TE 422 Mechatronics Engineering Module Week 6 To 8

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS
Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
TE 422: MECHATRONICS
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
Engr. Judson Ray A. Quitco
______________________________________
2021
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials;
effect technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-
medium scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

higher and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension
projects; continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel
competence and effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory
requirements; and adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the
mandates of the university
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values…………………...…… 1
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..…….. 2
Course Description…………………………………………………..……. 3
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………….…..……… 3
General Guidelines/Class Rules………………………………..…..……… 3
Grading System…………………………………………………….……… 3
Learning Guide (Week No. 6) ……………………………………..……… 4
Stepper Motors……….……………………………………………… 4
Expected Competencies……………………………………………. 4
Content/Technical Information………………………….…………. 4
Progress Check…… …………………………………………..…… 12
References………………………………………………….…….… 12
Learning Guide (Week No. 7) ………………………………………..…… 13
Solenoids………………………………………………………….....…… 13
Expected Competencies………………………………...….………. 13
Content/Technical Information ……………………………….……13
Progress Check…… …………………………………….….……… 19
References…………………………………………….…….……… 19
Learning Guide (Week No. 8)...…………………………………………….20
Ladder Diagram……….……………………………………..……… 20
Expected Competencies……………………………………..………20
Content/Technical Information………………………….….………20
Progress Check…… ……………………………………….………. 35
References……………………………………………….….……… 37
List of References………………………………………………………………… 38
About the Complier………………………………………………………………. 38
COURSE DESCRIPTION
The subject deals with the current mechatronic system application with emphasis on the
different control systems and tools. This also includes the study and application of sensors,
actuators, servo motors, stepper motors, Programmable Logic Controls and ladder
programing.
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of the course, the students will be able to do the following:
Know the different technologies involved in Mechatronic Industry.
Acquire more knowledge about components used in Mechatronics Industry.
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Make-up exams and quizzes will only be given with prior approval of the Dean of
College and under any exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the
exam, the university policy will be followed.
2. Cell phones or any e-gadgets must be turned off or put in a silent mode during class
hours.
Students with Special Needs:
Students with special medical needs should inform the instructor/professor ahead to as
how they could be best assisted.
GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:
Average of examinations - 50%

Average of weekly assessment - 50%
Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
Midterm Grade : [(Midterm Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
End term Grade : [(Final Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
Final Grade : (Prelim Grade x 0.30) + (Mid-term Grade x 0.30) + (End term Grade x 0.40)]
The passing grade for this course is 5.0.
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __6__
TOPIC
Stepper Motors
EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:
1. Learn the principal operation of a stepper motor.

2. Understand the functions and applications of different stepper motors.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Stepping Servo Motors
5.1 Principal Operation
A stepping motor is defined as a rotary device whose output shaft moves in discrete steps
when excited from a switched DC supply. Stepping motors are very practical devices for
converting digital pulse inputs into analogue shaft-output (or rotary) motion as required in
modern electric or electronic equipment. Each shaft revolution can be expressed in terms of a
number of discrete identical steps or increments. Each step can be triggered by a single pulse.
Stepping motors can be made with a rotor made of permanent magnets or DC energized. In
the latter case, brushes must be used to energize the rotor. The principal operation of both
types are shown in Fig. 5.1.
Figure 5.1 shows that when the phase A–A′ are energized, the rotor remains 0 at the position
shown in the figure. When the phase A–A′ are de-energized and the phase B–B′ are energized,
the rotor moves 90° (one step). The process may be repeated to move the rotor one more step
of 90°. If the two phases are energized simultaneously, the rotor moves 45°. By proper
sequence of energizing and deenergizing steps of 45 or 90° may be achieved.
The rotor may be designed so that magnetic poles can be achieved from external power
supply. This is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Stepping motors with rotor energized externally must have brushes to supply power to a
rotating rotor. Brushes need to be checked periodically for proper operation. For this reason,
in servo control system permanent magnet rotor is preferred.
The stator of the stepping angles may be made with two, three, or four phases. This is shown
in Fig. 5.3
Figure 5.3 shows that by properly energizing and de-energizing the phases, step angle of 60°
is achieved. The rotor can be just laminated steels or permanent magnet. If the rotor is made
of permanent magnet, a larger output torque can be achieved.
5.2 Stepping Motors with Small Step Angle
If the rotor and stator of stepping motors are made of laminated steels with many teeth, a very
small angle can be achieved. A step angle of 1.8 or 0.9° stepping motors are readily available
in the market. The permanent magnet is buried in the rotor. This is shown in Fig. 5.4.
By properly energizing and de-energizing the stator windings, the rotor moves to the required
position with the defined phase angle. In addition, if a gear box is attached to the stepping
motor, a very high accurate position can be achieved. To move the stepping motor to the
required position greater than the step angle, an electronics power unit is usually attached to
the motor in which a single pulse represents one step movement of the rotor. This means that
correct phases are energized and de-energized. The second input pulse represents another step
movement. This requires change of phases energized and de-energized.
A very simple diagram with uses of transistors to switch the power to the correct phases is
shown in Fig. 5.5. It can be seen that at least four transistors are needed to perform the correct
switching actions. An electronic device will send a current to the required transistors. This
makes them connect to a voltage to the required phases as shown by A, B, C, and D.
5.3 Torque–Displacement Characteristic of a Stepping Motor
When the teeth of one energized phase of stator with the teeth of the rotor are aligned, the
output torque is zero. It means that the rotor does not show any resistance to the applied
output torque. When the rotor is deflected by a small amount, an attracting pulling force
develops between the teeth of the rotor and stator which shows itself as a torque on the rotor.
The behavior can be simulated by a sinusoidal output torque. This is shown in Fig. 5.6, when
two phases are energized.
The relationship between the output torque and rotor displacement can be approximated as
In equation (5.1), n is number of phases energized, Tm is the developed torque, Kt 1 is motor
torque constant, I is the current which may be written as
where NRT, φ are numbers of rotor teeth and step angle. For a specific motor, n K, t 1 are
constants and Eq. (5.1) may be written as
where Kt 2 is constant and I is the current flowing in the stator windings and θ is the rotor
position. Equation (5.3) is nonlinear and to study the dynamic behavior of stepping motors, it
must be linearized as
Where
The second term in Eq. (5.4) is negative because as θ increases over one step of stepping
motor, the torque reduces. When θ moves one step, the torque becomes zero. The torque
constant ( Kt ) and the step angle are given by manufacturers. Therefore, Kθ can easily be
evaluated.
5.4 Dynamic Response Characteristic over One Step Movement
It is important first to study the dynamic response of stepping motors for single step
movement. To do this the linearized Eq. (5.4) must be used. In addition several assumptions
have to be made. For the simplest model, the inductance of the windings is ignored. The
voltage equation simply becomes
Eliminating the variable I from Eqs. (5.4) and (5.7) gives
The equation of motion for the rotor assuming the total inertia of J and a viscous mechanical
damping of C may be written as
where Tl is the external torque applied to the motor. Eliminating the variable Tm from the
two Eqs (5.8) and (5.9) and with some algebraic manipulations, the transfer function becomes
It can be seen that the governing transfer function in simplest form is a second order with two
input variables of voltage and external torque. The coefficients of the characteristic equation
gives the natural frequency and the damping ratio as
The natural frequency gives the speed of response and it can be seen that as the inertia
increases the natural frequency reduces and as Kθ increases the natural frequency increases.
The damping ratio is
If the mechanical damping coefficient C is zero, the rotor will oscillate continuously. In
practice, there is some mechanical friction that increases the damping ratio. It means that the
rotor moves one step and will oscillate little and the teeth become aligned with the stator.
Both Kθ and J reduce the damping ratio.
For a better mathematical model, the inductance of the stator windings must be taken into
account. This only changes the voltage equation and the transfer function becomes third order
which means that the motor might become unstable.
5.5 Speed–Torque Characteristic Behavior of Stepping Motors
In the previous section, the dynamic behavior of stepping motors was studied. In many
applications the stepping motor is required to move several steps. In this case the motor is
moved one step at a time. It is interesting to study that how fast the motor can be moved one
step at a time. It obvious that when the motor is moved one step the next step must be applied
when the rotor has reached at least 80 or 90% of the previous step. This is shown for a typical
stepping motor in Fig. 5.7. It shows the speed-torque characteristic of a typical stepping
motor. The stepping rate depends on the applied torque and implicitly depends on the rotor
inertia. At zero torque, maximum stepping rate defined by manufacturer can be used which
means the motor can be moved by maximum speed and then decelerate so the rotor has
moved to the required position.
There are two curves on the diagram; one for pull-in torque and one for pull-out torque. It
means that once the rotor has accelerated to the near maximum speed the switching rate can
be increased further. This diagram must be provided by manufacturers.
5.6 Stepping Motors for Position Control Applications
When stepping motors are used for position control applications, they can be operated in
open loop. The danger is that the stepping motors may lose steps when they have to be moved
several steps. In open loop, the switching rate must be sufficiently small so that correct
positioning is achieved. To overcome this problem, they must be operated in closed loop. The
output position is usually measured by a position encoder and the information about the
output position is fed back to the controller. The required position is compared with output
position and with respect to the error the switching rate is applied. In this mode, the loss of
steps is avoided. This is shown in block diagram form in Fig. 5.8.
Although the input and output positions are in digital form, they can be written in analogue
form. The controller output may be written as
V is the output voltage which determines the switching rates. K is the gain and θi , θo are the
demand and actual output position. When the stepping motor is energized at a specific
switching rate then the voltage equation assuming with inductance L may be written as
It should be noted that for stepping motors there is no internal velocity feedback. This means
that the damping ratio in stepping motors are less than that of DC servo motors. Therefore,
the stability of stepping motors must carefully investigated. The torque equation similar to
DC servo motors becomes
The equation of motions for rotor and load are similar to that described for DC servo motors.
The reader is encouraged to obtain a catalogue from stepping motor’s manufacturer and study
the dynamic behavior of stepping motors in closed position control applications at various
complexities. The effect of velocity feedback which is easily available must be studied. For
more complex applications, the state variables feedback as described in DC servo motors
should also be investigated.
PROGRESS CHECK
In a table form, summarize the functions and application of different stepper motors
discussed in this module.
REFERENCES
Firoozian, Riazollah, Servo Motors and Industrial Control Theory, 2nd Edition, Iran, Springer
International Publishing Switzerland 2014.
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __7__

TOPICS
Solenoids
1. Define a solenoid
2. Know the different types, working principles and applications of solenoids.
What is a Solenoid – Different Types, Working Principle and Its Applications
The solenoids are simple electrical components and it has many uses in daily life. The term
itself is derived from the Greek name “solen”, which illustrates a channel or a pipe. The
second part of the name is taken from the Greek name “eidos”, which refers to an outline.
Basically, it is a component in the form of a pipe. The solenoid is used in a variety of
applications, and there are numerous types of solenoid designs available. Each of them has
their own properties that make it useful in many precise applications. The various designs of
these components do not change their necessary operating feature and the designing of the
solenoids can be done in different ways. Generally, solenoid works on general electrical
principle, but the mechanical energy of this device is distributed in a different way in
different designs.
What is a Solenoid and Its Working Principle
A solenoid is a very simple component that includes a coil of wire that is covered around a
core made out of a metal. When a current is applied to the solenoid, it has the effect of
assembling a consistent magnetic field. Electricity changes to magnetism then it changes to
electricity and, therefore, these two forces are united into one.
An attractive thing about the uniform field in a solenoid is that, if the solenoid has an
immeasurable length, the magnetic field would be the similar everywhere along the element.
In a solenoid, sometimes this translates to very small electrical components being able to do a
marvellous amount of work. For instance, a powerful solenoid can simply slam shut a valve
that would be demanding for even the burliest plumber to close by hand.
Fundamentals
Fundamentally, a solenoid works by passing a current through a coil of conductive wire. A
magnetic field is generated around the axis of the wire. We can see in the figure below
qualitatively how the components of this magnetic field will combine such that the magnetic
field is amplified and is directed along the axis of the coil.
A cross sectional
view of an energized coil of wire. The lines are magnetic field lines.
This magnetic field is used as the force to move an armature - typically a piece of ferro-
magnetic metal that is not permanently magnetized. The coil is shaped such that the armature
can be moved in and out of the center, altering the coil's inductance and thereby becoming an
electromagnet. While the force from a solenoid is typically not very large, the response is
very fast.
Design of Solenoids!
Here's the real engineering bit. Say you need to generate a very specific force for a very
specific voltage or maximum current draw, etc. All you need is a lathe to shape your armature
and a spool of magnet wire (normal copper or aluminum wire with a special, thin coating that
stops current, but not magnetic fields) and you can make it yourself!
What you need to know:

The force applied to the armature is proportional to the change in inductance of the coil with
respect to the change in position of the armature, and the current flowing through the coil.
The force applied to the armature will always move the armature in a direction that increases
the coil's inductance.
where μ0 is the magnetic constant, the number of turns, the current and the length of
the coil.
Where F is the force exerted by the magnetic field and A is the cross sectional area of the
core.
Combining these equations, we see that the force is proportional to the square of the current,
the square of the number of coils and square of the armature's radius. It is inversely
proportional to the length of the coil.
Since the coil is made of conductive wire, it will have nearly zero resistance. When a voltage
is dropped across it, it will behave like a short and draw as much current as possible (usually
until the power supply limits it or something breaks). To limit the current, a resistor is placed
in series with the coil. Often, however, the internal resistance of the wire will need to be
taken into consideration.
Keep in mind that all of the power dissipated by the solenoid goes directly to heat if the
plunger is no longer moving (E=Q+W). Solenoids often get very hot very quickly and will
sometimes melt if proper precautions aren't taken (thermal cutoffs, properly sized wiring, non
constant use).
An example design!
For example, if I need 1 lbf (4.45N) output from my solenoid at 12V, and I have, at most, 1A
current:
V=IR, R=V/I = 12/1 = 12ohm resistor. P=VI = 12*1 = 12W power consumption, need a
12ohm resistor rated for at least 15W.
The design variables remaining are: number of turns, length of solenoid, radius of armature.
Let's say we have some space constraints and we need to make the solenoid 0.02m long
(about 3/4"), and 40mm in diameter. This makes R=0.01m, L=0.04m, i=1A, F=4.45N
Solving:
4.45=(4*pi*10^-7)*(pi*0.01^2)/2*(N*1/0.04)^2
N=1500 turns
If we increase the current to 3A, we can reduce this to 500 turns, or we can generate 9lbf with
our 1500 turn solenoid.
Using them with your designs!

There are only a few things we need to know about using them in a design. The main ones are
the electrical characteristics. Of course, the solenoids can be run at any voltage up to their
rated voltage safely, only changing their force output. If a rated voltage and current is given,
you can calculate the equivalent resistance of the solenoid, and use that to predict how much
current and power will be consumed at different voltages. If the solenoid draws more power
than you can safely supply, you can add a series resistor (make sure it can handle the power
requirements!) to reduce the current, but remember that the force is proportional to the square
of the current.
The next is the force output at various points in the stroke. These are often given
conveniently in the data sheets of the products.
The circuit for controlling these is also important. This cannot be powered directly through a
microcontroller. A typical microcontroller can only supply about 0.04A safely, typically at
3.3 or 5V. This is not nearly enough power, considering the smallest 5V solenoids still draw
0.200A minimum. Solenoids will have to be controlled through power transistors, typically
N-type MOSFETS.
Within the circuit, you will need a reverse biased diode. In a circuit, the solenoid is best
modeled as a (large) inductor with a series resistor. When the inductor goes from having a
voltage potential to not (that is, you turn it off) its stored electromagnetic field will collapse.
The rate of this collapse is complicated and depends on many things, but, in effect, it will
generate a negative voltage across your transistor and power supply, probably damaging them.
By placing a reverse biased diode (or several in parallel to handle the large power drops) in
the circuit, when the EMF dissipates, the energy will flow directly to ground, and not through
your power supply.
Different Types of Solenoids
There are various Types of Solenoids are available in the market. They differ in terms of their
material, design and function. But all kinds of solenoids depend on the same electrical
principles.
 AC Laminated Solenoid
 DC C–Frame Solenoid
 DC D–Frame Solenoid
 Linear Solenoid
 Rotary Solenoid
AC Laminated Solenoid
An AC laminated solenoid is famous for the amount of force that can be performed in their
first stroke. They can also use a longer stroke than a DC solenoid. They are obtainable in
several different configurations and ranges. These types of solenoids will produce a clean
buzz when they are being used.
AC Laminated Solenoid
DC C–Frame Solenoid
A DC C–Frame solenoid uses only a frame, formed like the letter C, which is covered around
the coil. This kind of solenoid has an extensive range of different applications. Even though
they are famous in a DC configuration, they can also be designed to be used with AC power.
DC C–Frame Solenoid
DC D–Frame Solenoid
A DC D–Frame solenoid gears have a two-piece frame that is covered around the coils. These
are used in several different applications like industrial applications. Like the C–Frame, these
solenoids can also be designed in AC alternatives, for applications when the properties of an
AC solenoid are more attractive than a DC solenoid.
DC D–Frame Solenoid
Linear Solenoid
This kind of solenoids is more familiar with the most people. These are capable of using a
pulling or pushing force on a mechanical device and can be utilized for a variety of metering
tasks. These solenoids are used in a different applications. For instance, a solenoid on the
starter device of a vehicle which includes a motor. Whenever electrical current flows through
the solenoid, then it will move in a linear fashion to get two contacts together.
Linear Solenoid
When the two contacts are getting together, they let power to flow from the battery supply to
the different components of the automobile and the automobile to start. The best application
of the solenoid is electric lock. When the lock is attached to the bolt on a door, it can
immediately protect a door sufficient to hold up to a great deal of violence.
Rotary Solenoid
Rotatory solenoid is a good example of mechanical force which can be used in different
methods to make easy of an automatic control process and quite easy to make life easier. In
this solenoid, there is the similar coil and core design, though it is somewhat changed. In a
rotary solenoid, a disc is used instead of the solenoid being a simple device with a core and
coil. The body of the solenoid is lined up with the grooves and ball bearings are used to make
easier motion.
Rotary Solenoid
Triggering the solenoid makes the core to be drawn back into the coil. This force is converted
into a rotation force in the disc. Most of the devices are also inbuilt with a spring. When the
power supply is detached from the solenoid, the spring makes the core to be drawn out of the
coil, releasing the disc and transferring it back to its unique position.
Similar to many electrical devices, this tool happens to have been developed as a security
device. This product was first used during World War-II as a way to enhance the durability of
the devices used in bombs. Nowadays, these kind of solenoids is general electrical
components, which are very appropriate to utilize in trying industrial environments.
Applications of Solenoid
 A solenoid is an essential coil of wire that is used in electromagnets, inductors, antennas,

valves, etc. The application of a solenoid differs in numerous types like medical, locking
systems, industrial use, the bottom line and Automotive Solenoid Applications.
 A solenoid is used to control a valve electrically, for example, the solenoid core is used to
apply mechanical force to the valve.
 These can also used in particular types of door locking systems, which use an
electromagnet and offer a very secure closure.
 The solenoid is used in many different appliances and products like computer printers,
fuel injection gear used on cars and in various industrial settings.
 The main advantage of the solenoid is, whenever an electricity is applied, the reaction of
the solenoid is immediate.
 That quick response is one of the most significant factors in resolving the applications of
solenoids.
Thus, this is all about different types of solenoids which includes AC Laminated Solenoid,
DC C–Frame Solenoid, DC D–Frame Solenoid, Linear Solenoid, Rotary Solenoid and
Tubular Solenoid.
Photo Credits:
 Types of Solenoid shopify
 AC Laminated Solenoid magnetschultz
 DC C–Frame Solenoid rs-online
 Rotary Solenoid eetasia
PROGRESS CHECK
Research Work
Research a particular product that uses a solenoid. Explain in details the role of that solenoid.
Include the brand and its specifications.
REFERENCES
https://www.elprocus.com/different-types-of-solenoid-working-applications/
http://mymechatronics.pbworks.com/w/page/64665071/Solenoids
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __8__

TOPIC
Ladder Diagram
1. Identify a wiring diagram.

2. Identify the parts of a wiring diagram.
3. Convert a wiring diagram to a ladder diagram.
4. List the rules that govern a ladder diagram.
There are basically two types of electrical diagrams: wiring diagrams and ladder diagrams
(Borden & Cox, 2012).
Wiring Diagrams
The wiring diagram shows the circuit wiring and its associated devices (relays, timers, motor
starters, switches, and the like) in their relative physical locations (Figure 6–1). While this
type of diagram assists in locating components and shows how a circuit is actually wired, it
does not show the circuit in its simplest form. To simplify understanding of how a circuit
works, and to show the electrical relationship of the components (not the physical
relationship), a ladder diagram is used.
Ladder Diagrams
The ladder diagram, also referred to as a schematic or elementary diagram, is used by the
electrician or technician to speed their understanding of how a circuit works. Figure 6–2
shows the same circuit as Figure 6–1, but in ladder diagram form.
To simplify the circuit and help to understand its configuration, the power portion of the
circuit is shown separate from the control portion. No attempt is made to show the actual
physical location of the components. Since the motor connections (power portion) are the
same for any three-phase motor, it is common practice not to show the motor starter or the
motor. By not showing the power portion of the circuit, a simplified ladder diagram is created,
showing only the control portion of the diagram (Figure 6–3).
The power required for the control circuit is always shown as two vertical lines, while the
actual line(s) of logic are drawn as horizontal lines. The power lines, or rails as they are often
called, are like vertical sides of a ladder, whereas the horizontal logic lines are like the rungs
of a ladder and are referred to as rungs.
Ladder Diagram Rules
Some basic rules for ladder diagrams are as follows:
1. A ladder diagram is read like a book; from left to right and from top to bottom.
2. The vertical power lines (rails) of the ladder diagram represent the voltage potential of the
circuit. The potential could be AC or DC, and varies in voltage from 6 V to 480 V. Standard
labeling for the rails is L1 and L2. L1 is AC high or hot for AC circuits, and positive or plus
(1) for DC circuits. L2 is AC low or neutral for grounded AC circuits, and negative or minus
(2) for DC circuits. The rails may also be marked X1 and X2 when the voltage potential is
derived from a step-down transformer.
3. Devices or components are shown in order of importance whenever possible. In Figure 6–3
the STOP button is shown ahead of the START button. For safety reasons, the STOP button
has a higher order of importance than the START button.
4. Electrical devices or components are shown in their normal condition. The normal
condition of electrical diagrams is the circuit deenergized (OFF) and with no external forces
such as pressure or flow, etc., acting on the device. The stop button is shown closed because
that is the normal position for the stop button. The holding contacts (2 and 3) of coil M are
shown open. This is the normal position for these contacts when coil M is deenergized. The
normally open (N.O.) M holding contacts 2 and 3 do not close until there is a complete path
for current flow to coil M. When coil M energizes, M contacts 2 and 3 close, providing a
parallel path for current flow with the start button.
5. Contacts associated with relays, timers, motor starters, and the like always have the same
number or letter designation as the device that controls them. This labeling method holds true
no matter where the contacts(s) appear in the circuit. For example, in Figure 6–3 the N.O.
holding contacts 2 and 3 are controlled (activated) by motor starter coil M. Therefore, the
contacts are identified with the letter M.
6. All contacts associated with a device change position when the device is energized.
Figure 6–4 shows a control relay (CR) controlled by a switch (S-1) on rung 1 of the ladder
diagram. Rung 2 shows a normally closed (N.C.) control relay contact in series with a green
indicator lamp. Rung 3 shows an N.O. control relay contact in series with a red indicator light.
When power is applied to the rails of the ladder diagram, the only device in the circuit that
operates is the green indicator lamp. The green indicator lamp lights due to a complete path
for current flow through the N.C. control relay contacts. These contacts are normally closed
and only change position and open when the control relay in rung 1 is energized. When
switch S-1 is closed, completing the path for current flow and energizing the CR in rung 1,
the N.C. CR contacts in rung 2 open, while the N.O. CR contacts in rung 3 close. The action
of the contacts will turn OFF the green lamp in rung 2 and turn ON the red lamp in rung 3. As
long as the control relay remains energized through S-1, the normally closed contact in rung 2
remains open, and the normally open contact in rung 3 remains closed. When S-1 is opened
and CR deenergizes, the contacts controlled by CR will return to their normal state (N.C. in
rung 2 and N.O. in rung 3).
7. In a ladder diagram, devices that perform a stop function are normally wired in series.
Figure 6–5 shows two switches wired N.C. that control a green indicator lamp.
With the two switches wired in series, both A and B must remain closed for the lamp to
remain lit. If either switch is opened, the green lamp will go out. When switches and/or
contacts are wired in series, they are said to have an AND relationship. The AND relationship
requires that both A and B must be closed for the lamp to light. A truth table for this concept
is shown in Figure 6–6.
8. Devices that perform a start function are normally wired in parallel. Figure 6–7 shows two
switches (A and B) wired in parallel to control a red indicator lamp. In this configuration, if
either switch A or B is closed, the red lamp will light.
When switches or contacts are wired in parallel, they are said to have an OR relationship. The
OR relationship requires that either A or B be closed for the red indicator lamp to light. A
truth table for this concept is shown in Figure 6–8.
With this understanding of what a ladder diagram is, and the rules that apply to it, a
discussion of a basic motor stop/start circuit (shown in Figure 6–2) can begin.
Basic STOP/START Circuit
As stated earlier in this chapter, the wiring diagram in Figure 6–1 is great for showing actual
physical locations of the circuit wiring and the components. It does not, however, show the
electrical relationships of the devices as simply as the ladder diagram. The wiring diagram is
used for original installation and some troubleshooting, whereas the ladder diagram is used to
show the electrical relationships of the components, and to speed understanding of how the
circuit works.
From viewing the ladder diagram in Figure 6–9, it can be seen that when power is applied to
the circuit, the motor starter coil M cannot energize because there is an incomplete path for
current flow due to the open start button and the N.O. M contacts (2 and 3). The start button
and the N.O. M contacts are wired in parallel and have an OR relationship. When the start
button is pushed, a path for current exists from L1 potential through the normally closed stop
button, through the now closed start button, through the coil of the motor starter (M), and on
through the N.C. overload contacts to L2 potential.
When the starter coil M energizes, the M contacts (2 and 3) close, providing an alternate path
for current flow. At this point, the start button could be released, and the circuit would remain
energized, or held in, by the holding contacts (2 and 3) of the motor starter. When contacts
from a motor starter or other device are wired in this fashion, they are often referred to as
holding, maintaining, or sealing contacts as the circuit is held, maintained, or sealed-in after
the start button is released.
When the holding contacts (2 and 3) are closed, the main motor contacts of the motor starter
are also closed and the motor is started. The operation of the motor is normally taken for
granted and is not shown on the ladder diagram. By keeping the ladder diagram as simple and
uncluttered as possible, the explanation of the relationships between components and how the
control portion of the circuit works is greatly enhanced.
Figure 6–10 again shows the wiring diagram of a motor stop/start circuit. While this diagram
looks entirely different from the ladder diagram, both are electrically the same. This
comparison shows the electrician or technician why the ladder diagram is preferred.
The ladder diagram has been the “working language” of electricians and electrical engineers
for many years, and helps explain why most programmable controllers are programmed using
ladder logic. While this method of programming is welcomed by some, it has frustrated other
PLC users who have not been exposed to, or trained in, relay ladder logic.
Sequenced Motor Starting
Relay ladder diagrams can become large and complex. It is not the purpose of this text to
cover them in great detail, but instead to discuss the basic rules and present some concepts to
enhance understanding of circuits that are discussed in later chapters.
Figure 6–11 shows a ladder diagram for a circuit that starts three motors.
Rung 1 contains the stop/start buttons and the motor starter coil M-1 for motor 1. Notice that
the holding contacts wired in parallel with the start button are not M-1 contacts, but instead
are M-3 contacts. With this arrangement, rung 1 cannot be sealed in, or maintained, unless
motor starter 3 energizes and closes its contacts. Additionally, the M-1 contacts in rung 2
must close to energize motor starter 2 (M-2). And M-2 contacts in turn must close in rung 3
to energize motor starter 3 (M- 3). When the start button of this circuit is pushed, it operates
as follows:
1. M-1 energizes, closing the N.O. M-1 contacts in rung 2, and M-2 energizes.
2. M-2 N.O. contacts close in rung 3 and energize M-3.
3. M-3 N.O. contacts in Rung 1 close and act as holding contacts to keep the circuit energized
after the start button is released.
Note: This sequence happens almost instantaneously.
4. Pushing the stop button deenergizes M-1, which deenergizes M-2 in rung 2 when the
normally open M-1 contacts go open. M-2’s deenergizing opens the M-2 contacts in rung 3
and deenergizes M-3. With M-3 deenergized, the N.O. M-3 contacts in rung 1 open.
5. By wiring all three overload contacts in series with M-1 in rung 1, it is ensured that an
overload on any motor would shut down all motors. An open overload contact would have
the same effect as pushing the stop button.
It could be said that this circuit consists of basically three elements: inputs, outputs, and logic.
The inputs consist of the stop button, the start button, and the overload contacts. The outputs
are motor starters M-1, M-2, and M-3. The logic that caused the sequential starting were N.O.
contacts M-1, M-2, and M-3.
These three elements—inputs, outputs, and logic—also work well with programmable
controllers. The inputs are wired to input modules, the outputs are wired to output modules,
and the processor performs the logic functions.
Figure 6–12 shows the wiring diagram for the three-motor circuit just discussed. This
diagram further illustrates the point that while wiring diagrams are great for giving the
physical locations of components, they do not show the control function of the circuit as
clearly as a ladder diagram does.
Digital Logic Gates
While the typical PLC is programmed using ladder logic symbols,some older PLCs were
programmed using digital logic notations such as AND, OR, NOT, etc. To better understand
these digital logic notations and to see how they compare to relay ladder logic, we will cover
six basic digital logic gates.
Figure 6–13 shows a two-input AND gate.
From the truth table, we see that both inputs A and B must be TRUE, or set to 1, before the
output is turned ON, or set to 1. The AND gate functions like the two switches that were
wired in series to a lamp in Figure 6–5. Both switch A and switch B had to be closed for the
lamp to light. Figure 6–14 shows AND logic for two programmed input devices wired in
series to an output device.
Figure 6–15 shows a two-input OR gate.
From the truth table, we see that if either input A or B is TRUE, or set to 1, the output will be
turned ON, or set to 1. The OR gate functions like the two switches that were wired in
parallel to a lamp in Figure 6–7. If either switch A or B was closed, the lamp would light.
Figure 6–16 shows OR logic for two input devices wired in parallel to an output device.
The next gate is called a NOT gate and is often referred to as an inverter. The inverter, or
NOT gate, will have only one input lead and one output lead. If the input is OFF, or set to 0,
then the output will be ON, or set to 1. If the input is ON, or set to 1, then the output will be
OFF, or set to 0. Figure 6–17 shows a NOT gate with a truth table. The circle in the output
line is used to indicate an inverted function.
The NOT gate functions like the normally closed contacts in rung 2 for the three-rung ladder
diagram in Figure 6–4. As long as the CR in rung 1 remains deenergized, or OFF, the N.C.
CR contact in rung 2, which controls the green indicator lamp, will be TRUE and the
indicator lamp will be ON. Figure 6–18 shows an N.C. CR contact controlling a lamp and the
truth table for the circuit.
As long as the single-pole switch (S1) that is wired in series with the CR coil is open, CR is
OFF, or set to 0. With CR OFF, the logic for the normally closed contacts will be TRUE, and
the lamp will be ON. When S1 is closed, CR will energize, turn ON, the N.C. CR contacts
will open, and the light will be turned OFF. The truth table reflects the action of the CR coil
that controls the action of the CR contacts. It may help to understand the truth table if we
think that the N.C. CR contacts are controlled by the CR coil. If the CR coil is OFF, or set to
0, we can think of the CR N.C. contacts also being closed, or set to 1. As the input will be
inverted when the CR coil is energized, or set to 1, then the output device controlled by the
NC contacts will be false, or set to 0.
The programmable controller will use NOT logic in the same way as described above. If the
output device is set to 0, or OFF, any N.C. contacts associated with the output device with the
same address will also be set to 1. The not logic will be used in the next chapter for the
Examine Off instruction. When an N.C. contact is addressed with the same address as an
output coil, the N.C. contact will be true as long as the output coil is OFF, or false.
By combining the NOT gate with the AND gate, we get what is called a NAND gate. Figure
6–19 shows a two-input NAND gate with a truth table.
As discussed with the NOT logic, the circle is used to indicate an invert function. By placing
the invert, or NOT, symbol at the output of the AND gate, the output can only be TRUE
when one or both of the inputs are false or set to 0. Figure 6–20 shows the equivalent relay
circuit.
To help understand the logic of the NAND gate, consider the ladder diagram in Figure 6–20.
With both inputs A and B OFF, or set to 0, the inverted output will be set to 1, or be turned
ON. If only input A is set to 1, the inverted output will remain set to 1 because input B is still
open, or set to 0. If input A is opened and input B is closed or is set to 1, the inverted output
will again remain set to 1. However, If both A and B are closed, or set to 1, then the inverted
output will be set to 0, or OFF. From the ladder diagram, we can see that with both input
devices A and B open, CR would not be energized and the output would be set to 1, or ON.
For the output device to go false, or to 0, both input switches A and B will be closed, or set to
1, as illustrated in the truth table.
When we combine the NOT gate with an OR gate, we get what is called a NOR gate. Figure
6–21 shows the NOR gate with a truth table.
To help understand the logic of the NOR gate, consider the ladder diagram in Figure 6–22.
From this figure we can see that if either input A or B is closed the CR coil will energize and
the normally closed contacts in rung 2 will open and turn OFF the output. With this
configuration, the only time the output lamp will light is if both switches A and B are open,
or set to 0.
The final logic gate that will be covered is the exclusive OR gate (XOR). The XOR gate with
truth table is shown in Figure 6–23.
The XOR logic gate will only turn the output ON when either input A or B is ON, but not
both ON. This logic gate can be compared to the two double-circuit pushbuttons shown in
Figure 6–24a.
This ladder diagram shows us that as long as one pushbutton is pushed, but not both, the
output device will be turned ON. If button A is pushed, a complete path for current now
exists, as shown in Figure 6–24b. Similarly, if button B is pushed, a complete path for
current now exists, as shown in Figure 6–24c.
Logic gates can be combined to create very complicated control logic. Figure 6–25 shows an
OR gate combined with an AND gate to duplicate the logic of a ladder diagram that contains
a start button, holding contacts, float switch, and pump starter. Compare the logic of the
ladder diagram with the logic gate equivalent circuit and the truth table.
Figure 6–26 shows a ladder diagram with four contacts that control an output device. We can
see from the diagram that to turn on the output, any of the following combinations of contacts
is required:
A and C
A and D
B and D
B and C
By combining two OR gates and an AND gate, we can duplicate the logic of the four contacts,
as shown in Figure 6–26 and verified by the truth table.
Summary
There are basically two types of electrical diagrams: wiring diagrams and ladder diagrams.
Wiring diagrams show actual physical locations and wiring, whereas ladder diagrams show
electrical relationships. The simplified ladder diagram speeds understanding of circuit
operation and is used for circuit design and troubleshooting. The vertical sides of the ladder
diagram are referred to as rails, while the horizontal lines or logic are called rungs. On
electrical diagrams, devices are always shown in their normal or deenergized condition.
When two or more devices are wired in series, they perform an AND function, while two or
more devices wired in parallel perform an OR function. The elements of the ladder diagram
are inputs, outputs, and logic.
Logic gates can be used that duplicate the logic of the pushbuttons, contacts, and control
devices typically used in motor control circuits. Common logic gates are AND, OR, NOT,
NOR, NAND, and XOR (exclusive OR). Logic gates can be combined to create complex
control circuits. The elements of the ladder diagram are inputs, outputs, and logic. Ladder
diagrams are favored over wiring diagrams when a basic understanding of the control circuit
is needed. The wiring diagram is used to show actual physical locations and relationships
between components, whereas the ladder diagram shows electrical relationships without
regard to actual location.
PROGRESS CHECK
1. Define the terms normally open and normally closed.
2. Describe the difference between a wiring diagram and a ladder (schematic) diagram.
3. Explain the operation of the circuit in Figure 6–9 if M contacts 2 and 3 do not close.
4. Contacts wired in parallel have what relationship?
a. AND
b. OR
5. Contacts wired in series have what relationship?
a. AND
b. OR
6. The two main vertical lines of a ladder diagram are often referred to as:
a. rungs
b. power ports
c. rails
d. tracks
e. none of the above
7. The horizontal lines of a ladder diagram are referred to as:
a. rungs
b. power ports
c. rails
d. tracks
e. none of the above
8. Devices that are intended to perform a stop function are normally wired in _____________
with each other.
9. Devices that are intended to perform a start function are normally wired in _____________
with each other.
10. How are contacts that are associated with relays, motor starters, timers, and the like
identified?
11. Convert the wiring diagram below into a ladder diagram.
12. Convert the wiring diagram below into a ladder diagram.
13. Identify the following logic gates.
REFERENCES
Borden, T. R., & Cox, R. A. (2012). Technician’s Guide to Programmable Controllers 6th
Edition. www.cengage.com/highered
LIST OF REFERENCES
Textbooks
Borden, T. R., & Cox, R. A. (2012). Technician’s Guide to Programmable Controllers 6th
Edition. www.cengage.com/highered
Firoozian, Riazollah, Servo Motors and Industrial Control Theory, 2nd Edition, Iran, Springer
International Publishing Switzerland 2014.
https://www.elprocus.com/different-types-of-solenoid-working-applications/
http://mymechatronics.pbworks.com/w/page/64665071/Solenoids
ABOUT THE COMPILER
The compiler is a full-time faculty member of the College of Engineering Mechanical

Engineering Department of Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas. He has been
teaching mechanical engineering subjects for more than 2 years. He is a registered
mechanical engineer and a 2007 graduate of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engieering
from Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas Talisay City, Negros Occidental.
He worked at Central Azucarera De La Carlota from 2008 to 2010 as a technical staff and
Cadet Engineer under the Mills department. He had been a technical auditor under the
Internal Audit Group of Roxas Holdings Inc. from April to September 2010.
He taught at Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas as a part-time faculty under
the Mechanical Engineering Technology (now Manufacturing Engineering Technology) from
2010 to 2013. He had been a foreign teacher in Vietnam and Cambodia from 2013 to 2018.
At present, he is continuing his Graduate Studies in Masters of Technology at the

Technological University of the Philippines Manila.

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

T - Transparent and participatory governance

Acquire more knowledge about components used in Mechatronics Industry.

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Students with Special Needs:

The student will be graded according to the following:

Average of examinations - 50%

Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

Midterm Grade : [(Midterm Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

End term Grade : [(Final Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __6__

1. Learn the principal operation of a stepper motor.

5.1 Principal Operation

Eliminating the variable I from Eqs. (5.4) and (5.7) gives

5.5 Speed–Torque Characteristic Behavior of Stepping Motors

5.6 Stepping Motors for Position Control Applications

Week No.: __7__

2. Know the different types, working principles and applications of solenoids.

What is a Solenoid – Different Types, Working Principle and Its Applications

What is a Solenoid and Its Working Principle

What you need to know:

Using them with your designs!

Different Types of Solenoids

 A solenoid is an essential coil of wire that is used in electromagnets, inductors, antennas,

Week No.: __8__

1. Identify a wiring diagram.

Ladder Diagram Rules

Some basic rules for ladder diagrams are as follows:

Basic STOP/START Circuit

Sequenced Motor Starting

2. M-2 N.O. contacts close in rung 3 and energize M-3.

Note: This sequence happens almost instantaneously.

Digital Logic Gates

Figure 6–13 shows a two-input AND gate.

Figure 6–15 shows a two-input OR gate.

5. Contacts wired in series have what relationship?

e. none of the above

7. The horizontal lines of a ladder diagram are referred to as:

e. none of the above

11. Convert the wiring diagram below into a ladder diagram.

13. Identify the following logic gates.

ABOUT THE COMPILER

The compiler is a full-time faculty member of the College of Engineering Mechanical

At present, he is continuing his Graduate Studies in Masters of Technology at the

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Week No.: 6

Week No.: 7

Week No.: 8