work
Formulating objectives
Goal
satisfaction
Designing and Testing
Intervening to change people
Deploying resources According to
intervener’s
Implementing goals
Evaluating
FEATURES OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

 Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change
 Highly competitive and productive because it uses modem production and
managementtechnology
 Manned by an enterprising farmers who exercises his right to chose what
technology to apply, what crops to raiseand when, and to whom to sell his produce to
get the highest returns.
COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT

 Production
 Marketing
 Supply
 Governance
 Research
 Extension/Education
Framework for Sustainable Development: Economically viable; ecologically sound; socially

just and humane; culturally appropriate; grounded in holistic science.

EXTENSION AS AN INTERVENTION
Definition of Intervention
 A systematic effort
 To strategically apply resources
 To manipulate seemingly causal elements in an on-going social process
 So as to permanently re-orient that process in directions deemed desirable by the
intervening part.
Two Models of Intervention
Extractive Enabling
Outsiders’ roles in
Obtain and analyze data Facilitate farmers’ own analysis
diagnosis
Outsiders’ role
Prescribe and transfer Search and supply
with technology
Farmers are… Passive Active
Provide data, adopt,

Farmers… Observe, analyze, demand, test, experiment
follow instructions
Source: Robert Chambers, 1993
Clarifying Concepts
Premeditated – characterized by fully conscious willful intent and a measure of
forethought and planning.
Deliberate – characterized by or resulting from careful and thorough consideration,
being aware of the consequence(s) of actions and/or decisions.
Voluntary – proceeding from the will or from one’s own choice or consent;
unconstrained by interference; acting or done on one’s own free will without valuable
consideration or legal obligation.
Change – to make or become different in some particular; to undergo a modification
or a transformation.
Interevenor – the extension organization.
Client – the farmer, fisherfolk, rural people.
Types of Intervention
• Technical/ instrumental (DO TO)
• Strategic (DO FOR)
• Communicative (DO WITH)
Technical Intervention vs. Intervening through people

Technical Intervention
Extension Agent -> Farm/Home
Ex. Animal is sick, Plant is stunted, unsanitary living conditions, meals
not nutritious
Intervening Through People

Extension Agent -> Farmer/Farm Family -> Farm/Home
Ex. No agricultural skills, Traditional knowledge, with no scientific
basis, negative attitude
-Work to influence in these – for consequent changes in farm/home
Methods for Influencing Human behavior

 Compulsion or Coercion
- Power exerted by an authority forcing somebody to do something.
- Unsuitable for changing behavior that requires initiative by people to be
coerced.
 EXAMPLE: government regulations related to public health, traffic
control, environmental upkeep.
 Exchange
- Goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or groups
- Applicable if:
o Each party considers the transaction to be in their favor.
o Each has the goods/services desired by the other.
o Each can only deliver his/her part when the exchange goods/services
have been delivered by the other.
 Openly Influencing Farmers’ Knowledge and Attitude
- Applicable when:
• We believe farmer can’t solve his/her own problems because s/he has
insufficient or incorrect knowledge and/or because his/her attitude
does not match his/her goals.
• We think farmer can solve his/her own problems if s/he has more
knowledge or has changed his/her attitudes.
• We are prepared to help the farmer collect more and better knowledge
or influence the farmer’s attitudes.
• The farmer trusts our expertise and motives and is prepared to
cooperate with us in changing his/her knowledge and/or attitudes.
 Manipulation
− Possible if:
• We control the techniques for influencing farmers without them being
aware of it.
• Farmers don’t actively object to being influenced in this way.
 Providing Service
− May involve taking over certain tasks from the farmers.
− Possible when:
• We have knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better
or economically than farmers.
• We have knowledge and/or means available to perform the task better
or economically than farmers.
 Changing Farmers’ Social and/or Economic Structure
− Possible when:
• We agree with farmer about his/her optimal behavior.
• Farmer is not in a position to behave this way because of barriers in
the economic and/or social structure.
• We consider changes in these structures desirable.
• We have the freedom to work towards these changes.
• We are in a position to do this, either through power or by conviction
• Example:
Formation of self-help groups for improved distribution of
inputs and marketing of produce
STRATEGIES TO INFLUENCE FARMER’S BEHAVIOR

Development and Influence Strategy
• “Doing to” or
• Working to get the farmer in a situation considered desirable by the extension
agent or organization.
Social Marketing Strategy

• “Doing for” or
• Working for farmers’ interests
Problem Solving Strategy

• “Doing with” or
• Working jointly with farmers to solve their problems
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CHOICE OF STRATEGY
The Problem Area

• Is extension advice given where an optional solution can be found with
research?
• Or does solution of problem depend heavily on farmers’ value judgment,
involvement and capabilities?
Trust in Farmers’ capabilities

• Can farmer make decisions in his/her own long-term interests but with
concern for consequences to others?
Task of Extension Organization

• Should extension organization only promote changes which benefit
society as a whole?
• Or should it help individual farmers make decisions which serve their own
interests?
When do people change behavior voluntarily?

 when they want to change
 when they know how to change
 when they are able to change
DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION
ADOPTION: a process by which a particular farmer (clientele) is exposed to, considers, and
finally rejectsor practices a particular innovation (Mosher, j 978), It occurs at the individual
level.
Adoption comprises five (5) successive steps or stages:

 Awareness - the first step towards adoption on aninnovation; the farmer becomes
aware that the technology or innovation exists, but he lacks adequate information
about it. It is somewhat like seeing something without attaching meaning to
something. Source of information are mass media such as use of radio, news articles,
newsletters, or result demonstration.
 Interest - farmer becomes interested and seeks more information; he believes that
the technology or information is possible for him, He wants to know what it is" how it
works,what is its potential. Usually he is aroused by mass media, result
demonstration and individualfarm visit.
 Evaluation - farmer evaluates technology with his conditions, expectations,
resources, anddecides whether or not to try it. Can I do it? How can I do it? Is it better
than what I wasdoing? This can be hastened or improved by method demonstration
and group discussions.
 Trial- farmer collects the required inputs, learnsany new skills that are required,
commits some land, labor and money for the trial, sees what happens, Normally he
tries on a small scale Friends and neighbors are usually the best form of information.
 Adoption/Rejection - final stage whether to adopt or to reject the technology,
Itshould not be assumed that every first trial will lead to repeated use. This stage is
characterized by large scale and continuous use of the idea.
CATEGORlES OF ADOPTERS
 Innovators (venturesome) - are the first person to adopt. The experiment, they go
ahead.
 Early adopters (respectable) - those who quickly follow the lead set by the
innovators. Usually regarded by peers as "the man to check with" before using a new
idea.
 Early majority (deliberate) - watch the innovators and early adopters first but do not
delay much longer before adoption.
 Late majority (skeptical) - are conservative and careful. Do not adoptuntil most or a
great number of neighbors have adopted/changed their practice. They need pressure
from peers toadopt.
 Laggards (traditional) - the last to adopt. Suspicious of innovators and change agents
.
INNOVATION: an idea, practice or an object perceived as newby an individual. It is a new
way of doing something. In agriculturalextension, an innovation is the same thing as a
changed practice or an improved variety, technology or practice.
Diffusion of innovation - refers to the total processby which an innovation spreads out
among farmers until a large number offarmers have adopted it. It is how an innovation is
adopted by more and more farmers.
Crucial elements in the diffusion of an innovation are the innovation, which is communicated
throughcertain channels, over time, among members of a social system, Communication
channels can be mass media, the extension worker himself, and other methods. Social
system refers to any community or locality which a social structure can impede or facilitate
the adoption or diffusion of new ideas including the norms, social statuses, hierarchy, etc.
INNOVATION-DlFFUSION MODEL: The "reconceptualized" adoption process. The process

throughwhich an individual (or other decision making unit) passes from first knowledge of
an innovation to adecision, to adopt or reject, to implementation ofthenew idea and to
confirmation of the decision.
STAGES OF INNOVATION-DIFFUSION MODEL

• Knowledge Stage - farmer understands new idea and gathers information about it.
• Persuasion Stage - formation of attitude about idea and persuades himself and is
persuaded byothers. He can accept or reject the idea based on attitude formed in the
previous stage.
• Decision-Making Stage - individualmay either to adopt or reject the new idea or to
delay thedecision for further verification.
• Implementation Stage - putting an idea into use.
• Confirmation Stage - individual seeks reinforcement for the decision he made, or he
mayreverse his previous decision if there is conflicting messages/info about the
innovation.Individual justifies his earlier decision based on his experience of other
adopters.
FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESS
Characteristics ofinnovation that Influence Adoption or Rejection

• Relative Advantage - degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
previousone; the proven effectiveness or superiority of the new idea that includes
cost of thetechnology.
• Compatibility - consistency with existing values, experiences needs and resources of
thefarmer.
• Complexity - the difficulty or ease to understand, to do or follow a technology. People
favor apractice that requires less time and effort.
• Trialability - degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis. Forexample, on a small size ofland.
• Observability - degree to which results of an innovation are visible to others. Seeing
animproved breed of swineis better than merely hearing about it.
Characteristics of Clientele that Influence Adoption or Diffusion
• educational level
• family size
• farmer's experience
• family aspiration
• tenure status
• value and belief systems
• personality characteristics
Characteristics of Change Agent

• Credibility - refers to the competency, trustworthiness and dynamism of the change
agent asperceived by clients
• Homophily - degree to which the change agent has rapport with the clientele, his
sense ofbelongingness.
• Personality traits - personal attributes such as intelligence, emphatic ability,
commitment,resourcefulness, concern for farm people, ability to communicate,
persuasiveness anddevelopment orientation.
The Biophysical Environment, Socio-economic and Socio-cultural also influence adoption or

diffusion of innovation.
EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS
INDIVIDUAL TEACHING METHODS

 Farm and Home Visit
• Office Calls
• Telephone Calls
• Personal Letters
• Informal Contacts
• Electronic Media (Fax, Internet, E~mail)
GROUP METHODS
• Lecture (involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a particular topic or
fewselected topics)
• Demonstration (Method and Result Demonstration)
• Tours and Field Trips
• Field Day
• Meetings
• Group Discussion
o Brainstorming - An activity in which a deliberate attempt is made to think and
speak-out freely creatively about all possible approaches and solutions to a
given problem,the group participating in spontaneous and unrestrained
discussion.
o Panel - a direct, conversational, and interactional discussion among a small
group ofexperts or well-informed persons. Panelists exchange ideas among
themselves andreact directly with each other. It involves actual panel
discussion, exchange of ideas,summary or last statement of panelists
o Open forum- clarifications, questions,objection to ideas
o Symposium- a method where speaker(s) is/are invited to compound on a
topic given or assigned to him (them)
o Phillip 66 - 6 persons, 6 minute discussion.
MASS METHOD
• Puppetry - acting a play on the stage using puppets that could be a doll, a small
figure, or animage of an animal
• Popular theater - makes use of performances in the form of drama, singing, dancing
andpuppetry. Called '·popular" because they are aimed at the whole village, not just
at those whoare educated. It involves local people as performers.
• Wall newspaper
• Exhibits - displays that create interest or are used for information sharing that use
posters,pictures, photographs, models and specimens. Suited for bulletin boards,
demo plots or agricultural shows.
• Campaign - a coordinated use of different methods focusing on a particular
widespreadproblem and its solution. Normally planned and directed from the
regional or national levels.
• Television
• Print- folders, posters, newspapers, fact sheet.
• Projected visuals- slides, films, overheads projectors transparencies.
EXTENSION APPROACH: the style of action within extension system which embodies the
philosophy ofthat system; sets the pace of all of the activities of the system: works like a
doctrine for the system-informs,stimulates and guides.
Extension System: that entity composed of properties such as organizational structure,

leadership, resources (human and physical), program, goals and objectives, methods and
techniques for implementation, linkages with various organizations and publics.
EXTENSION APPROACHES:
1. The General Agricultural Extension Approach (GAE)

• General Nature - Transfer of Technology (TOT)
• Basic assumption - technology and information are available but are not being
used by farmers. Ifthese could be communicated to farmers, farm practices could
be improved.
• Purpose- to help farmers increase their production.
• Program planning - controlled by government and changes in priority, from time
to time, are made ona national basis, with some freedom for local adaptation.
• Implementation - carried by a large field staff assigned throughout the country.
• Demonstrationplots are a major technique.
• Resources required large numbers of field personnel.
• Measure of success - increase in national production of the commodities being
emphasized in thenational program.
• Advantages – interpret national government policies and procedures to the local
people; covers thewhole nation: relatively easy to control by the national
government; relatively rapid communicationfrom the ministry level to rural
people.
• Disadvantages - lacks two way flow of communication; fails to adjust extension
messages to different localities; field staff not accountable to rural people;
expensive and inefficient.
2. Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

• General nature - highly disciplined and patterned: with fixed schedule for training
of village extensionworkers, SMSs, and scheduled visits by extension workers to
farmers
• Basic assumption - extension personnel are poorly trained; not up-to-date and
tend not to visit farmers, but stay in their offices; management and supervision is
not adequate; to-way communicationbetween research and extension units and
between extension staff and farmers can be achieved through this discipline.
• Purpose - to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops
• Program planning - centralized; what to teach and when to teach is decided upon
by professionals andprogram is delivered "down" to farmers,; program planning
follows cropping pattern of priority crops
• Implementation - relies basically on visits by extension workers to small groups
of farmers or to individual contact farmers: fortnightly training by SMSsof the
VEWs
• Resources required - high number of personnel, costs tend to be very high and
dependent on centralresources: more adequate transportation capability for field
personnel
• Measure of success - increase in yield, and total production of the crops being
emphasized
• Advantages - pressure on governments to recognize a large number ofsmall
agricultural extensionunits into one integrated service; brings discipline to the
system, VEWs become more up-to-date toinformation; closer technical
supervision
• Disadvantages - High long-term costs to governments due to expanding size of
VEWs; lack of actualtwo-way communication; technology that is relevant to the
farmers are not integrated; lack offlexibility to change programs as needs and
interests of farmers change; field staff tires of vigorous,patterned activities
without appropriate rewards.
3. The Project Approach (PA)

• Basic assumption – better results can be achieved in a particular location, during
a specified period oftime period; with large infusion of outside resources; high
impact activities, carried on under artificialcircumstances; will have some
continuity after outside financial support is no longer available.
• Purpose - to demonstrate, within the project area, what can be accomplished on a
relatively shortperiod of time: to teat the variety of alternative extension methods
• Program planning- control by outside the village, with central government, the
"donor" agency orsome combination.

• Implementation - includes a project management staff; project allowances for
field staff, bettertransportation, facilities, equipment, and better housing than
regular government programs
• Measure of success - increase in yield and total production of the crops being
emphasized
• Advantages - focus which enables evaluation of effectiveness, and sometimes
"quick results" for abetter donor; novel techniques and methods can be treated
and experimented within the limits of theprojects
• Disadvantages - usually too short time period; money provided tends to be more
than what isappropriate; flow of "good ideas" in the project to areas outside the
project; double standards; whenmoney ends, project extension programs most
after ends also.
4. The Commodity Specialized Approach (CSA)

• General nature - highly specialized, focuses on one export crop or one aspect of
farming
• Basic assumption- the way to increase productivity and the production of a
particular commodity is toreally concentrate on that one; grouping extension
with such other functions as research, input supply,output marketing, credit and
sometimes price control, will make the whole system productive
• Purpose - to increase production of particular commodity: sometimes it is to
increase utilization ofaparticular agricultural input
• Program planning - controlled by the commodity organization
 Implementation carried out by a large field staff assigned throughthe country;
demonstrationplots are a major technique
• Resources required - provided by the commodity organization
• Measure of success- total productivity of a particular crop
• Advantages - technology tends to "fit'" the production problems and so messages
ofextension officerssent to growers tend to be appropriate, because of
coordination with research and marketing people,messages tend to be delivered
in a timely manner to producers: focus on a narrow range oftechnicalconcerns;
higher salary incentives; closer management and supervision; fewer farmers per
extension worker; easier to monitor and evaluate; relatively more cost effective
• Disadvantages - interests of farmers may have less priority than those of the
commodity organization;does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
farming; problems of the commodity organizationpromoting "its commodity"
even in situations where it is no longer in the national interest to be inincreasing
production of that particular commodity
5. The Farming Systems Development Approach (FSDA)

• Basic assumption - technology which fits the needs of farmers particularly small
farmers, is notavailable and needs to be generated locally
• Purpose- to provide extension persons and through their farm people. with
research results tailored tomeet the needs and interests of local farming systems
conditions

• Program planning - evolve slowly during the process, and may be different for
each ages, climaticfarm ecosystem type since the program must take into account
a holistic approach to the plants,animals and the people in each particular
location; control of program shared jointly by local arm menand women,
agricultural extension officers, and agricultural researchers
• Implementation - through partnership of research and extension personnel and
with local people,taking a systems approach to the farm: sometimes involve
several scientific disciplines, howeverrequires that research personnel go to the
farm, listen to them, and the extension personnel, understandthe arm as a system
• Measure of success - extend to which farm people adopt the technologies
developed in the programand continue to use them overtime
• Advantages - some measures of local control ofprogram planning increases
relevance of programcontent and methods to needs and interests of
clientele;higher adoption rates; effective communicationbetween local people
and the extension personnel; lower cost to central government and local people
• Disadvantages - interests of farmers may have less priority than those of the
commodity organization;does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
farming; problems of the commodity organizationpromoting "its commodity"
even in situations where it is no longerin the national interest to beincreasing
production of that particular commodity.
6. The Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach (AEP)

• General Nature concerned with a broad range of agricultural subjects, shifting its
local focus fromtime to time as village problems change or as needs arise
• Basic assumption - farming people have much wisdom regarding production of
food from their landbut their levels of living and productivity could be improved
by learning more ofwhat is outside; thatthere is an IKS, different from the
scientific knowledge system, but there is much to be gained from theinteraction
of the two; participation of the farmers, as well as of research and related
services.; thatthere is an reinforcing effect in group learning and group action;
that extension efficiency is gained byfocusing on important points based on
expressed needs of farmers
• Purpose - to increase production of farming people: increase consumption and
enhance the quality oflife or rural people
• Program planning - controlled locally, often by farmers' association
• Implementation - features many meetings and discussions of farmers' problems
and exploringsituations with extension officers
• Resources required - extension workers who are not only technically trained but
are also non-formaleducators, animators and catalysts
• Measure of success - continuity of local extension organizations and the benefits
ofthe community ofextension activities: extent of participation of key
stakeholders in program planning andimplementation.
• Advantages - relevance or fit of the program; mutually supportive relationships
which develop amongparticipants; less costly; stimulates increased confidence,
awareness and activity among farm people
• Disadvantages - lack of control of program from central government; difficulty of
managing centralreporting and accounting; pressure people might bring on
central units; people's influence onpersonnel management decisions like
selection, transfer and promotion, and the like
7. The Cost Sharing Approach (CSA)

• Basic assumption - any NFE is more likely to achieve its goals if those who benefit
from it share somepart of the cost; program would more likely fit to local
situation; personnel would more likely serveinterests of client if costs are shared
between "outside" sponsors and "inside" target groups;commitment of learners
to participate if they pay some part of the cost
• Purpose - to help farm people learn those things they need to know for self-
improvement andincreased productivity; to make funding of agricultural
extension affordable and sustainable both atcentral and local levels
• Program planning - shared by various levels paying the cost but must be
responsive to local interest inorder to maintain "cooperative" financial
arrangements; local people tend to have strong voice inprogram planning
• Measure of success - farm people's willingness and ability to provide some share
of the cost,individually or through their local government units
• Advantages - some measure of local control of program planning increases
relevance or programcontent and methods to needs and interests of the clientele:
higher adoption rates; effectivecommunication between local people and
extension personnellower cost to central government andlocal people
• Disadvantages - more difficult for central government to control either program
or personnel.
THE RISE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
The industrial revolution that is particularly typical of Britain was brought about by a
technologicalinnovation. The automatic loom in the 18 th century, Britain quickly
industrialized and became the first producer andexporter of textiles. The consequence was
that farmers left their fields and became industrial workers, spurring the growth ofcities
around the thriving textile industry. At the same time, there were fewer people to produce
foodstuff and more mouths to feed. This led the Crown to create a government service to
help those farmers who still stayed on the land to produce more and more efficiently.
Agriculture therefore became a profession like themany other trades and not any more a
natural occupation of people trying to provide for their mere survival.Research institutions
for the advancement of scientific farming were created and agriculture underwent a process
ofspecialization and professionalization which is still very much a force today. From
subsistence agriculture moved todiversification and specialized market oriented
agriculture. Because of its "strategic importance" for maintainingfood security for its
population, most countries have created some kind of service to support farmers in
theirendeavors to produce more efficiently. These are called advisory extension services.
A Short History of Extension Services
As outlined above, the British crown was the first to create a free service to help fanners to
produce more foodstuffs.It was therefore quite natural that they would set up similar
organizations in the territories under their rule. In Indiaand Africa, advisory or extension
services were established because basically the problems offood scarcity werecomparable
to those. Britain had been subject to at the end of the 18thcentury. In the United States-where
the term extension was coined - the service was started from the State universities under
the Land Grant System.According to this modality, State universities were encouraged and
financed to set up faculties ofagronomy andanimal sciences whose teachers and professors
not only deal with research and teaching but also "extended" theirknow-how and
experience to surrounding farmers including farm visits and on-farm trials This became
known asextension service, i.e. from the university to the outside fanning world in the areas
allotted to that particularuniversity. This was later coined cooperative extension service
when the US government introduced the system indeveloping countries, specifically to Latin
America but also to some parts of Africa. In France, on the other hand,the state evolved into
industrial development while staying a predominantly agricultural country, where
farmersoften produced surpluses and therefore the need arose to regulate farming rather
than encouraging it. When theFrench started colonizing parts of Africa and Asia, they
brought with them the same approach regarding agriculturaldevelopment and therefore did
not bother to set up such services, except of course for cash crops they wereinterested in for
export and further processing at home (cotton, coffee. cocoa, rubber, groundnuts. spices,
etc.). Theneed for farm improvement both at home and in the former colonies was never
entrusted to the state, rather to thecare and initiative of the farmers or growers'
associations, who would then hire specialists in specific trades likeplant protection,
mechanization and farm economics. This of course posed the problem of farmers'
organizationswhich is not a spontaneous phenomenon the least one could say in developing
nations.The Training and Visit (T&V) System popularized in the 1970s and the 1980s
through the World Bank was appliedin many developing countries and certainly was
instrumental in arousing the awareness on the need of knowledgesystems as a critical input
to bring about development Itwas a great success especially in India. When combinedwith
the Green Revolution, it brought important changes in stale awareness in many parts of
Africa. T&V whileeffective - a case in point in French-speaking Guinea in West Africa - was
criticized for two main reasons: firstbecause of its top-down approach and second because
of its not being efficient large maintenance budgets linked toenhanced salaries, vehicles and
management of the system. This led to participatory approach, wherebydevelopment
professionals (researchers, extension workers at all levels) should initiate change together
with farmersaccording to the farmers' felt needs and not necessarily according to what suits
policymakers or governments.Free trade and entrepreneurship are now widely encouraged
as opposed to state intervention and the tendency ispresently to a strong reduction in state
budgets and in the intervention in the life of citizens, especially as related toagricultural
development. Extension therefore will move to privatized systems - in a way a bend towards
the Frenchapproach as outlined above. The need for extension is evident, the only problems
is to whom to entrust it, who willpay for it and consequently what delivery systems should
be used to ensure its effectiveness, efficiency andsustainability.
The increasing demand for extension science, training and skills can be explained by various
factors:
1. As bottlenecks to agricultural production are removed by improved marketing,

banking, infrastructure,land tenure, and input delivery, the growth of productivity
becomes "technology propelled". Once thatstage has been reached, the joint action of
research, extension and education becomes the spear pointofagricultural
development.
2. Modern states increasingly rely on policy instruments for inducing voluntary
behavior change. Inaddition to the more conventional ones aimed at compliance,
such as subsidies, price manipulation andlaws.
3. The competition for the attention of the public has taken on hitherto unknown
proportions as a result ofthe vast number of print and electronic messages which can
be sent cheaply to members of the targetpublic
4. As society approaches the limits of feasible adaptation of the environment to human
intentionality, theneed to adapt intentionality is felt more strongly.
Extension science developed first as a specialization within rural sociology. Given

rural sociology's focuson change, extension as an instrument for promoting change could
not be ignored. Studying 'change agents'such as extension workers and their agencies
became acceptable sociological preoccupations. One of theearliest extension research
paradigms - diffusion of innovations, arose within, and was consolidated as atradition in
rural sociology. It provided a comfortable home for what was to become extension science.
However, extension soon became decision-oriented or activist and divorced itself
from rural sociology,becoming more and more concerned with utilizing social psychology
and communication and borrowingheavily from the neighboring fields of education,
marketing and advertising. Extension did not need theories ofchange but, rather, of
changing. In the process, the focus shifted to the micro-level and to extension
methods,interpersonal communication processes and the adoption of technology by the
individual. The macro-consequencesof technology-propelled development were neglected.
Recently, however, extension science seems to be turning full circle. The focus on
information andknowledge systems on the interfaces between the information system and
other social systems, and on theconsequences of technological change, implies an increased
utilization of social system concepts and apreoccupation with the sociology of knowledge.
Knowledge and Information System
Extension science is beginning to be able to make propositions about extension as a

sub-system of a largersystem in which research and utilizes also form sub-systems. In fact,it
seems unfruitful nowadays to look atextension in isolation from these sub-systems. For
example, one cannot improve extension without also improving research and the
mechanisms linking it to extension. Nor can one improve extension withoutimproving user
control of farmers over extension services.
An agricultural information system

Isa system in which agricultural information is generated, transformed, transferred,
consolidated, receivedandfeedback in such a manner that these processes function
synergicallyto underpin knowledge utilization byagricultural producers.

An agricultural knowledge system (AKS)
Is a system of belief, cognitions, models, theories, concepts and other products ofthe
mind in which various experience ofa person or group with respect to agricultural
production is accumulate.
Fig. 2. The different systems within an agricultural extension system
The figure above depicts the different systems that interplay within an agricultural
extension system. These are the technology/knowledge system, policies, Non -government
organization (NGO), State Universities andColleges (SUC), Government Organization (GO),
Peoples organization (PO), Local Government Unit (LGU), Extension Workers and the
Farmers. Each of these systems has their own strengths and weaknesses in their rolewithin
the bigger system.
In the Philippines, The extension system which forms part of the Agricultural
Information Knowledge System include the Agricultural Extension system of the Local
Government Units (LGUs) the Department ofAgriculture Agencies and Bureaus, the State
Colleges and Universities, GOs and private companies. Thispractice of allowing several
organizations to provide extension work to the different farmers of the countryimplies that
the country has a Pluralistic Extension Policy. Even before the 1993 devolution of the
Bureau ofAgricultural Extension, there was already a plurality of organizations that were
providing agricultural extensionwork to the millions of Filipino farmers. That included DA
industry bureaus, the DA commodity agencies, theState Agricultural Colleges and
Universities as well as some NGOs and private companies.

Technology/knowledge system
It is now widely accepted the usefulness of system approach for understanding and
analyzing agriculturaltechnology generation and dissemination (Nagel, 1979; Swanson
&Peterson, 1991; Roling, 1991; Elliot, 1994) asmentioned by Peterson, 1997.
An agricultural knowledge system was identified consisting of four companies
namely technology generation, technology transfer, technology utilization and agricultural
policy. The functions and linkages related to the flow and feedback of technology and
information in the system defines the component. The way these are divided among
organizations differs from country to country.
 Technology Generation consists of planning, administration and implementation
of research activities that develop, assess, adapt and test improved agricultural
technology for farmers and other users. In the public sector, these tasks, as well
as some dissemination work are carried out by agricultural research
organizations.
 Technology Transfer further evaluates and adapts research outputs for users and
then widely disseminates the knowledge and inputs to different target adopters.
 Technology Utilization component encompasses the users of the agricultural
technology, mainly farmers. User awareness, adaptation and adoption of
improved technology from various sources affect farm-level productivity and
profitability and economic growth at the national level. Interaction and feedback
between users are research and transfer organizations improve cooperation and
the relevance of technology. The policy component relates to the government
development goals and strategies, market and price policies and the levels of
resources investment in the system.
Factors that can impede or influence the flow of technology and information in agricultural
technology system:
A. Macrofactors
a. Agroecological- differences in temperature, rainfall, soil types, evapo-

transpiration, etc. are reflected in the diversity of farming conditions and
production systems.
b. Political-Economic- the percentage of resource-poor smallholder farmers
influences the type of technology to be transferred. High turnover of top
managers undermines management experience and continuity in leadership.
c. Socio-cultural-Language differences and illiteracy can impede the communication
of improved technology. The division of labor between sexes can differ along
cultural lines and influences the nature of farming systems in different regions.
d. Policy- Policy-making bodies of the government set development goals and
objectives such as achieving food security or surplus agricultural production to
stimulate economic growth or providing health care or education for rural
development.

e. Infrastructure- Farmers in areas that cannot be reached by road or transport
vehicles are difficult to reach with improved technology, and they will have
problems transporting inputs and farm produce.
B. Institutional
a. Research- these include lack of financial resources, acute shortages of well-

trained scientists, lack of farmer feedback to ensure relevance or research results,
lack of access to external sources of knowledge, inadequate operating budgets,
staff incentives and remuneration.
b. Education and Training-content of the curricula of universities and training
institutes, numbers and qualifications of their graduates are limiting or enabling
in any country.
c. Input Supply- availability of new plant and animal varieties with higher yields or
resistance to pests and diseases; availability of agrochemicals and other inputs at
the farm level.
d. Credit- Facilitates farmer’s availability to purchase inputs such as improved
variety/breed and fertilizer; understanding government and bank policies,
availability of credit and the institutional relationships involved in credit delivery.
e. Farmers Organizations and other NGOs- agreement should be reached with the
private sectors both nonprofit and commercial organizations so that duplication
of effort is minimized and conflicting messages to farmers are avoided; Farmer
organizations offer an effective channel for extension contact with large number
of farmers. Feedback on farmer needs, production problems and the results of
adoption from such groups will be increasingly important considerations.
Extension workers
Roles are an important dimension in increasing organizational effectiveness. Roles

and functions of the extension worker are as follows: enabler, educator, mediator, farmer
aid and facilitator.
The goals of extension include the transferring of knowledge from researchers to
farmers, advising farmers in their decision making and educating farmers on how to make
better decisions, enabling farmers to clarify their own goals and possibilities, and
stimulating desirable agricultural developments (Van der Ban and Hawkins, 1996).
The services provided by extension have significant public-good attributes. There are
at least 800,000 official extension workers worldwide, and some 80% of the world's
extension services ate publicly funded and delivered by civil servants (Feder. Willett and
Zijp, 2001). Universities, autonomous public organizations, andNGOs deliver about 12% of
extension services, and the private sector delivers another 5%. There is a corresponding
large volume of public budget allocated to extension activities (in 1988, for example, over
six billion US dollarsworldwide (WB, 2003)).
From a development policy perspective, the investment in extension services or the
facilitation ofnon-government extension, are potentially important tools for improving
agricultural productivity and increasing farmers' incomes. More than 90% of the world's
extension personnel are located in developing countries (Umali andSchwarts, 1994), where
majority of the world's farmers are located.
Productivity improvements are possible only if a differential exists between the
actual productivity on the farms and what could potentially be produced with better
knowhow, subject as always to farmers' preferences and resource constraints. The
productivity differential is a manifestation of the difference in the knowledge that farmers
possess and the best-practice knowledge that exists at any point in time. Best practice is
often, though not always, an embodiment of the latest science-based developments
addressed to overcome the limitations imposed by traditional technology and practices and
thereby enhancing productivity.
Extension helps to reduce the differential between potential and actual yields in farmers'
fields by accelerating technology transfer and helping farmers become better farm
managers. It also has an important role toplay in helping the research establishment tailor
technology to the agro-ecological and resource circumstances offarmers. Extension
facilitates both the adoption and adaptation of technology to local conditions. Adoption of
technology involves translating information from the store of knowledge and from new
research to farmers.Adaptation of technology to local condition is by helping to articulate
for research systems the problems andconstraints faced by farmers.
Objectives of Agricultural Extension
The hierarchy of extension objectives

NeilsRoling. 1988
Ultimate objectives
(From analysis of societal problem)
Intervention objectives
(Based on analysis of causes)
Conditions for effect

(based on determinants of voluntary behavior)
Activities
(programming, implementation)
Means
(resources, management, organization)
When asking a group of trainees or extension workers what comes to their minds when the
term agriculturalextension is uttered, the answers will usually cover a wide range of
subjects based on what is the problem ofthesociety like: raising the standard of living of the
farmers, gaining their trust, changing mentality, reducing hunger,increasing crop yields,
increasing income, using inputs more efficiently, enhancing food security, collecting the
dataabout the farmers' needs, producing more, carrying out field trials, reducing poverty,

etc. All these examples are objectives of extensionwork. When one tries to organize these
objectives in a causal chain,one may reach the following diagram:
This general diagram is very simple. It can be made more complex by distinguishing
between direct, core and resultobjectives. No results as they appear in the upper part of the
diagram can be attained unless the ones underneath have been reached. In other words, no
RESULT objectives can be obtained unless the CORE objectiveshave been realized. This area
is called core because when asking the questions "who produces?", "who increasescrop
yields?", etc. the answer is «is the farmers themselves" and therefore emphasizes the client-
centered approach,in which all the efforts of extension are geared towards changing
elements related to the client system, or thefarmers. The DIRECT objectives relate to what
the extension system is trying to achieve in terms of specificactivities that will hopefully
bring about the CORE objectives.
This latter - will hopefully - bring about the RESULTS objectives. Another way oflooking at
this concept is themeasure of control or lack of it from the point of view of the extension
planners and practitioners. The controllessens as we go up the causal ladder, For example,
bringing about an increase in yield will not necessarily mean anincrease in income (due to
price fluctuations or wastage of resources) and increase in income does not necessarily
result in improved living standards (i.e buying luxury Consumer goods instead of tackling
more basic needs likehealth, sanitation or improved nutrition). Therefore, agricultural
extension should preferably be within theframework of a more general development plan,
which will take into account community and social developmentaspects.
Farmers
To attain equilibrium and sustainability of productivity, farmers must have a holistic
perspective ofagriculture because they are cultivators and managers of the"farm they
operates. As a cultivator, he prepares theseedbed, sows the crop, eliminates the weeds,
manages the soil moisture and measures for the control ofpests and diseases. And as a
manager, the skills of their cultivation are mostly skills of the hand, the muscles and the eye;
theskills of management involve activities of the mind backed by the will. They involve
decision making and choosingalternatives as a solution for a problem
The farmer should be viewed as somebody who has potentials and not as somebody
who has a problem thatmust be solved. They must be seen as possessing number of
capabilities which can be tapped in promotingproductivity because farmers have extensive
experience in agriculture. They have low formal education attainmentbut farming wise, they
are knowledgeable and many things could be learned from them. It is important not only
torecognize his beliefs, but they must be respected as well.
Farmers have the attitude and practice that could be attributed to the general belief
that Nature, as the workof God should be respected, and this means bowing to the inevitable
and the immutable in nature. Many farmerrespondents would study nature yet few would
exploit it to the fullest for the improvement of their lives for this could be tantamount to
tampering with the works of God, The psychological disposition of the farmers undergoes
aprocess ofchallenge, validation and confirmation. It is also important to know the
technology but at the same timedelineate its relation and interaction with the components
of their belief systems.

Farmers, in general do not do things in trial and error. They are very rational in the
way they manage theirfarms. In short, there are valid reasons why farmers do what they do.
These reasons are derived from their historical experience. It would be an asset in
increasing the success oftechnology transfer to incorporate thehistorical experience of our
farmers.

Policies
All national governments should develop and periodically review their agricultural
extension policy. Thepolicy should include the goals of agricultural extension, the
responsible agencies and personnel, the clientele to beserved, the broad programmatic area
to be addresses and other relevant guidelines.
Philippine Agriculture over the years
 During the Spanish Era

 Spaniards offered local and foreign scholarships grants and endowment fund for
a professorial chair in agriculture and establish an academy of design.
 Introduced and acclimatized the myrrh birds (martinez) from China to fight
against migratory locustinfestation in the Philippines.
 Plan General Economicoincluded the income generating monopolies of tobacco,
jareca nut, spirituousliquors and explosives.
 Gave incentives by awarding cash prizes and medals of recognition for excellence
in farming indigo,spices, cotton, cultivating mulberry for silk production and bee-
keeping.
 During the American Occupation

• Created the then Department of Agriculture and Manufacturing through a
presidential proclamation on June23, 1898.
• A homestead Law was passed, giving every Filipino citizen the opportunity to
acquire at least 24 hectaresof land. All titles to cultivated lands owned by private
persons were safeguarded by the Torrens Act.Foreign capitalists and
corporations were restricted in purchasing or leasing public lands. This is done
topreserve the public lands of the Philippines for the Filipinos.
• In 1902, the Bureau of Agriculture, now the Bureau of Plant Industry was created
to promote agriculture. Experimental and model farms were established, plant
pests were gradually exterminated, modern tractorsand farm machinery were
introduced and the people were taught modern methods of cultivation.
• Philippine exports especially hemp, sugar, tobacco, copra and embroideries
flowed to the free markets ofthe United States. Although free trade with the
United States was productive of commercial prosperity, itmade the Philippines
economically dependent on the United States. Neglecting the trade with China,
Japanand England.
• Domestic trade was controlled by the foreigners because the Filipinos did not pay
as much attention to theirlocal trade as they did to their overseas with America.
• The worldwide depression of 1929-32 and the though of inevitable loss of the
free market of the UnitedStates when independence shall have been achieved,
made the Filipino people realize the need for a greaterindustrialization. Toward
the year 1935 the government exerted greater efforts not only in
thediversification of crops but also in the promotion of manufacturing industries.

 The time of President Manuel L Quezon
• People were encouraged to go into agricultural business especially people in
Mindanao where favorableclimatic condition is available since food is highly
needed during these times.
• Due to financial shortage, information were not passed and shared to farmers.
• Trading ofagricultural products between the Philippines and US increased.
• Division of Soil Survey was created to undertake soil and agronomical survey.
 President Jose P. Laurel (The Japanase Occupation)

• This period was called "the rude awakening" because it was realized that the
Philippines did not raiseenough food for the people and have been dependent all
along upon other countries for its deficiency in riceand other cereals.
• He tried to have a gradual but determined reorientation of the economy from
dependence upon rawmaterials exports to increasing reliance upon the home
market.
 President Manual A. Roxas

• Giving parity rights to the Americans: - the disposition, exploitation, development
and utilization of allagricultural, timber and mineral lands of the public domain,
waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and othernatural resources of the Philippines
• Established the Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (RFC, later changed to
Development Bank of thePhilippines) for the rehabilitation and development of
agriculture among others.
 President Elpidio Quirino

• The Bureau of Agricultural Extension "'as established. He made the rice industry
the first commoditysector to have an integrated national planning There was an
intensive rehabilitation of the rice, corn,tobacco, fiber, sugar, livestock, fishery
and mining industries begun.
• Congress passed the Rural Bank Act in 19:2 which authorized the organization
ofa system of rural bankswith substantial capital participation of the government.
• Congress also created the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing
Administration (ACCFA) whichwas authorized to organize the Farmers
Cooperative Marketing Associations (FACOMAS) and to extendlow cost loans to
them.
 President Ramon Magsaysay

• The Philippines actively pursued an import-substitution strategy to achieve
higher employment, reducedomestic inflation and market interest rates with the
goal of creating stronger economic growth andaccelerating modernization and
industrialization.
• The Philippines became a member of the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization.
• National Rice and Corn Production Program were launched coupled with the
creation of the Rice and Corn Coordinating Council, the forerunner of the National
Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) which is now the National Agricultural and
Fishery Council (NAFC).
 President Carlos P. Garcia
• Austery Program- urged the people to lead simple lives and do away with
luxurious lifestyles. He emphasized the values, wise spending, industry, thrift,
trustworthiness, integrity and honesty. Government officials and employees were
reminded that the public office is a public trust and that graft and corruption was
totally eliminated but his efforts were timely in strengthening the people’s faith
and confidence in the democratic process.
• The Filipino First Policy- encouraged the people to patronize Philippine-made

products and to promote Filipino labor.
• Cultural Revival
 President Diosdado Macapagal
• Believed that research will make full and comprehensive solution to our rice
problem. It is for this reason that he allowed the establishment of the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in our land.
• Dissected the problem of the sugar industry.
 President Ferdinand Marcos

• Agricultural Republic Act 6389 - automatic conversion of share tenancy to
leasehold and a retention rate of75 to 24 hectares must be lowered and the
creation of DAR. A failure because it provided for the right toeject the lessee for
having failed to adopt proven farm practice. Risk minimizer rather than
profitmaximizer.
• A balanced Agro-Industrialized Economy
• Farmers without land were resettled in agricultural settlements owned by the
government. Average farm lotis 6 has.
• Breakthrough to self sufficiency for about 2 years only through MASAGANA 99, a
massive dispersal ofamodern package of technology (HYV's, fertilizers and
pesticides), the extension of supervised creditwithout collateral, dispersal of
agricultural extension workers to facilitate technology transfer, utilization ofmass
media to disseminate informationand total coordinated government management
of the program.
• Sugar industry provides the country wi a stable flow of foreign exchange earnings
and employment for agreat number of Filipinos.
• Replanting program for coconut

 President Corazon C. Aquino
• Comprehensive and genuine agrarian reform program with some supports as
credit, marketing andtechnology
• Uplift the farmers from poverty, ignorance and stagnation
• Make the farmers useful, dignified, responsible and progressive partners in
nation building
• Distribute portions of public lands through resettlement
• Lend idle private lands to the landless
• Encourage voluntary land sharing protection
• Shortlived due to the destabilizing effect of the various military coups mounted
against AquinoAdministration.
• Nonetheless, Aquino government was able to lay the foundation for which
succeeding administrationscould proceed to develop the countryside.
 President Fidel V. Ramos

• Too preoccupied with industrializing the economy by the year 2000 that it failed
to give the appropriatefinancial support and attention on developing the
Philippine Agriculture for the World Trade.
• Except for livestock and export crops such as banana and pineapple all
agricultural commodities suffered adecline in productivity.
• Initiated the MTADP (Medium Term Agricultural Development Plan) -in 4
programs
o GPEP - Grains Production Enhancement Program
o KCCDP - Key Commercial Crops Development Program
o MTLDP - Medium Term Livestock Development Program
o MTFMDP - Medium Term Fisheries Management Development Program
• Intensified Delivery of Support Service
 Adopted GATT Safety Measures.
 President Joseph E. Estrada

• Continue the program of President Ramos
• More focused on crime prevention and on constitutional correction for
development (CONCORD)
• Little evidence that the agricultural policies and institutions were moving in right
directions because hefurther centralize the distribution of tents and dispensation
of political favors which perpetuate ineffectivegovernment programs.
• AgrikulturangMakamasa - continue the activities of GintongAni.
• Approved the implementation of Biotechnology in the country.
 President Gloria M. Arroyo

• Ensured the yearly funding of AFMA. (includes yearly loan releases of more than
PIOB from LBP.
• GMA-CARES (GinintuangMasaganangAni-Countrywide Assistance for Rural
Employment and Services- provide sustainable credit for small borrowers and
marginalized groups in the country.

• Hybrid Rice Commercialization Program - to promote widespread use of hybrid
rice seeds in the countryin order to enhance farmers' productivity and income
and to generate employment in the rural areas.
• Commodity Programs
In the Philippines, it dates back to the first farm school in La Granja, in Negros during
the Spanish time. But thecontemporary concept of public extension dates back to the early
1950's with the establishment of the Bureau ofAgricultural Extension. Shortly after the turn
of the 20thcentury the current concept of extension was preceded bythe creation of a Bureau
of Agriculture, which had one of its functions the dissemination of agricultural
information.The end of World War II for the Philippines was the beginning of a conscious
effort to modernize and developagriculture to feed its growing population, to be a source of
raw materials for industrialization and to increase exportearnings. Inspired by the
successful experience of the USA in its modernization and development of agriculture,
thePhilippines adopted the interventionist approach to agricultural modernization and
development using as majorpolicy instruments agricultural education, research and
extension. This led to the creation ofagricultural schools andcolleges, the establishment of
agricultural research stations, and the establishment ofcommodity authorities (i.e.
National Tobacco Administration, Philippine Coconut Authority, etc. included the functions
of research andextension for their respective commodity responsibility. Furthermore,
influenced by the experience of Land GrantAgricultural Colleges in the United States, the
functions of research and extension were added to the teachingfunction of an agricultural
college which started in the then UP College of Agriculture in the late 1960's.
Non government organization (NGO)

The term NGO, literally means any organization that is an initiative of private sector
and not ofgovernment. NGOs in nature are non-profit, their focus on and service to marginal
groups, flexibility in leadershipstructures. They generally have formal registration to
government agencies. Foundation register with the Securitiesand Exchange Commission
(SEC), cooperatives with the Bureau of Cooperatives which is under the Department
ofAgriculture; social welfare types of groups with the Bureau of Rural Workers under the
Department of Labor andEmployment.
The non-profit nature ofNGO means that surplus income generated at the end of the
year are not dividedamong the members of the group. These are instead plowed back into
the operations of the organization for the nextyear.
Another common characteristic ofNGOs is their assisting on the different marginal
sectors in society.These target groups are the fanners, women, tribal minorities, squatters,
youth, etc.
NGOs can more easily adapt their structures according to the needs of their
programmes and activities thusmaking it a flexible organization. These are of course cases
where there have been little or no changes in topleadership of several NGOs over the years.
One of the significant characteristics to be mentioned is their generally voluntary
nature and orientation. They do not operate like business corporations and much of the
services they rendered to their target groups or beneficiaries are free or minimally charged.
In terms of perception of the work, social development agencies believe in the
participation of people in the decisions and processes affecting them. The approach is

towards the self reliance of the communities or groups they work with and not the
continued dependence on the organization's assistance.
A moving force of NGOs is through the committed and motivated personnel of it.
Development workers have generally high sense of motivation and commitment in
theirservice to their target groups despite a usually low remuneration and some risks
involved with this type of work.
Government organization (national level)
The Department of Agriculture is the principal agency of the Philippine government

responsible for the promotion of agricultural development growth. In pursuit of this, it
provides the policy framework, helps direct public investments, and in partnership with
local government units (LGUs) provides the support services necessary to make agriculture
and agri-based enterprises profitable and to help spread the benefits of development to the
poor, particularly those in rural areas.
The department is supported by five (5) Agricultural Industry Extension Extension
Systems, four (4) Specialized Commodity Extension Systems and two
(2)CommodityResearch Institution Extension System. Each of these agencies and Bureaus
havetheir own extension mandates, such as:
• Bureau of Animal Industry - to develop a vibrant livestock and poultry farming
communities for foodsecurity and global competitiveness
• Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources -to develop cost-effective, practical,
and efficient extension services on a sustained basis, especially to municipal
fisher folk in underdeveloped areas. (RA 8550)
• Bureau of Plant Industry
• Bureau of Post-Harvest Research and Extension – generate, extend and
commercialize appropriate and problem-oriented post production technology
and practices.
• Bureau of Soil and Water Management - to promote and disseminate technology
for the identification and packaging of appropriate rainwater harvesting.
• Fiber Industry and Development Authority -to promote the accelerated growth
and development of the Philippine fiber industry in all its aspects: research,
production, processing, marketing and trade relation
• National Tobacco Authority - to improve the economic and living conditions and
raise the quality oflife of the tobacco farmers.
• Philippine Coconut Authority - to work directly with coconut farmers
• Sugar Regulatory Administration - to transfer sugar industry information and the
technology generated by the research wing ofSRA and other agencies and
progressive farmers.
• PhilRice
State universities and colleges (SUC)

Under the AFMA of 1997, SUCs do not deliver direct extension services but work
with DA operated extension. SUC play a significant role in addressing the shortage of well-
trained agricultural extension staff in the field level through trainings and non-degree
programs. They can revitalize the Agricultural Extension curriculum through student

internships, field work as well as interactions with allied disciplines such as agricultural
education development communication and rural sociology.
THE DECENTRALIZED AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Some Definitions:
 Decentralization - The transfer of authority and responsibility for government
functions from central government to intermediate and local governments, and
often to communities and the private sector (World Bank, 2000).
 Privatization – Government transfer to the private sector of managerial, fiscal, and
decision making control, while retaining normal regulatory authority (World Bank,
2000).
Legal Instrument
 Republic Act No. 7160 (Local Government Code of 1991) – extension and training
activities passed on to the LGUs
Objectives
 To attain the LGUs’ fullest development as self-reliant communities and make them
more effective partners in the attainment of national goals.
Specific Goals
 Bring government service closer to the people.
 Give local people the control and authority and opportunity to participate in the
planning and implementation of extension programs.
 Make the responsible local government less dependent on the central government
for support of extension services that benefits the constituents.
 Reduce the top heavy central government budget and personnel.
 Make the LGUs responsible for the cost of providing needed agricultural services to
their constituents.
Bureaus and Attached Agencies of the DA Doing Extension and Training
Bureau Agency
- Bureau of Animal Industry - Cotton Development Authority

- Bureau of Plant Industry - Fiber Development Authority
- Bureau of Fishery and Agricultural - National Tobacco Administration
Resources - Philippine Coconut Authority
- Bureau of Post-Harvest Research and - Philippine Carabao Center
Extension - PhilRice
- Bureau of Soils and Water - Sugar Regulatory Authority
Management
- Agricultural Training Institute
Nature and Scope of the Extension Service

 Predominantly agricultural production and protection in coverage with home
economics and rural youth development diminished.
 At the Barangay Level:
o Agricultural support services including planting materials distribution and
operation of farm produce collection and buying stations.
 At the Municipal Level:
o Extension and on-site research services related to agriculture and fisheries
activities, including dispersal of livestock and poultry, fingerlings for
aquaculture; palay, corn, vegetable seeds and other seedlings;
o Development of local distribution channels preferably through cooperatives,
inter-barangay irrigation systems; water and soil resources utilization and
conservation projects;
o Enforcement of fishery laws in municipal waters;
o Implementation of community-based forestry programs and similar projects;
management and control of communal forests with an area not exceeding
50km2; establishment of tree parks, greenbelts and other similar projects;
o Information services which include investment and job placement information
systems; tax and marketing information systems; maintenance of public
library;
o Infrastructure facilities including communal irrigation, small water impounding
projects, artesian wells, rainwater collector, water supply systems, drainage,
sewerage, flood control systems, etc.
o Public markets, slaughterhouses and other municipal enterprises.
 At the Provincial Level:
o Agricultural extension and on-site research services which include prevention
and control of plant and animal pests and diseases; assistance in the
organization of farmers’/ fishermen’s cooperatives, and other collective
organizations as well as the transfer of appropriate technology; facilities
include livestock markets, animal breeding stations, Al centers, etc.
 At the City Level:
o All services and facilities at the provincial and municipal levels. In addition, the
following services are expected:
 Disseminate information
 Render technical assistance to clientele
 Assist and coordinate with local and national agency representatives
 Promote and maintain clientele organizations
 Monitor and evaluate agricultural projects and programs
 Assist SMS and clientele
 Implement regulatory quarantine laws
 Formulate farm or family development plans
 Assist in the development of agribusiness projects
 Conduct farm and home surveys
 Assist in the formulation of plans, programs, home visits, follow-up
training and techno-demo approaches

PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
 Legal Issues:
o Perception of power and control of agricultural development resources.
o The LGC allows the municipal government to operate agricultural extension
independently of the provincial agricultural extension programs.
o No provision in the LGC for LGU agricultural extension to have functional
relationship with the Central Government part. DA.
o The LGC allows the national government programs at the local government
units.
o Unclear and inadequate legal basis for ATI to serve as the apex agricultural
extension agency of the country.
o Municipalities are too small operational units for agricultural extension.
o No hierarchy of authority on agricultural extension program in the province.
o No functional APEX agency for agricultural extension at the national level.
o DA decentralization to 15 regions has no positive impact on the devolved
agricultural extension service.
 Human-related concerns:
o Number of extension personnel devolved.
o Cultural adjustments.
o Lack of incentives for career development.
 Financial concerns:
o Lack of funds for programs and projects for the National Agricultural
Development Agenda.
o Lack of ideology of cooperation or interdependence in pursuing the country’s
agricultural and development agenda.
o Lack of an institutional system of financial transfer of agricultural extension.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND THE AFMA
• Passed in 1997
• A legal instrument to prepare the agriculture sector for the challenges of
globalization through the delivery of necessary support services
• RA 8435 known as the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act or AFMA
Major Concerns of the AFMA:

1. Food security
2. Poverty alleviation and social equity
3. Income enhancement and profitability especially for farmers and fisherfolks
4. Global Competitiveness
5. Sustainability
Definition of Terms:
 Modernization - The Process of Transforming the Agriculture and Fisheries sectors
into one that is dynamic, technologically advanced, and competitive, yet centered on
human development, and guided by sound practices of sustainability, and the
principles of Social justice.
 Extension Services – The provision of Training, Information, and Support Services by
the government and non-government organizations to the agriculture and fisheries
sectors to improve the technical, business, and social capabilities of farmers and
fisherfolks.
 Food Security – The policy objective, plan, and strategy of meeting food requirements
of present and future generations of Filipinos in Substantial quality, ensuring the
availability and affordability of food to all, either through local production or
importation, or both; based on the country’s existing and potential resource
endowment and related production advantages, and consistent with the overall
national development objectives and policies.
 Poverty Alleviation - Providing the Poor with equitable access to resources, income
opportunities, basic and support services, and infrastructure, especially in areas
where productivity is low as a means of improving their quality of life.
 Global Competitiveness - The ability to compete in terms of Price, quality, and
volume of agricultural and fishery products relative to those of other countries.
Framework of Sustainable Agriculture

• Economically viable
• Ecologically sound
• Socially just and humane (respects human dignity, participatory, and equitable)
• Culturally appropriate (respects traditions, values, beliefs, and culture of people)
• Grounded on holistic science
• (integrative, non-reductionist)
Medium and Long-Term Goals to address Food Security, Poverty Alleviation, Social Equity,
and Income Enhancement
1. Increased income and Profit of small farmers and fisherfolks
2. Availability of rice and other staple foods at affordable prices
3. Reduction of rural poverty and income inequality
4. Reduction of rural unemployment
5. Reduction of incidence of Malnutrition, and
6. Improvement in land tenure of small farmers.
Medium and Long-Term Goals to address Global Competitiveness and Sustainability

1. Increase in Volume, Quality, and Value of agriculture and fisheries production for
Domestic Consumption and Exports.
2. Reduction in post-harvest Losses.
3. Increase in the number/types and quality of processed agricultural and fishery
products.
4. Increase in number of international trading partners in agriculture and fishery
products.
5. Increase in number of sustainable agriculture and fishery firms engaged in domestic
production, processing, marketing, and export activities.
6. Increase in and wider level of entrepreneurship among farmers and fisherfolks.
7. Increase in number of farms engaged in diversified farming, and
8. Reduction in use of agro-chemicals that are harmful to health and the environment.
STRUCTURE OF THE AFMA
Mandate:
 Provision of training, information, and support services
 By GOs and NGOs
 To improve technical, business, and social capabilities of farmers and fisherfolks.
Strategy
 Utilization of RESEARCH RESULTS through
o FE
o NFE
o extension and training services
 Development of a national extension system that will help accelerate the
transformation of Philippine agriculture and fisheries from a resource-based to a
technology-based industry.
Nature of Delivery of Extension Services

 Multi-disciplinary
 Involves farmers and fisherfolks and their organizations, and those engaged in food
and non-food production processing, including the private and public sectors
Role of NGOs
 Responsible for delivering direct agriculture and fisheries extension services to
farmers, fisherfolks, and agribusiness entrepreneurs.
 The province is mandated to “integrate the operations of the agriculture extension
services and undertake an annual evaluation of all municipal extension programs.”
Role of SUCs
Primarily focus on the improvement of the capability of the LGU extension service by
providing:
 Degree and non-degree training programs
 Technical assistance
 Extension cum research activities
 Monitoring and evaluation of LGU extension projects
 Information support services
Role of Private Sector

 Encourage Participation in extension of farmers and fisherfolks cooperatives and
associations and others in the private sector in TRAINING and other
complementary extension activities.
 Community organizing
 Use of participatory approaches
 Popularization of training materials
 Regenerative agricultural technologies
 Agribusiness and management skills
Role of GAs
 ASSIST in the LGUs’ extension system by IMPROVING their effectiveness and
efficiency through
o capability building
o complementary extension activities such as
 Technical assistance
 Training of LGU personnel
 Improvement of physical facilities
 Extension-cum-research and information support services.
Financing Scheme
 Allocation of multi-year budgets that shall be treated as grants.
 Transfer of funds from DA to the LGUs as extension grants.
 Placing the budget for agriculture and fishery at a minimum of 1 % of the Gross
Value Added.
Strategy Shift
 From food security as the sole responsibility of the da towards sharing that
responsibility with the LGUs and other stakeholders.
 From pure commodity, production volume orientation towards results, greater
value-added, profitability, and people’s welfare.

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Agricultural Extension

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 1

I. Specific Knowledge Areas and Competences

II. Professional Core Subjects in Specific Areas

Extension and Communication

1. Overview of Agricultural Extension

2. Extension as One of the Major Functions of a University/College

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 2

5.2 Types of Adopters

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 3

9. The Decentralized Agricultural Extension in the Philippines

10. Agricultural Extension and the AFMA

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 4

Adhikarya, Ronny. Strategic Extension Campaign. A Participatory-Oriented Method of

Beal G. et al. Leadership and Dynamic Group Action

Berlo, David K. Process of Communication Introduction of Theory and Practice. Holt,

Dacanay, Remedios C. Extension Methods and Approaches. Mimeographed.

Di Franco T. Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

DiFranco T Some Aspects of Extension Work. Inter-American Institute of Agricultural

Maunder, Addison H. Agricultural Extension - A Reference Manual Food and Agriculture

Mercado. Methods in Agricultural Extension Teaching Manual

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 5

The Distant Origins

In Mesopotamia (present day Iraq), archeologists have unearthed clay of

Some hieroglyphics on Egyptian columns gave advice on avoiding crop

Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical farming

The 19th Century England

The term “University Extension” or “Extension of the University” was first

Discussions began in two ancient universities (Oxford & Cambridge) about

James Stuart appealed to authorities of University of Cambridge to

The system became well-established and developed and was referred to as

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 6

1890s The Universities began to cover Agricultural Subjects in lectures.

1890 American Society for Extension of University Teaching was established.

1891 The University of Chicago and Wisconsin began organizing extension

Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries

1940s - 1960s Agricultural extension organizations were established in Latin America

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 7

DATE SIGNIFICANT EFFECT

• Experimental stations of the Spanish government

October 8, 1901 Beginning of extension work under the American regime

Several experiment stations and demonstration farms were set up in

Agricultural schools were also established to educate and train government

• Farmers’ cooperative organizations

Other events that took place:

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 9

1936 Commonwealth Act 85 was passed. lt established the provincial extension

• A broader and more comprehensive agricultural system emerged

1942-1945 Japanese Occupation

• Home economics and agricultural extension work, particularly in the

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 10

Positive Consequence: A concentrated technical assistance because of the

Negative Consequence: It revived the all intra-departmental jealousies.

1965 Reconceptualization of the rice self-sufficiency program to include rice

1972 Declaration of Martial Law. Several organizational changes affecting

• Presidential Decree No.1 and Presidential Letter of Implementation

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 11

• The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit (T&V) system

1978 Ministry-wide regional offices were created in the Ministry of Agriculture by

The Organizational Structure for the Implementation of the Integrated

At the provincial level, the PAO was assisted by:

The Mao is directly responsible for all Agricultural Food Technologists

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION page 12