Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

www.elsevier.com/locate/pce

Spatiotemporal dynamics of land surface parameters in the

Red River of the North Basin
Assefa M. Melesse *

Earth System Science Institute, School of Aerospace Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9007, United States
Accepted 24 May 2004

Abstract
The movement and distribution of water in the hydrologic cycle is affected by the level and type of land surface parameters. Thus
accurate representation of the physical and biological features of the landscape within a watershed is required. A strong link exists
between climate variability and the resulting changes in such land surface parameters as energy, land-cover and surface microclimates.
Imagery from Landsat and other satellites provide land-cover and surface microclimate information with high temporal and spatial
accuracy. This paper utilizes the land surface temperature (LST) derived from the thermal band of Landsat images and Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from its red and near-infrared bands to further improve land-cover and surface
microclimate mapping. Remotely-sensed spatially distributed surface latent and sensible heat fluxes were also estimated. The study
was conducted on 10,200 km2 watershed area of the Red River of the North Basin, North Dakota/Minnesota. Over the period of
1974–2002, seven images from Landsat Multispectral Scanner, Thematic Mapper and Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus sensors were
used. Landsat images were processed using an unsupervised classification. Corrected LST and NDVI, which indicate a strong
relationship with the land-cover data, were identified using scattergrams. Surface microclimate parameters (fractional vegetation
cover, FVC and fractional impervious surface, FIS area) were estimated and their spatial and temporal distributions determined.
Surface energy fluxes (latent and sensible heat) were assessed over space and time. The results indicate that vegetation cover
(FVC > 0.5) increased from 7% in 1974 to 33% in 2002 due to cropland farming in the Red River Valley and an increase in impervious
areas (FIS > 0.5) (by 79% from 1974 to 2001) attributed to the growing cities in the valley for the period of study. The study also
indicated an increase in sensible and latent heat fluxes from 1998 to 2002 for areas classified as developed and cropland, respectively.
Hydrograph analysis of the flow at Grand Forks gauging station also indicated runoff response of the basin has increased between
1993 and 2002 with all years having percent runoff greater than 10% compared to only 35% of the years between 1974 and 1993.

2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fractional vegetation cover; Landsat; Land-cover; Energy flux; Surface microclimate; Red River

1. Introduction
The land surface affects the partitioning of water and
energy fluxes, which in turn changes the state of the
surface (Pielke and Avissar, 1990). Hydrologic responses
of watersheds have been strongly linked to the land
surface process and surface microclimate covers. Re-
motely-sensed surface parameters such as land-cover,
surface microclimate parameters (fractional vegetation
cover, FVC, land surface temperature, LST and frac-
tional impervious surface, FIS area), and surface energy
* red sensors) gives estimates of surface temperature and
Present address: Department of Environmental Studies, Florida
International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA. Tel.: +1-305-348-
1930; fax: +1-305-348-6137.
E-mail address: melessea@fiu.edu (A.M. Melesse).
1474-7065/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2004.05.007
fluxes (net radiation, latent and sensible heat fluxes) are
useful in understanding the spatiotemporal changes of
the land surface, hence the resulting hydrologic re-
sponses of watersheds (Fig. 1).
Remote sensing uses measurements of the electro-
magnetic radiation, usually sunlight reflected in various
bands, to characterize the landscape, infer surface
properties, or in some cases actually estimate hydrologic
state variables. Measurements of the reflected solar
radiation (visible and short wave infrared sensors) give
information on land-cover, extent of surface impervi-
ousness and albedo. Thermal radiation (thermal-infra-
surface energy fluxes.
Land-cover is the actual distribution of physical
and biological features of land surface. Accurate and
796 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810
Fractional Land-cover
vegetation Surface
cover Imperviousness
HYDROLOGIC
Precipitation CYCLE Snowmelt
Topography
Surface energy
Surface
Temperature
fluxes
Fig. 1. Surface parameters and fluxes versus hydrologic response.
up-to-date information on land surfaces and the state of
the environment are critical components of environ-
mental planning and management. Land-cover infor-
mation is used in hydrologic modeling to estimate the
value of surface roughness or friction as it affects the
velocity of the overland flow of water. It may also be
used to determine the potential amount of rainfall that
can infiltrate into the soil. Vegetation indices and band
ratios provide useful information in characterizing land
surface cover and enhance land-cover mapping.
Researchers have conducted studies using vegetation
indices to derive the relationship between remotely-
sensed radiance and biophysical properties of forests
(Boyd et al., 1996; Curran et al., 1992). Multi-temporal
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data
derived from Landsat sensors (Spanner et al., 1990;
Danson and Curran, 1993) and the Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer have been used for land-cover
mapping and land use change studies (Stone et al., 1994;
Tucker et al., 1991, Lambin and Strahler, 1994). For
land-cover mapping, the radiance recorded in the mid-
dle-infrared (MIR) (1.3–3 lm) and long wave thermal
infrared (TIR) (8–14 lm) wave bands have been shown
to provide important additional and supplementary
information to that provided by the reflectance data
measured in visible (0.4–0.7 lm) and near-infrared
(NIR) (0.7–1.3 lm) bands. Data acquired in the MIR
and TIR wave bands can discriminate among vegetation
types and assess changes in land use (Baret et al., 1988;
Panigrahy and Parohar, 1992; Melesse and Jordan,
2002).
Surface energy fluxes are related to surface tempera-
ture, vegetative properties, albedo, and surface emissiv-
ities. Low surface temperatures indicate high moisture
and/or vegetated cover, hence latent heat dominance.
Conversely, high temperatures indicate dry surface or
stressed vegetation, hence dominance by sensible heat
flux. In the Red River Valley, North Dakota/Minnesota,
average annual ground-surface temperature has in-
creased 2.5 C and average annual air temperature has
increased 2 C during the past century (Gosnold et al.,
1997). Precipitation dropped from 1890 until the mid-
1930s and has been rising since 1950 (Groisman and
Easterling, 1994). Historically, the Red River valley
floods frequently and peaked to historic high in April
1997 when 1590 m3 /s value for April flow was measured
at the Grand Forks gauging station. The 99-year mean
flow at the same station is 330 m3 /s.
Changes in human land use patterns can have im-
pacts on flood dynamics. The lag time for water draining
the surface and entering the Red River is greatly reduced
due to the construction of drainage ditches in agricul-
tural fields and along rural roads (Bluemle, 1997). In
addition, increasing urbanization near the river can in-
crease the runoff volume and decrease the time to peak
runoff, substantially affecting the river flood dynamics,
resulting in more rapid, more severe and more frequent
flooding than under natural condition.
The Red River of the North receives most of its flow
from its eastern tributaries largely as result of regional
patterns in precipitation. Annual runoff varies greatly,
and most runoff occurs in spring and early summer from
rains falling on soils saturated by melting of winter snow.
In this study, radiance data acquired by Landsat
Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM),
and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) in vari-
ous bands of the spectrum were used to improve land-
cover mapping and demonstrate the use of NDVI
derived from (1) the visible and NIR bands, and (2) LST
from the TIR band in discrimination of land-cover
classes and maximize the accuracy of the classification
process. In addition, the spatial distribution of surface
microclimate parameters (FVC and FIS) and surface
energy fluxes (latent and sensible heat) were evaluated
spatially for the periods of study.
The objectives of this study were (1) to derive spatial
land-cover maps using MIR, NDVI and LST and to
assess the strength of relationships of the radiance data
acquired within land-cover categories of hydrologic
interest, (2) to evaluate the change and spatial distri-
bution of actual land-cover and surface microclimate
parameters (FVC and FIS) over time, (3) assess the
spatiotemporal variability of sensible and latent heat
fluxes, and (4) to assess the linkage between the hydro-
logic responses of the basin and the change in land
surface parameters estimated from Landsat images.
2. Description of study area and data sets
2.1. Study area
The Red River of the North (Fig. 2) has a meandering
length of 880 km along the channel and 456 km in a
straight line. It flows north from the confluence of the
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810
Fig. 2. Red River of the North Basin.
Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail rivers in southern North
Dakota/Minnesota, USA to Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada draining about 100,480 km2 . The Red River
flows through the very flat Red River Valley, where
natural topographic variations are subtle (Macek-
Rowland, 2001). Land-use in the Red River of the
North Basin is primarily agricultural accounting for
about 62% of the basin’s land-use within 0.4 km buffer
of the river. Major crops include wheat, corn, soybeans,
barley, sunflowers and sugar beets (USGS, 2003).
About one-third of the population of the basin lives
in Grand Forks/East Grand Forks, and Fargo/Moor-
head, North Dakota/Minnesota. The climate of the
Red River of the North Basin is continental, ranging
from dry subhumid in the western part of the basin
to subhumid in the eastern. Winter precipitation as
snow is about 15% of the total precipitation. Average
annual precipitation ranges from about 457 mm in the
north-west corner of the basin to about 686 mm in the
south-east corner. About three-fourths of the annual
precipitation falls from April through September.
Average annual temperatures vary between 2.8 and
6.1 C. Average monthly temperatures range from
)18.3 C in January to 21.7 C in July.
The study was conducted using data from 1974 to
2002 on part of the basin along the river from Fargo/
Moorhead in the south to north of Grand Forks/East
797
Fig. 3. The study area on the Red River of the North Basin.
Fig. 4. Digital Elevation Model of the study area.
Grand Forks, North Dakota/Minnesota (Fig. 2). A 35-
km buffer was drawn on both sides of the river from
Fargo to Grand Forks covering an area of 10,147 km2
(Fig. 3). A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (Fig. 4) with
spatial horizontal resolution of 30-m acquired from the
United States Geological Survey (USGS) shows the Red
River is the lowest point in North Dakota with only 15
m elevation difference between Fargo and Grand Forks
(125 km) for a slope of 0.00012.
2.2. Data sets
Seven Landsat images between 1974 and 2002 from
MSS, TM and ETM+ sensors were used in the study
(Table 1). The set of images will allow understanding the
changes in land surface parameters at intervals of 1, 2, 6,
8, and 10 years. The MSS sensor (1972–1992) carried
on Landsat-4 and 5 collected data using 4 bands with
798 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

Table 1 3. Methodology
Description of images used in the study
Date Sensor Spatial Resolution No. of 3.1. Land-cover mapping
(m) bands
August 06, 1974 MSS 80 4 The Level-1G/systematic corrected scene product
August 12, 1984 MSS 80 4
images were subsequently geocorrected (affine method)
August 10, 1992 MSS 80 4
July 10, 1998 TM 30, 120 (TIR) 7 to base map (1:24,000 scale vector roads) from North
July 23, 2000 ETM+ 30, 60 (TIR) 8 Dakota State Water Commission (NDSWC) (NDSWC,
15 (Panchromatic) 2003). The radiance data was radiometrically corrected
July 10. 2001 ETM+ 30, 60 (TIR) 8 and converted to reflectance. This will correct the images
15 (Panchromatic)
for limited atmospheric noises and discrepancies from
July 29, 2002 ETM+ 30, 60 (TIR) 8
15 (Panchromatic) different dates of acquisition will be addressed enabling
inter-image comparison. Using the corrected images,
unsupervised classification of the images was accom-
spatial resolution of 80 m (Table 2). Landsat-4 and 5 plished using the Iterative Self-organizing Data Analysis
orbit at an altitude of 705 km and provide a 16-day, 233- Technique (ISODATA) algorithm (Tou and Gonzales,
orbit cycle. The Landsat TM instrument also carried 1974) from ERDAS IMAGINE (ERDAS, 1999).
aboard Landsat-4 and 5 (1982-present), achieves 30 m The ISODATA classifier uses an iterative approach
image resolution in seven spectral bands (120 m TIR). that incorporates a number of heuristic (trial and error)
The Landsat ETM+ instrument, carried aboard Land- procedures to compute classes. The ISODATA utility
sat-7 (1999-present), includes new features that make it a repeats the clustering of the images until either a maxi-
more versatile and efficient instrument for global change mum number of iterations have been performed, or a
studies, land-cover monitoring and large area mapping maximum percentage of unchanged pixels have been
than TM. It has an enhanced sensor with a broad reached between two iterations. The algorithm starts by
spectrum including a 15 m panchromatic and a 60 randomly selecting cluster centers in multidimensional
m · 60 m spatial resolution of the thermal band (NASA, input data space. Each pixel is then grouped into a
2002). Radiance data from sensors on satellites provide candidate cluster based on the minimization of distance
valuable information about watershed cover, from function between that pixel and the cluster center. After
which the thermal response of the surface, type and each iteration, the cluster means are updated, and
extent of watershed cover can be easily determined. clusters are possibly split or merged depending on the
Average monthly precipitation data (1974–2002) were size and spread of the data points in the clusters.
acquired from the National Climatic Data Center The unsupervised ISODATA classifier yielded 30
(NCDC, 2003). NCDC provides the weighted average spectral classes (Fig. 5). Scattergrams of MIR band
precipitation data gathered from networks of rain gau- versus scaled NDVI (scaled between low and high val-
ges for each sub-region in each state. The daily flow ues) for MSS images, and scaled NDVI versus scaled
hydrographs from 1974 to 2002 at the Grand Forks LST (scaled between low and high values) for TM and
gauging station were obtained from the North Dakota ETM+ images were used to recode the 30 classes into
USGS Office (USGS, 2003). The Grand Forks gauging level 1 land-cover classes. The spectral signatures of all
station measures the Red River’s flow from more than these classes were used to determine the mean radiance
77,000 km2 of its drainage. The data were used for for each band. The scattergrams were used to find in-
hydrograph analysis to assess the relationship between stances of strong correlation between the NDVI and
the change in the land surface parameters and the runoff LST and the land-cover data of the basin. From the
response of the study area. scattergrams, seven USGS-Land Use and Land Cover

Table 2
Description of Landsat sensors used in the study NASA (2002)
Bands Landsat 4 & 5 MSS Landsat 4 & 5 TM Landsat 7 ETM+
Wavelength (lm) Resolution (m) Wavelength (lm) Resolution (m) Wavelength (lm) Resolution (m)
Blue 0.45–0.52 30 0.45–0.52 30
Green 0.5–0.6 80 0.52–0.60 30 0.53–0.61 30
Red 0.6–0.7 80 0.63–0.69 30 0.63–0.69 30
NIR 0.7–0.8 80 0.76–0.90 30 0.78–0.90 30
MIR 0.8–1.1 80 1.55–1.75 30 1.55–1.75 30
TIR 10.40–12.50 120 10.40–2.50 60
MIR 2.08–2.35 30 2.09–2.35 30
Panchromatic 0.52–0.90 15
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810 799

3.1.2. Land surface temperature

Landsat MSS, TM, and ETM+ images
Surface temperature is important for understanding
the exchange of energy between the earth’s surface and
the atmosphere. Surface radiant temperatures were cal-
culated from the thermal band radiance values of TM
Unsupervised TM/ETM+ and ETM+ sensors. The surface temperature was ob-
Classifier tained from the Landsat TIR band using the simplified
Planck function (Eq. (2)) (Markham and Barker, 1986):
K2
MIR Band/ 30 classes LSTs LST ¼   ð2Þ
eK1
NDVI s ln þ1
R
where LST is land surface temperature (K), R is band 6
spectral radiance, e is surface emissivity related to NDVI
Scattergram (LSTs vs. NDVIs) (Eq. (5)), K1 is calibration constant 1; K2 is calibra-
Scattergram (MIR Band vs. NDVIs) tion constant 2. For Landsat-5 TM, K1 and K2 are
607.76 mW cm2 sr1 lm1 and 1260.56 K, respectively.
Recoding For Landsat-7 ETM+, K1 and K2 are 666.09
W m2 sr1 lm1 and 1282.71K, respectively.
Level 1 For Landsat 4/5 TM, R is a linear function of the
Land-cover classes digital number (DN):
Fig. 5. Flow chart showing land-cover mapping. R ¼ m  DN þ d ð3Þ

where m ¼ 0:0056322 mW cm2 sr1 lm1 , and d ¼

0:1238 mW cm2 sr1 lm1 . R values for Landsat-7
(LULC) system level 1 land-cover classes (Anderson
ETM+ were calculated as (NASA, 2002)
et al., 1976) were identified.
The cloud-shadow spots on some parts of the images ðLmax  Lmin Þ
from 1998 to 2002 were discriminated using the tech- R¼  ðDN  1Þ þ Lmin ð4Þ
254
nique described in Melesse and Jordan (2002). The
thermal band was used to discriminate clouds from where Lmax and Lmin are maximum and minimum spec-
bright surfaces and roof-tops, and combination of tral radiance (W m2 sr1 lm1 ). Lmax and Lmin are non-
NDVI and LST with further masking and reclassifying real time post-launch values, different for the low (6L)
technique was used to separate shadows of clouds from and high (6H) gain versions of the thermal band on
the water bodies. The overall land-cover classification ETM+. For the ETM+ images used in this study, Lmin
accuracy was conducted using 40 randomly selected and Lmax were 0 and 17.04 W m2 sr1 lm1 respectively.
sampling points with at least five sampling points in Surface emissivity (ratio of the energy radiated by a
each recoded class. surface to the energy radiated by a blackbody at the
same temperature) is used to compute the LST from the
3.1.1. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index thermal band of Landsat. Surface emissivity is estimated
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index or NDVI
(Rouse et al., 1974) is a measure of the amount of green-
Satellite image Astronomical & Elevation
ness in the vegetation cover of a watershed. It is the ratio Weather data
of the difference to the sum of the reflectance values of
NIR (Landsat band 4) and red (band 3) (Eq. (1)). NDVI Surf. Temp. θ, de-s, Ta DEM, slope
α
NIR  RED ε
NDVI ¼ ð1Þ
NIR þ RED

In highly vegetated areas, the NDVI typically ranges RS Rn RL G

from 0.1 to 0.6, in proportion to the density and
greenness of the plant canopy. Clouds, water and snow, H
which have larger visible reflectance than NIR reflec-
tance, will yield negative NDVI values. Rock and bare LE
soils have similar reflectances in the two bands and re-
sult in NDVI values near zero. Fig. 6. Flow chart for surface energy fluxes computation.
800 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

using NDVI and an empirically-derived method (Bas- 3.2. Surface microclimate mapping
tiaanssen, 2000),
In addition to land-cover change, the microclimate
e ¼ 1:009 þ 0:047ðln NDVIÞ ðNDVI > 0Þ ð5Þ
of the basin from the 1974 to 2002 was studied. The
For NDVI < 0 (e.g., water) emissivity of 1 was assumed. microclimate parameters assessed from radiance data of

Fig. 7. Scattergrams of MIR band/LSTs versus NDVIs for the 30 land cover classes: (a) 1974, (b) 1984, (c) 1992, (d) 1998, (e) 2000, (f) 2001, (g) 2002.
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810 801

the images included FVC and FIS area. Those pixels
classified as vegetated or developed (non-water bodies)
were further classified, and their fractions of vegetative
cover were determined for each pixel. These micro-
climate parameters were mapped over the study area
and their spatial and temporal changes were analyzed to
identify areas of intense change in vegetation and
development.
3.2.1. Scaled land surface temperature
To compare images from different scenes and time,
scaling the temperature between the low and high values
has been used by researchers (Che and Price, 1992;
Carlson and Arthur, 2000). The scaled land surface
temperature ðLSTs Þ is given by
LSTi  LSTlow
LSTs ¼
LSThigh  LSTlow
where LSTi is the land surface temperature for pixel i,
LSTlow and LSThigh is the lowest and the highest surface
temperature of the area of analysis.
3.2.2. Fractional vegetation cover
To understand the change in the vegetation cover for
images of different scenes and dates, the scaled NDVI
ðNDVIs Þ has been used by many researchers (Price,
1987; Che and Price, 1992; Carlson and Arthur, 2000).
NDVIi  NDVIlow
NDVIs ¼
NDVIhigh  NDVIlow
NDVIs ranges between 0 and 1. NDVIlow and NDVIhigh
are values for bare soil and dense vegetation, respec-
tively.
Carlson and Ripley (1997) found the relationship
between FVC and NDVIs to be
2
FVC  ðNDVIs Þ
where FVC ranges between 0 and 1.
3.2.3. Fractional impervious surface area
Remote sensing techniques are capable of quantifying
impervious surface over a region or watershed. Imper-
The extent and spatial distribution of impervious
surface relative to streams and watersheds is an impor-
tant empirical measure for evaluating stream health and
for making effective watershed management decisions.
Impervious surface effects upon water quality and
channel stability have been shown to occur when 10–
15% of the watershed surface is impervious (Shaver and
Maxted, 1995; Booth and Reinelt, 1993).
Ridd (1995) and Owen et al. (1998) showed that the
relation between the FVC and FIS for developed areas
as,
FIS ¼ 1  FVC ð9Þ
3.3. Surface energy flux
ð6Þ Surface energy balance models simulate microscale
energy exchange processes between the ground surface
and the atmospheric layer near the ground level. These
processes include radiative, sensible heat, latent heat,
and subsurface heat exchange processes. Results from
these models provide microclimatic information such as
surface temperature, radiation and heat fluxes related to
particular surfaces.
Surface energy fluxes require energy inputs, moisture
conditions of soil and vegetation, and near-surface cli-
matic conditions (Norman et al., 1995; French et al.,
2000). Remote sensing has proven to provide the energy
ð7Þ inputs (short and long wave radiations) and surface
conditions of soil and vegetation at a reasonable spatial
and temporal scale (e.g., 30-m from Landsat TM and
ETM+, and every 16 days). Meteorological stations
provide the near-surface climatic data at a spatial scale
of few kilometers and temporal scale of every few min-
utes.
ð8Þ
60
50 1974 1984 1992
1998 2000 2001
40 2002
Area (%)

vious land-cover is widely accepted as an indicator of

urbanization, and its impacts on both water quantity 30
and water quality is significant. Impervious surfaces
increase the frequency and intensity of downstream 20
runoff events, resulting in alterations of channel struc-
10
ture and the timing and volume of peak runoff. These
effects have important ecological and economic impact 0
on the hydrology of watersheds. Impervious surfaces
W
D

D
T

U
N

N
ES

N
O

cause local decreases in infiltration, percolation and soil

T-
A
LA

LA
D
R

EL

IL

A
EN

ET
H
U
G

moisture storage, reductions in natural interception and

/F

/S
B
R

W
N
D

R
R

N
A
N

TE
R
A

depression storage, and increases in runoff. Runoff from

A
B

B
PL

A
R

W
U

impervious surfaces has greater velocities, larger vol-

O
R
C

umes and shorter times of concentration (Brun and

Band, 2000). Fig. 8. Summary of land-cover distributions for the study years.
802 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

In this study, Surface Energy Balance Algorithms for
Land (SEBAL) model were used to compute the surface
latent and sensible heat fluxes (Bastiaanssen et al.,
1998a,b).
In the absence of horizontally advective energy, the
surface energy budget of land surface satisfying the law
of conservation of energy can be expressed as
Rn  LE  H  G ¼ 0
where Rn is net radiation at the surface, LE is latent heat
or moisture flux (ET in energy units), H is sensible heat
flux to the air, and G is soil heat flux. Energy flux models
solve Eq. (10) by estimating the different components
separately (Fig. 6).
3.3.1. Net radiation
The Rn absorbed by the surface is the sum of the net
short (solar) and long (thermal) wave radiations.
ð10Þ Rn ¼ ð1  aÞRs # þRL # RL " ð1  eÞRL # ð11Þ
where Rs# is the incoming shortwave radiation, a is
surface albedo, e is surface emissivity, RL# is absorbed

Fig. 9. Spatial distributions of fractional vegetation cover: (a) 1974, (b) 1984, (c) 1992, (d) 1998, (e) 2000, (f) 2001, (g) 2002.
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810 803

incoming longwave radiation, and RL" is outgoing et al., 1998b; Wang et al., 1998; Bastiaanssen, 2000;
longwave radiation. Morse et al., 2000).
Rs# is estimated as,
Gsc ssw
Rs# ¼ 2
ð12Þ 4. Results and discussion
sin hdes
where Gsc is the solar constant expressed as 1367 W m2 , 4.1. Land-cover mapping and change analysis
h is sun elevation angle in radians, des is the relative
distance between Earth and Sun in astronomical units, 4.1.1. Land-cover mapping
and ssw is one-way atmospheric transmitivity, computed Thirty classes of land-cover were recoded to seven
as a function of elevation (FAO-56) (Allen et al., 1998), classes of hydrologic interest, which were displayed on
ssw ¼ 0:75 þ 0:00002z ð13Þ the images. The seven classes were urban and built-up
area (I), cropland (II), forest (III), rangeland (IV), water
where z is the elevation above sea level (m).
(V), wetland (VI), and barrenland (VII). The MIR ver-
The RL# is estimated using Eq. (14) by the Stefan–
sus NDVIs scattergrams for 1974, 1984 and 1992 MSS
Boltzmann law,
images have a positive slope (Fig. 7a–c). Vegetated
RL# ¼ rea Ta4 ð14Þ surfaces have higher NDVI and MIR values than non-
where r is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 · 108 vegetated surfaces such as barrenland and developed
W m2 K4 ), a is the atmospheric emissivity (dimen- areas. Although the MIR band responds well to vege-
sionless), and Ta is the near-surface air temperature (K). tation moisture content, its ability to discriminate wet-
The empirical equation for a by Bastiaanssen et al. land from water, barrenland from urban built-ups, and
(1998a) is, cropland from forest was not as strong as the LSTs
versus NDVIs relation.
ea ¼ 0:85ðln ssw Þ0:09 ð15Þ The LSTs versus NDVIs slope in all images is nega-
The RL" is the thermal radiation flux emitted from the tive (Fig. 7d–g). An increase in green biomass is often
earth’s surface to the atmosphere determined as, associated with a reduction in surface resistance to
evapotranspiration, greater transpiration, and a larger
RL" ¼ reTs4 ð16Þ latent heat transfer resulting in lower surface tempera-
where Ts is the surface temperature (K). ture. The LSTs versus NDVIs scattergrams show a clear
discrimination of land-cover classes and aggregation of
classes with similar spectral signatures. Water bodies
3.3.2. Soil heat flux
have lower surface temperature and NDVI and are
Soil heat flux is flux of heat into the soil due to
shown on the lower left corner of the diagram. Clouds
conduction. SEBAL computes the ratio G=Rn using the
have cooler temperatures than water bodies and near-
following empirical equation representing values near
zero NDVI.
midday (Bastiaanssen, 2000; Morse et al., 2000),
Wetlands have warmer mid-morning surface tem-
G=Rn ¼ 0:2ð1  0:98 NDVI4 Þ ð17Þ peratures than do open water bodies, and due to
their vegetative cover they have higher NDVI than
where G is in W m2 . water. Rangeland (grassland and brush) has higher
surface temperature than wetlands because the soil is
3.3.3. Sensible heat flux
The sensible heat loss (W m2 ) from the surface is
50
given by, FVC > 0.5
  45
LST  Ta 40
H ¼ qCp ð18Þ
Ra 35
FVC (%)

30
where q is air density (kg m3 ); Cp is the volumetric heat
25
capacity of air (1004 J kg1 K1 ), Ra is aerodynamic
20
resistance, LST is land surface temperature (K).
15
The detailed technique for estimating latent and
10
sensible heat fluxes using remotely-sensed data from
5
Landsat and other sensors is documented in Bastiaans-
0
sen et al. (1998a), Bastiaanssen et al. (1998b), and Morse 1974 1984 1992 1998 2000 2001 2002
et al., 2000. The model was tested in Europe, Asia, Year
Africa, and in Idaho in the US and proved to provide
good results (Bastiaanssen et al., 1998a; Bastiaanssen Fig. 10. Percent area covered for pixels with FVC > 0.5.
804 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

unsaturated. The infrared reflectance of the rangeland is irrigation and growth stage, the temperature varies.
not much different from that of the non-forested vege- Forests have higher NDVI, and depending on whether it
tated wetland. Agriculture (cropland and pasture) has is an upland or wetland forest, the surface temperature
higher NDVI than rangeland, and depending on recent varies. Upland forests have higher surface temperatures

Fig. 11. Spatial distribution of FIS area (FIS > 0.5) for the Grand Forks/East Grand Forks, and Fargo/Morehead, North Dakota/Minnesota.
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810
than wetland forests. Barrenland has the highest surface
temperature and lower NDVI than the urban and built-
up areas. Barrenland is shown on the upper left corner
of LSTs versus NDVIs diagram. Urban and built-up
areas have also higher surface temperature and lower
NDVI than all other classes but barrenland.
Surface temperature variation in vegetated surfaces
(cropland versus forests, rangeland versus cropland)
results from variations in the proportion of surrounding
bare soil visible to the thermal sensor of Landsat and the
thermal inertia of the surface. Thermal inertia is the
measure of thermal response of surfaces to temperature
changes. It is a function of thermal conductivity and
heat capacity, and is affected by surface characteristics
such as soil moisture and albedo. The thermal inertia of
vegetation canopies is lower than that of soils.
The accuracy assessment of the land-cover classifi-
cation shows the technique successfully mapped the
land-over with an average overall accuracy of 87.5%.
This was conducted using 40 randomly selected sample
points with at least five sampling points in each class.
Fig. 12. Spatial maps of sensible heat: (a) 1998, (b) 2000, (c) 2001, (d) 2002.
805
4.1.2. Land-cover change analysis
The land-cover change analysis conducted between
1974 and 2002 utilized seven USGS-LULC level 1 land-
cover classes (Anderson et al., 1976). Summaries of the
changes in land-cover distribution, showing percentage
of land-use for each year of study, are presented in
Fig. 8.
The land-cover mapping showed more than 50% of
the study area was covered by cropland and forest
during the period of study. The cropland area has in-
creased by 23% between 1984 and 1998, and by 31%
between 1984 and 2002 (Fig. 8). The increase in vege-
tative cover for 1998 can be attributed (1) to the 1997
flood which left the area wet for an extended period of
time, and (2) to the flood control measures in 1998,
which resulted in increased residence time of the flow
allowing more water in the valley. This causes an in-
crease in available soil moisture and vegetative cover.
The rangeland acreage decreased between 1974 and
2002. Urban and developed areas for the years of study
increased by 79% from 1974 to 2002 compared with an
806 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

increase in urbanization of 23% between 1974 and 1992.
This indicates that most of the intense urban develop-
ment occurred after 1992 (Fig. 8).
4.2. Microclimate mapping
4.2.1. Fractional vegetation cover
The spatial distributions of FVC are indicated in Fig.
flow to the river was reduced in 1998 (Fig. 14). Since
1998, the FVC of pixels having at least 50% vegetation
cover was greater than 20% of the study area, indicating
an increase in cropland acreage and other vegetated
covers. The differences among 2000, 2001 and 2002 were
not significant due to the short period of time to see
3000 0

Discharge (m3/sec)
2500
9a–g for 1974–2002. The FVC values were higher for 50

Rainfall (mm)
areas south of Grand Forks (1998), central part of the 2000
100
study area (2000), the Minnesota side of the study area 1500
(2001), and northwest of Fargo (2002) (Fig. 9). The 150
1000
fractional vegetation cover ðFVC > 0:5Þ increased from 200
500
7% in 1974 to 48% in 1998 due to the expansion of
cropland in the Red River Valley (Fig. 10). The bigger 0 250

1974
1975
1977
1979
1980
1982
1984
1985
1987
1989
1990
1992
1994
1995
1997
1999
2000
2002
jump in the 1998 FVC can be also attributed to the 1997
record high flood in the study area which increased the Year
Monthly Rainfall Monthly Discharge
soil moisture in the valley for months. The reduced flow
to the river increases infiltration and soil moisture Fig. 14. Monthly flow hydrographs and precipitation at the Grand
allowing more vegetative cover. After the 1997 flood, Forks gauging station from 1974 to 2002.

Fig. 13. Spatial maps of latent heat: (a) 1998, (b) 2000, (c) 2001, (d) 2002.
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810 807

noticeable change. Generally, there exists a trend in the imperviousness of the study area increased significantly
FVC with the exception of 1998. around the south and north tips of the study area. This
is mainly due to the expansion of Grand Forks/East
4.2.2. Fractional impervious surface area Grand Forks and Fargo/Moorhead cities (Fig. 11). Fig.
For areas classified as developed, FIS is approxi- 11 shows the increase in the developed areas and
mated by ð1  FVCÞ. From 1974 to 2002 the fractional impervious surface area ðFIS > 0:5Þ for both urban

500 0 500 0
20 20
400 400

Precipitation (mm)
1974

Precipitation (mm)

Discharge (m3/s)
Discharge (m3/s)

40 1984
40
300 60 300
60
200 80 200
80
100
100 100 100
120
0 140 0 120
Jul

Jul
Aug

Aug
Jun
Apr

Jun
Apr
Sep
Feb

Sep
Feb
Jan

Oct

Jan
May

Oct
May
Nov
Mar

Nov
Mar
Dec

Dec
Month Month
Precipitation Discharge Precipitation Discharge

140 0 450 0
120 10 400
20

Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation (mm)

20 350
Discharge (m3/s)
Discharge (m3/s)

100
1992 30 300 1998 40
80 40 250
60
60 50 200
60 150 80
40
70 100
20 100
80 50
0 90 0 120
Jul
Jul

Aug
Aug

Jun
Apr
Jun
Apr

Sep
Feb
Sep
Feb

Jan

Oct
Jan

Oct

May
May

Nov
Mar
Nov
Mar

Dec
Dec

Month Month
Precipitation Discharge Precipitation Discharge

350 0 1200 0
300 20 20
1000
Precipitation (mm)

Precipitation (mm)
40
Discharge (m3/s)

Discharge (m3/s)

250 2001 40
60 800
60
200 80
600 80
150 100
120 100
100 400
140 120
50 2000 160 200
140
0 180 0 160
Jul
Aug
Jun
Apr

Sep
Feb
Jan

Oct
May

Nov
Mar

Dec

Jul
Aug
Jun
Apr

Sep
Feb
Jan

Oct
May

Nov
Mar

Dec

Month Month
Precipitation Discharge Precipitation Discharge

600 0
20
Discharge (m3/s)

500
Precipitation (mm)

40
400 2002 60
80
300
100
200 120
140
100
160
0 180
Jul
Aug
Jun
Apr

Sep
Feb

May
Jan

Oct
Nov
Mar

Dec

Month
Precipitation Discharge

Fig. 15. Monthly flow hydrographs and precipitation for the years of study at the Grand Forks gauging station.
808 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810

areas. The study shows larger urbanization and devel- cipitation and runoff from 1974 to 2002. The variable x
opment occurred after 1992. in the trend line equation is the number of years count
beginning in 1974. Since 1993, precipitation and flow
4.3. Surface energy fluxes have increased: 40% of the years since 1993 have more
than 15% of runoff volume, compared to 10.5% of the
Surface energy fluxes (latent and sensible heat) esti- years during 1974–1992. After 1993 all years had percent
mated from Landsat images from 1998 to 2002 indicated runoff greater than 10%, compared with 35% of the
the dynamics of the energy fluxes as a function of land- years from 1974 to 1992. This indicates the runoff re-
cover (vegetation) and weather variables. The sensible sponse of the basin has increased significantly after
heat fluxes have increased compared to the reduction in 1993, with greater than 10% of the precipitation con-
the latent heat flux especially around developed areas verted to runoff.
surrounding the Red River. Figs. 12 and 13 show spatial
maps of the sensible and latent heat fluxes from 1998 to
2002. The sensible heat estimates were higher for 2001
5. Conclusions and recommendations
and 2002 compared to 1998 and 2000, indicating more
partitioning of the net radiation into sensible heat. The
MIR and NDVI from Landsat MSS, and thermal
latent heat fluxes were higher in 1998, 2002 and in the
maps and NDVI from Landsat TM and ETM+ sensors
eastern half of the study area in 2001 compared to 2000.
enhance land-cover and land surface microclimate
mapping. The results show that MIR, LST and NDVI
4.4. Runoff response analysis
significantly helped discrimination of land-cover classes.
In general, mid-morning surface temperature is inversely
The monthly precipitation (rainfall and snow) and
proportional to NDVI, a measure of plant biomass and
discharge data from 1974 to 2002 are shown in Fig. 14.
condition. Boundaries between vegetated wetlands and
Fig. 14 indicates an increase in precipitation and the
free water bodies, agriculture and forest, urban and
corresponding discharge to the river in recent years
built-up areas, and barrenland and clouds were easily
(1993–2002). The increase in the precipitation is driven
drawn. The MIR versus NDVI relationships have po-
by the regional weather pattern which produced higher
sitive slopes and are also useful for discriminating land-
volumes of rainfall and snowfall. The trend lines in Fig.
cover classes.
16 indicate a linear increase in precipitation and runoff
Over the period of 28 years, the land-cover and sur-
from 1974 to 2002.
face microclimate parameters in the Red River Valley
The monthly hydrograph analysis for each year of
have changed. Cropland agriculture and urban built-up
study (Fig. 15) indicates that, with the exception of 2002,
areas have increased, with most of the increase occurring
flow peaks in early spring before or at the beginning of
in the 1990s. Spatial surface energy fluxes (sensible and
the rainy season, implying snowmelt and rainfall on
latent heat) mapped from TM and ETM+ sensors also
saturated soils cause much of the flow. This indicates
showed spatiotemporal variations in response to land-
energy flux partitioning (sensible and latent heat) affects
cover and surface microclimate changes.
the extent of flow to the river.
The runoff response analysis of the study area indi-
Flow depth (area under the hydrograph divided by
cated snowmelt and rainfall on wet soils dictate much of
the drainage area of the gauging station) and percent
the runoff in the Red River Valley. Hence, partitioning
runoff (flow divided by precipitation) is shown in Fig.
of the surface energy fluxes plays an important role in
16. The linear trends in Fig. 16 show increases in pre-
determining the extent and rate of water flux.
Future studies need to assess the surface parameters
incorporating more years of data for better under-
Precipitation/Runoff depth

700 Precipitation = 3.3x + 435.7 25

Runoff = 1.55x + 26.8
standing and capturing of the full picture of the pro-
600
20 cesses.
500
% Runoff

400 15
(mm)

300 10
200 Acknowledgements
5
100
0 0 The author acknowledges George Seielstad for
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02

reviewing the manuscript, and Vijay Nangia, David

19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20

Year Baumgartner, Grant Casady, Ofer Beeri, and other

Runoff Precipitation
% Runoff
Linear (Precipitation)
members of Upper Midwest Aerospace Consortium for
Linear (Runoff)
their help in the data analysis. The author extends his
Fig. 16. Precipitation, runoff and percent runoff from 1974 to 2002. appreciation to the USGS of North Dakota and North
 A.M. Melesse / Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (2004) 795–810
Dakota State Water Commission for providing some of
their data. The research was partially funded by NASA
grant NAG 13-02047.
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