Porphyry Copper Deposit Formation in Arcs: What Are The Odds?

Research Paper THEMED ISSUE: Subduction Top to Bottom 2
GEOSPHERE Porphyry copper deposit formation in arcs: What are the odds?
Jeremy P. Richards†
Harquail School of Earth Sciences, Mineral Exploration Research Centre, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada
GEOSPHERE, v. 18, no. 1
https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02086.1
ABSTRACT economically (0.0001%). Continued uplift and ero- components such as large-ion lithophile elements,
7 figures sion in active convergent tectonic regimes rapidly are released at shallow mantle depths from the
Arc magmas globally are H2O-Cl-S–rich and remove these upper-crustal deposits from the geo- subducted material, where they metasomatize the
CITATION: Richards, J.P., 2021, Porphyry copper
deposit formation in arcs: What are the odds?: Geo‑
moderately oxidized (ΔFMQ = +1 to +2) relative to logical record, such that the probability of finding overlying asthenospheric mantle wedge and/or the
sphere, v. 18, no. 1, p. 130–155, https://doi.org/10.1130 most other mantle-derived magmas (ΔFMQ ≤ 0). them in older arc systems decreases further with base of the lithosphere (Fig. 1; Ringwood, 1977; Tat-
/GES02086.1. Their relatively high oxidation state limits the age, to the point that porphyry Cu deposits are sumi, 1986; Peacock, 1993; Wallace, 2005). Hydrous
extent to which sulfide phases separate from the almost nonexistent in Precambrian rocks. metasomatism lowers the solidus temperature of
Science Editor: Shanaka de Silva
magma, which would otherwise tend to deplete A key finding of this paper is that most vol- peridotite, leading to partial melting in the hottest
Guest Associate Editor: Gray E. Bebout
the melt in chalcophile elements such as Cu (highly canoplutonic arcs above subduction zones are central regions of the upwelling asthenospheric
Received 16 November 2018
siderophile elements such as Au and especially prospective for porphyry ore formation, with prob- mantle wedge (Kushiro et al., 1968; Grove et al.,
Revision received 28 March 2019 platinum-group elements are depleted by even abilities only falling to low values at late stages of 2006; England and Katz, 2010; Kelley et al., 2010;
Accepted 14 May 2019 small amounts of sulfide segregation). As these magmatic-hydrothermal fluid exsolution, focusing, Green et al., 2014). Derivative basaltic magmas are
magmas rise into the crust and begin to crystallize, and metal deposition. This is in part because of uniquely water-rich (plus other volatiles including
First published online 16 November 2021
they will reach volatile saturation, and a hydrous, the high threshold required in terms of grade and S and Cl) and evolve to hydrous andesitic compo-
saline, S-rich, moderately oxidized fluid is released, tonnage for a deposit to be considered economic. sitions (≥4 wt% H2O) during deep crustal fractional
into which chalcophile and any remaining sidero- Thus, the probability of forming a porphyry-type crystallization and assimilation processes (Hildreth
phile metals (as well as many other water-soluble system in any given arc segment is relatively high, and Moorbath, 1988; Grove et al., 2003; Pichavant
elements) will strongly partition. This magmatic- but the probability that it will be a large economic and Macdonald, 2007; Zimmer et al., 2010; Lee et
hydrothermal fluid phase has the potential to form deposit is low, dictated to a large extent by mineral al., 2014; Chin et al., 2018). Upon ascent of this
ore deposits (most commonly porphyry Cu ± Mo economics and metal prices. lower-density, evolved melt into the upper crust,
± Au deposits) if its metal load is precipitated in further crystallization and depressurization result
economic concentrations, but there are many steps in exsolution of dissolved volatiles, which may
along the way that must be successfully negotiated ■■ INTRODUCTION either be vented at surface in volcanic eruptions
before this can occur. This paper seeks to identify and fumarolic emissions or may form subsurface
the main steps along the path from magma genesis Convergent margins are sites of subduction of hydrothermal systems (Fig. 1; Burnham, 1979;
to hydrothermal mineral precipitation that affect oceanic lithosphere, during which some constit- Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994; Tassi et al.,
the chances of forming an ore deposit (defined as uents of the continental lithosphere and volatiles 2009). Metals dissolved in the magma preferen-
an economically mineable resource) and attempts from the hydrosphere are recycled into the man- tially partition into these high-temperature, saline,
to estimate the probability of achieving each step. tle (Fig. 1). Most of this material, including up to sulfurous magmatic fluids, and efficient subsurface
The cumulative probability of forming a large 11% of the volatiles (Kimura and Nakajima, 2014), channeling and depositional processes can result
porphyry Cu deposit at any given time in an arc eventually sinks deep into the mantle and may in their precipitation in economic concentrations
magmatic system (i.e., a single batholith-linked vol- reappear at Earth’s surface later as components to form ore deposits (e.g., porphyry, epithermal,
canoplutonic complex) is estimated to be ~0.001%, of mantle plumes (Hofmann and White, 1982; and skarn deposits enriched in Cu, Mo, Au, and
and less than 1/10 of these deposits will be uplifted van der Hilst et al., 1997; Zhao, 2004). However, other elements, hereafter referred to generally
and exposed at shallow enough depths to mine the bulk of the volatiles, along with fluid-soluble as “porphyry Cu deposits” unless the subject is
a specific deposit type) (Burnham, 1979; Candela
and Holland, 1984; Hedenquist and Lowenstern,
†
Deceased. Dr. Richards passed away after this paper was accepted for publication, and Dr. Matthew Leybourne at Queen’s Uni-
This paper is published under the terms of the versity (Kingston, Ontario, Canada) was integral in completing production of the paper by providing posthumous edits on behalf 1994; Kouzmanov and Pokrovski, 2012). Porphyry
CC‑BY-NC license. of Dr. Richards. Cu deposits are characterized by concentrations
© 2021 The Author
GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

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Richards | Porphyry copper deposit formation in arcs 130
by Edilber A. Chipana
Research Paper
of Cu-Fe-sulfide minerals (mainly chalcopyrite,

Volcanic arc
CuFeS2), along with pyrite (FeS2) and variable
quantities of molybdenite (MoS2), precipitated in
quartz veins and as disseminations in hydrother-
mally altered wall rocks. Alteration associated with Epithermal deposits
Hydrothermal
the primary (hypogene) mineralization is typically alteration Porphyry deposits
“potassic,” consisting of an assemblage of hydro-
thermal quartz, K-feldspar, biotite, magnetite, and
Sea level 5–7 0 km
Mid- to upper crustal
anhydrite. Reviews of the key characteristics and 4 batholithic complex
variants of porphyry Cu deposits are provided by
Lowell and Guilbert (1970), Gustafson and Hunt
(1975), Cooke et al. (2005), Seedorff et al. (2005),
Mid-crustal Continental crust
John et al. (2010), and Sillitoe (2010). See Meinert “hot zone”
et al. (2005) and Simmons et al. (2005) for reviews
of skarn and epithermal deposits.
Lower crustal
This paper reviews the formation of porphyry
MASH zone
Cu deposits in subduction environments from a 3
probabilistic perspective, recognizing that they are 600°C
reproducible but rare events in the evolution of arc
magmatic systems. The approach uses estimates Subcontinental
of probability of various processes that affect arc mantle lithosphere
60
magmas as they ascend from the mantle wedge 0°C Fluid flow 2
source to the shallow crust. These values are not paths
rigorous assessments, but educated guesses based 1000°C
De
on the author’s experience and assessment of the
hy
Melt flow paths
Oceanic
dr
literature. These estimates attempt to reflect the
at
mantle
ing
cumulative probability of a large economic por-
lithosphere Corn
phyry Cu deposit forming in association with a 1 er flo Asthenosphere
oc
w 100 km
ea
specific arc batholith, implying a specific location
nic
(within an area of perhaps 100 km2) and at a spe- Partial melting of
cific point in time (within a few million years) in the metasomatized
asthenosphere
cru
evolution of an arc. The probabilities are highest 1400°C
st
in the Cenozoic but decrease with geological age,
due either to the increasing probability of loss to
erosion, or to the possible non-formation of por- Figure 1. Cross section of a typical continental subduction zone and arc magmatic system, showing key steps that lead
phyry Cu deposits prior to the onset of “modern” to (or hinder) porphyry Cu ore formation (numbers correspond to steps in Fig. 2, and in the text). “MASH” stands for
plate tectonics. melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenization (Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988). Figure modified from Richards (2011a).
■■ OVERVIEW OF CONVERGENT MARGIN magmas results either in explosive arc volca- prove to be economic for mining). Many factors
METALLOGENY nism and/or the formation of shallow, subsurface contribute to the ultimate formation of an economic
hydrothermal systems that can form ore deposits. porphyry (or related epithermal or skarn) deposit,
The distinctive metallogeny of convergent plate However, although all arc volcanoplutonic com- and omission or inefficient operation of any one of
margins arises primarily due to the recycling of plexes are accompanied by some hydrothermal and these steps can reduce the ore-forming potential
water and other volatiles into the mantle by sub- fumarolic alteration, mineralization is not always (fertility) of the system (Richards, 2013). Thus the
duction of altered oceanic lithosphere. The return present, and economic deposits (ore deposits) are concept of magma fertility needs to be considered
of these volatiles toward the surface via hydrous rare (perhaps 1 in 1000 prospected systems actually separately from ore-forming processes; whereas

Research Paper
fertility can be evaluated and predicted to a fairly respectively (for more information, see reviews 2016). Such magmas are not typically directly
high degree of certainty, the actual formation of an by Simmons et al., 2005, and Meinert et al., 2005). prospective for ore formation. However, during
ore deposit, even from a fertile system, typically A common error is to refer to volcanoplutonic sys- subduction, the wedge of mantle asthenosphere
cannot. Ore formation in fertile systems is thus a tems with concentrations of metals below currently above the downgoing oceanic lithosphere becomes
stochastic event, with a low but nonzero probability economic levels as “barren” (e.g., Keith et al., 2018), metasomatized by fluids and melts derived from
of occurrence. whereas in many cases they may simply be subeco- prograde metamorphism of the slab (Ringwood,
The probability of ore formation is also a func- nomic (and could be economic in the future, if metal 1977; Tatsumi, 1986; Peacock, 1993). In addition to
tion of human valuation, because this defines what prices rise, mining efficiencies increase, or access and water (Tatsumi et al., 1986; Stolper and Newman,
is considered to be “ore” (i.e., material from which infrastructure improve). Genuinely barren systems 1994; Portnyagin et al., 2007), these fluids enrich
metals can be profitably extracted). The value of are those that do not have the potential to form eco- the mantle wedge in S (de Hoog et al., 2001; Wal-
a commodity is controlled by its availability and nomic mineralization, and this distinction is important lace, 2005; Tomkins and Evans, 2015), Cl (Kent et al.,
usefulness: a commodity in high demand but when assessing magmatic fertility indicators. 2002; Wallace, 2005; Portnyagin et al., 2007), large
low availability will command a high price, with For the purposes of this paper, I will focus on ion lithophile elements (K, Rb, Cs, Ca, Sr, and Ba),
the result that smaller and/or lower-grade (more factors that control the fertility of magmatic systems, metals (U, Pb, and Cu), semi-metals (As and Sb),
common) deposits will be economic. In contrast, and I will separately distinguish factors that might and other fluid-mobile elements such as B, Tl, and
a widely available commodity will have a lower then act on a fertile system to cause ore formation. Si (Noll et al., 1996; Kogiso et al., 1997; Hattori and
price, and only the largest and richest (rare) depos- Figure 2 provides a road map for this discussion, Guillot, 2003; Breeding et al., 2004; Manning, 1995,
its will be economic. However, there is a feedback identifying key process steps and potential dead 2005; Hattori et al., 2005; Wysoczanski et al., 2006).
loop, because if the largest and richest deposits ends, with rough estimates of the cumulative prob- These components then become incorporated into
become too rare, then availability declines, and ability of successfully progressing to the next step. primary arc magmas, which are enriched relative
prices will go up, making smaller or lower-grade The very low probability (<0.0001%) of occurrence to MORB in H2O (1–5 wt%, locally up to 8 wt%), Cl
deposits economic. of a large mineable porphyry deposit is intended to (500–2000 ppm), CO2 (~3500–7600 ppm), and S (900–
Porphyry deposits are characteristically enriched convey the rarity of such deposits within any given 2600 ppm) (Sobolev and Chaussidon, 1996; de Hoog
in Cu and/or Mo and/or Au, all of which are rela- segment of an arc, globally. This number is three et al., 2001; Fischer and Marty, 2005; Wallace, 2005;
tively rare and valuable metals. Consequently, even orders of magnitude smaller than the commonly Kimura and Ariskin, 2014; Kamenetsky et al., 2017).
quite low-grade deposits can be economic, and por- cited industry estimate of 1 in 1000 (0.1%) for an There remains some debate about the rela-
phyries are commonly referred to as large-tonnage, explored porphyry prospect to prove economic, tive roles of hydrous fluids versus partial melts of
low-grade deposits. Typical hypogene grades (of which is in effect the probability of moving from step seafloor sediments and/or basaltic oceanic crust
primary mineralization, unaffected by supergene 5–9 in Figure 2 (i.e., starting with a known porphyry (e.g., Duggen et al., 2007; Hermann and Spandler,
enrichment processes that occur during weather- “system” or prospect and delineating an economic 2008; Mibe et al., 2011; Labanieh et al., 2012; Chen
ing) are in the range 0.5%–1.5% Cu, <0.01%–0.04% deposit within that system). Porphyry systems (char- et al., 2013; Spandler and Pirard, 2013; Ribeiro et
Mo, and 0.0–1.5 g/t (ppm) Au, with tonnages of ore acterized by some hydrothermal alteration with or al., 2015; Schmidt, 2015; Walowski et al., 2015; Spi-
commonly measured in the hundreds of millions to without a geochemical anomaly) are quite common nelli et al., 2016). However, both fluids and melts
billions of tonnes (Sillitoe, 2010). Most such depos- in arcs, but porphyry ore deposits are not. will transfer volatiles, incompatible elements, and
its are mined from large open pits, benefiting from an oxidation signature into the overlying mantle
economies of scale and efficient mineral process- wedge (Kelley and Cottrell, 2009; Alt et al., 2012;
ing technologies (to concentrate small percentages ■■ STEP 1: FERTILE ARC MAGMA Debret et al., 2015; Birner et al., 2017; Rielli et al.,
of sulfide minerals from large volumes of waste COMPOSITIONS 2017). Above normally dipping subduction zones
material; mostly silicate gangue). Only the rarest (≥30°), this metasomatic flux will interact with a
high-grade deposits, with ≥1.2% Cu (or Cu equiv- Mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) and nascent arc wedge of hot asthenospheric mantle between the
alent, including the value of byproduct Mo and/or magmas (boninites and tholeiitic basalts; formed downgoing slab and the upper plate at depths of
Au) in hypogene ores, can currently be mined from prior to extensive subduction metasomatism) are ~100 km, whereas during shallower subduction, this
more expensive underground operations. both derived from partial melting of depleted upper flux may directly impinge on the base of the over-
Epithermal Cu ± Au and skarn Fe ± Cu ± Au ± Mo mantle from which a high proportion of crust-form- lying lithosphere (discussed below).
deposits may also form in the shallowest (<1 km ing lithophile elements has already been removed In normally dipping subduction zones, par-
depth) parts of porphyry systems, or where car- (Haraguchi and Ishii, 2007; Kodaira et al., 2010; tial melting in the high-temperature core of the
bonate country rocks occur in the contact aureole, Escuder-Viruete et al., 2014; Whattam and Stern, metasomatized asthenospheric mantle wedge will

Research Paper
9. Large economic porphyry

deposit (grade, tonnage,
accessibility, and infrastructure
sufficient for profitable mining)
<0.0001%, decreasing with age

Porphyry mineralization
8. Postmineralization history:
not accessible; Lack of uplift Extensive uplift
uplift and erosion to expose Loss of mineralization
epithermal mineralization or burial and erosion
subvolcanic level
may be present
0.001%
Lack of fluid
flow focus 7. Efficient precipitation of Cu-Fe, Explosive fluid Breccia pipes,
Low grade deposit Mo sulfide minerals to form a large diatremes, variably
Lack of reactive porphyry deposit venting mineralized
wallrocks
0.01%
6. Voluminous flow of magmatic-

Rapid cooling of Short-lived or Weak development of
Lack of hydrothermal fluids through cupola
system; limited mineralization
recharge zone, sustained by continuous low fluid volume
mineralization potential
magmatic recharge of batholith
0.1%
5. Formation of subvolcanic Figure 2. Schematic probability tree for the
cupola zones in the batholith roof formation of a large economic porphyry Cu de-
Diffuse volcanism and Lack of Multiple Multiple small volcanic posit as a product of arc magmatism. Each step
into which the ascent of
hydrothermal activity cupolas metal-bearing fluids and bubbly cupolas and hydrothermal centers corresponds to a section in the text, where the
magma is focused processes that might contribute to ultimate ore
formation are discussed, and counteractive pro-
1% cesses are considered. The roughly estimated
4. Transpressional strain in upper Extension cumulative probability of reaching each step is
plate lithosphere, leading to Bimodal volcanism indicated.
Discrete, small-volume Limited
focused magma ascent, and rapid
plutonism magma flux Contraction
formation of large mid–upper Deep plutonism (sills);
crustal batholith volcanism
10%
3. Detention of magma in
Early sulfide saturation: Reduced thickened, intermediate to Mafic or thin
Mafic volcanism
infertile arc lithosphere felsic upper plate lithosphere: crust
MASH processing
20%
2. Long-lived, moderately steep
Lithospheric hydration; Shallow Transient
subduction, leading to focused Limited magmatism
dispersed magmatism subduction subduction
magmatic arc in upper plate
90% in Phanerozoic
1. Subduction of oxidized,
hydrated oceanic lithosphere,
Reduced (infertile) arc Reduced leading to metasomatism and Reduced seafloor Reduced (infertile) arc
magma deep ocean partial melting of asthenospheric sediments magma
mantle wedge, and the formation
of fertile arc magmas

Research Paper
generate hydrous, moderately oxidized (ΔFMQ ≈+1 worldwide. Only a few Phanerozoic arc systems are (Fig. 3B; Allan et al., 2017). Neither state is conducive
to +2, where ΔFMQ is the difference from the faya- known to be largely barren, including the Paleo- to forming the voluminous calc-alkaline plutonism
lite-magnetite-quartz oxygen buffer in log f O2 units), Tethyan arcs of Eurasia and Japan, where it has needed for porphyry Cu formation. Instead, the opti-
incompatible element-rich basaltic magmas. Such been proposed that subduction of reduced oceanic mal setting appears to be steady-state subduction at
melts are quite distinct from, and evolve differently crust (Richards and Şengör, 2017) or the presence of a moderate dip (~30°–45°) and moderately oblique
to anhydrous (<0.2 wt% H2O; Danyushevsky, 2001), reduced lithologies in the upper plate (Tomkins et convergence direction (Figs. 1 and 3A; step 2 in
relatively reduced (ΔFMQ ≈0; Berry et al., 2018), al., 2012; Sillitoe, 2018) may have locally degraded Fig. 2). Under these conditions, fluid released from
incompatible element-poor MORB magmas. magma fertility by causing early sulfide saturation. the subducting slab progressively metasomatizes
The low water contents and reduced nature the asthenospheric mantle wedge, and magma pro-
of MORB (and tholeiitic nascent arc) magmas duction occurs along a fixed axis below the upper
render them unprospective for porphyry-type Arc Magma Evolution plate, leading to a narrowly defined (focused) mag-
magmatic-hydrothermal ore formation because matic arc in the upper plate (≤100 km wide). This
chalcophile and siderophile metals (Cu, Au, and The majority of porphyry Cu deposits form from state needs to be maintained for several million
platinum-group elements [PGEs]) will tend to be lost evolved intermediate to felsic composition mag- years to allow a sufficient thermal and mass flux to
to early precipitating sulfide phases (e.g., Mitchell and mas (granodiorite to granite) in mature continental reach the top of the upper plate, a necessary condi-
Keays, 1981; Hamlyn et al., 1985; Peach et al., 1990), arcs, but they can also form from more mafic (dior- tion for forming large upper-crustal volcanoplutonic
and large volumes of hydrothermal fluid will not be itic) magmas in island arcs (Kesler et al., 1975; Clark, systems and associated ore deposits (Richards,
exsolved upon depressurization and crystallization. 1990; Khashgerel et al., 2006). However, the timing 2003; McCuaig and Hronsky, 2014; Whattam and
In contrast, the slightly higher oxidation state of porphyry formation in these oceanic settings is Stern, 2016; Chiaradia and Caricchi, 2017; Schöpa
of arc magmas means that a significant proportion relatively late in the arc history (Hine and Mason, et al., 2017; Rees Jones et al., 2018). If the angle of
of the dissolved sulfur is present as sulfate rather 1978; Richards, 2003; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; subduction changes, the axis of magma generation
than sulfide, reducing the tendency of the magma Richards and Kerrich, 2007), and few deposits are will shift, and the arc will migrate to a new loca-
to saturate early in large volumes of sulfide phases, known to have formed from primitive magmas in tion, effectively restarting the process of building a
and therefore to become depleted in metals (Carroll the earliest, nascent stages of arc formation. The crustal magma column that might ultimately lead to
and Rutherford, 1985; Richards, 2003, 2011a, 2015; reason for this is likely the same as for the obser- porphyry Cu deposit formation. In this respect, it is
Jugo et al., 2005). In reality, arc magmas are prob- vation that the earliest magmas in nascent island notable that the world’s premier porphyry Cu district
ably saturated in sulfide phases at various points of arcs are tholeiitic, reduced, and have relatively low in northern Chile is characterized by several narrow
their evolution (Borrok et al., 1999; Stavast et al., 2006; volatile and lithophile element contents (Arculus, (50–100-km-wide), linear belts (~1000 km long) of
Jenner et al., 2010; Park et al., 2013; Richards, 2015; 1994; Schmidt and Jagoutz, 2017): it takes a finite arc magmatism that step eastwards in time (from
Williams et al., 2018), but where only small volumes amount of time (several million years) for the flux of the Mesozoic to the Miocene–Quaternary) and rep-
of sulfide minerals are left as restite in mantle sources volatiles from the newly subducting slab to metaso- resent periods of static arc magmatism each lasting
or fractionate during ascent, relatively abundant chal- matize and oxidize the mantle wedge to the point several to tens of millions of years (Sillitoe, 1992).
cophile elements such as Cu (50–100 ppm) are not that it can produce oxidized, hydrous, calc-alkaline A large porphyry Cu deposit will not form in the
significantly depleted, whereas sparse highly sidero- magmas that are fertile for porphyry ore forma- absence of a large volume of source magma in the
phile elements such as Au and PGE (a few ppb) are tion (Reagan et al., 2008; Whattam and Stern, 2016; mid–upper crust, so these basic arc geodynamic
variably to strongly depleted (Richards, 2009, 2015). Hickey-Vargas et al., 2018). conditions seem to be a first-order prerequisite for
The high water content of arc magmas also means ore formation from fertile arc magmas. Given that
that they may exsolve much of this water prior to such conditions occur in a relatively small propor-
eruption during depressurization and crystallization ■■ STEP 2: ARC GEODYNAMICS tion of arcs at any given time, I estimate that the
in the upper crust. These fluids will generate subsur- overall cumulative probability of reaching this step
face hydrothermal systems that have the potential to Subduction zone geodynamics have a funda- may fall to ~20% (Fig. 2, step 2).
transport and precipitate metals to form ore deposits. mental control on arc magmatism (Fig. 3). At one
Because these conditions characterize most extreme, shallow or flat subduction will terminate
subduction zones in the Phanerozoic, it is estimated magmatism by eliminating the asthenospheric man- Shallow or Flat Subduction
that 90% of arc systems are fertile for porphyry ore tle wedge (Fig. 3C; Manea et al., 2017; Axen et al.,
formation (Fig. 2), consistent with the widespread 2018), whereas at the other extreme, a retreating Shallow or flat subduction will eliminate the
occurrence of these deposits in Phanerozoic arcs slab may lead to arc rifting and bimodal magmatism asthenospheric mantle wedge, with the result

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A. Normal subduction Contraction or transpression B. Slab retreat Extension

Arc volcanism
Porphyry–epithermal system
Bimodal volcanism
Mid–upper- 0 km
Ocean Ocean
crustal batholith
Oceanic crust Oceanic crust Continental
600°C Continental crust
crust 600°C Crustal partial melting
Oceanic MASH zone Oceanic
mantle mantle Rollba
lithosphere SCLM lithosphere SCLM
ck
1000°C 1000°C
De
De
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere 100 km
hy
h
Cor
dr
yd
Corner ner
at
flow
rat
flow
io
Asthenospheric
ion
partial melting
Partial melting of 1400°C 1400°C
metasomatized
asthenosphere
Extension
C. Shallow/flat subduction Contraction Dispersed
inland D. Slab rollback after
Volcanic
Magmatic lull volcanism
flat subduction flare-up
Felsic Continental 0 km
Ocean Crustal Ocean
Continental magma crust
Oceanic crus thickening Oceanic crust
t crust
Lower crustal
°C partial melting
Oceanic Oceanic 600
mantle Hydration mantle Rollba SCLM erosion,
lithosphere metasomatism SCLM lithosphere partial melting
ck
Dehyd 1000°C 1000°C
ration
Co Asthenosphere
rne 100 km
r flo
w
Rollba
De
ck
hy
d
Asthenospheric 1400°C
ra
partial melting
tio
n
Figure 3. Schematic cross sections of subduction zones undergoing: (A) normal (30°–45°) subduction; (B) slab retreat; (C) shallow or flat subduction; (D) slab rollback after flat subduction.
that mantle-derived magmatism will cease or not seem to be conducive to porphyry formation If flat subduction continues for a significant amount
will migrate inland to where the slab eventually except at its terminal edge, it has interesting impli- of time, the upper-plate lithospheric mantle will
steepens (Fig. 3C). The Late Cretaceous Laramide cations for later tectonics and magmatism. become extensively hydrated, lowering its solidus
porphyry Cu deposits of southwest North America During flat subduction, the downgoing plate will temperature. When subduction eventually steepens
are believed to have formed in this way, spread dehydrate as before, but instead of the released again and hot asthenosphere returns, the hydrated
over a wide area extending hundreds of kilometers fluids interacting with a hot asthenospheric mantle base of the upper plate will either undergo dehy-
inland from the trench where the shallowly sub- wedge, they will directly encounter the relatively dration melting or will effectively change into
ducting Farallon slab finally dipped down into the cool base of the upper-plate lithosphere, causing asthenosphere by weakening, resulting in litho-
mantle (Barton, 1996; du Bray, 2007; Leveille and hydration and metasomatism (Fig. 3C; Peacock, spheric erosion (Fig. 3D; Green et al., 2010; Sommer
Stegen, 2012). Although flat subduction itself does 1993; Sommer and Gauert, 2011; Porter et al., 2012). and Gauert, 2011). This effect may be seen in the

Research Paper
Puna-Altiplano region of Argentina-Bolivia, where in continental arcs globally. They concluded that a et al., 2004; Dufek and Bergantz, 2005; Price et al.,
a period of flat subduction followed by slab steep- simple, reproducible mechanism was required to 2005; Zellmer et al., 2005; Eichelberger et al., 2006;
ening triggered a major felsic volcanic flare-up (the transform the flux of basaltic magma generated Richards et al., 2006, 2013; Reubi and Blundy, 2009;
Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex; de Silva, 1989), by partial melting in the mantle wedge into the Koteas et al., 2010; Schiano et al., 2010; Solano et
removal of the subcontinental mantle lithosphere intermediate composition calc-alkaline (andesitic) al., 2012; Nandedkar et al., 2014). The result is that,
(SCLM), crustal thickening, and plateau uplift (Kay magmas that characterize the Andes and other vol- although these common petrogenetic processes
and Kay, 1993; Kay et al., 1999; Gregory-Wodzicki, canic arcs worldwide. They termed this the MASH result in relatively uniform major-element com-
2000; Beck and Zandt, 2002; Kay and Coira, 2009). process, standing for melting, assimilation, storage, positional ranges for arc magmas globally (from
Flat subduction and associated magmatic flare- and homogenization. calc-alkaline basaltic andesites, andesites, dacites,
ups generally result in voluminous felsic volcanism The MASH model considers mantle-derived and rhyolites), their mineralogy, trace-element,
rather than plutonism and are not typically associated basaltic magmas to be too dense to pass through and radiogenic isotopic compositions record the
with porphyry Cu deposits. However, in the Miocene– the upper-plate crust in the absence of a hydrau- details of these processes in terms of interactions
Pliocene El Indio–Pascua belt of Chile-Argentina, lic head (Walker, 1989), restricting their eruption with upper-plate crustal rocks, overlain by fractional
porphyry and epithermal Au-Ag-Cu deposits have at surface to extensional tectonic settings (back- crystallization effects (assimilation-fractional crys-
been linked to either deep crustal dehydration melting arc rifts; Fig. 3B) or areas of thin or mafic crust tallization [AFC]; DePaolo, 1981).
during flat subduction and crustal thickening (Kay et (nascent island arcs). Elsewhere, such magmas will Fractional crystallization of hydrous, moder-
al., 1999; Kay and Mpodozis, 2001; Muñoz et al., 2012), tend to pool at the Moho, where their latent heat of ately oxidized arc magmas results in extensive
direct release of flat slab-derived fluids into the lower crystallization will be transferred to crustal rocks, early fractionation of ferromagnesian silicate min-
crust, causing partial melting (Bissig et al., 2003), or leading to partial melting (Figs. 1 and 3A). Hildreth erals (olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole) and spinel,
tectonic changes immediately prior to or during the and Moorbath (1988, p. 483) envisaged the MASH prior to cotectic crystallization of plagioclase, with
initial stages of subduction flattening (Skewes et al., zone to be “a plexus of dikes, sills, pods, small the result that alkali contents in fractionated melts
2002). It is the opinion of this author that these depos- chambers, and mushy differentiated intrusions,” rise initially relative to Fe (Sisson and Grove, 1993).
its mainly reflect stress changes in the upper plate where basaltic magmas evolve by fractional crys- In contrast, earlier crystallization of plagioclase
associated with slab flattening acting on a mature tallization and mix with felsic crustal melts to form from dry tholeiitic magmas leads to alkali depletion
arc, rather than the actual condition of flat subduction, hybrid magmas of intermediate composition and and Fe enrichment (Bowen, 1928; Chin et al., 2018).
which terminates magmatism (and any associated leave ultramafic to mafic lower-crustal cumulate These differences are reflected in the calc-alkaline
ore formation). This may also explain the observation zones (as observed in the Talkeetna arc, Alaska, the and tholeiitic fractionation trends, respectively, on
of a temporal correlation between some porphyry Cu Kohistan arc, Pakistan, and the Sierra Valle Fértil alkali-FeO-MgO (AFM) diagrams. A further effect
deposits and subduction of aseismic ridges and other arc, Argentina; Greene et al., 2006; Jagoutz et al., observed at trace-element levels is the enrichment
buoyant features on the downgoing plate (Cooke et 2007; Walker et al., 2015). The lower density of the of hydrous andesitic magmas in Sr and depletion in
al., 2005). Subduction of such anomalies may cause derivative andesitic melts would then allow them middle and heavy rare-earth elements (MREEs and
transient periods of shallow subduction and increased to rise to shallower levels in the crust, where they HREEs, including Y), again resulting from delayed
inter-plate stress coupling. These changes acting on accumulate again in mid- to upper-crustal magma plagioclase crystallization (Sr enrichment) and
a mature arc, particularly where they involve a tran- chambers (batholiths) or erupt due to the further abundant early crystallization of amphibole (which
sition from compressional to transpressional stress, density decrease caused by vesiculation. preferentially partitions MREEs and Y; Castillo et al.,
may lead to a brief pulse of upper-crustal plutonism The MASH concept has been tested widely since 1999; Macpherson et al., 2006; Richards and Kerrich,
and porphyry formation, prior to shutdown of the arc its introduction and modified only in detail. Annen et 2007; Nandedkar et al., 2016). Such magmas tend
(Tosdal and Richards, 2001). al. (2006) introduced the concept of deep crustal hot to display listric-shaped normalized REE patterns,
zones (Fig. 1) to reflect the interaction of infiltrating which flatten in the MREE and may increase again
magmas with different levels of the crust, explaining slightly in the HREE (Sisson, 1994; Nandedkar et al.,
■■ STEP 3: UPPER-PLATE DEEP CRUSTAL the significant geochemical and isotopic heteroge- 2016). Garnet fractionation or its presence as a resid-
MAGMA PROCESSING neity commonly seen in magmas erupted from a ual phase in the source will also strongly fractionate
single arc volcanic complex, and numerous stud- Y and HREE but does not preferentially partition
Hildreth and Moorbath (1988, p. 484) stated, ies have confirmed the origin of andesitic magmas MREE, resulting in monotonically decreasing pat-
“Not a single primitive basalt (having high enough through magma mixing and assimilation processes terns from LREE to HREE (Davidson et al., 2013).
Mg, Ni, and Cr for equilibration with peridotite) is (e.g., Eichelberger, 1978; Kay, 1980; Ussler and Glaz- Andesitic magmas with resultant high Sr/Y and
known to us in Chile,” and noted that they are rare ner, 1989; Straub and Martin-Del Pozzo, 2001; Halter La/Yb values are commonly referred to as adakites,

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but this term has been specifically associated with zones serves to build up the volume of magma fertility of derivative magmas, the metals in these
the melting of subducted oceanic crust (Kay, 1978; available for upper-crustal plutonism, and therefore sulfide phases can be remobilized during later tec-
Defant and Drummond, 1990), which can lead to for shallow porphyry ore formation. tonomagmatic events such as collision or crustal
similar trace-element characteristics. Although it is One additional factor can undermine the fertility thickening, potentially forming post-subduction
acknowledged that “slab melting” does occur in Pha- of arc magmas at this point in their evolution to porphyry Cu ± Au deposits, as found in Tibet and
nerozoic arcs under certain restricted circumstances a more reduced state. The relatively high oxida- other parts of the Tethyan collided orogen (Richards,
(Defant and Drummond, 1990; Kay et al., 1993; Guivel tion state of Phanerozoic arc magmas (ΔFMQ ≈+1 2009; Lee et al., 2012; Hou et al., 2015).
et al., 2003), the majority of Phanerozoic adakite-like to +2) limits the tendency of these S-rich magmas
rocks, especially in continental arcs, reflect MASH to undergo early sulfide saturation with resultant
and AFC processes in hydrous magmas (Feeley removal of chalcophile and siderophile elements ■■ STEP 4: UPPER-CRUSTAL MAGMA
and Hacker, 1995; Castillo et al., 1999; Garrison and from the melt (Mitchell and Keays, 1981; Hamlyn et EMPLACEMENT
Davidson, 2003; Richards and Kerrich, 2007). High al., 1985; Peach et al., 1990; Li and Audétat, 2015).
Sr/Y values (>20) in igneous rocks have been widely As discussed by Richards (2011a, 2015), the high Silicate magmas rise toward the surface due to
used as an indicator of magmatic fertility for por- overall sulfur content of arc magmas means that their buoyancy relative to the surrounding rocks. In
phyry Cu formation (Thiéblemont et al., 1997; Sajona small amounts of sulfide melt or minerals may frac- situations where hydraulic connectivity between the
and Maury, 1998; Oyarzun et al., 2001; Chiaradia et tionate from these magmas even under moderately source region and surface is established, such as
al., 2012; Loucks, 2014; Bissig et al., 2017), most likely oxidized conditions, which may explain their strong in extensional terrains, magma density is matched
reflecting high magmatic water content as a prereq- depletion in sparse highly siderophile elements (Au against the density of the entire rock column, and
uisite for forming magmatic-hydrothermal systems and PGE). However, unless large amounts of sulfide relatively dense basaltic magmas can be erupted
(López, 1982; Dilles, 1987; Lang and Titley, 1998; Rich- minerals separate from the magma (e.g., Lee et al., through lithosphere that includes dense mantle and
ards et al., 2001, 2012; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; 2012; Chiaradia, 2014), the contents of Cu may not lower crust (Walker, 1989; Takada, 1994). However,
Schutte et al., 2010; Richards, 2011b). be significantly affected, with the result that the in contractional settings, hydraulic connectivity is
In Figure 2, I suggest that the probability that magmas remain fertile for Cu ore formation, but lost, and magma ascent is controlled by its den-
any given upper-plate arc system will develop a not for PGE, or to variable degrees, Au. sity relative to the immediately surrounding rocks.
mature MASH zone is ~50%, taking the cumulative Reduction would cause voluminous sulfide Dense basaltic magmas will tend to be trapped
probability down to ~10% (steps 1–3). The relatively exsolution from S-rich arc magmas, and this in the lower crust, as discussed above, but more
high probability of successfully negotiating step could occur either at source or by interaction with evolved andesitic magmas can rise to mid-crustal
3 reflects the global uniformity of the MASH pro- reduced lithologies in the deep crust. Subduction levels, where their lower density matches crystal-
cess in Phanerozoic arcs. Except in nascent oceanic of reduced sediments has been proposed to gener- lized granodioritic rocks (Herzberg et al., 1983). This
arcs, or arcs undergoing rifting, a MASH zone will ate locally reduced conditions in arcs (Wang et al., represents a second crustal accumulation level, and
inevitably develop if a sustained flux of mafic man- 2007; Richards and Şengör, 2017), whereas reducing if magma supply is sustained, can result in the con-
tle-derived magma underplates the thickening arc conditions in deep oceans throughout the Precam- struction of large arc batholiths (Fig. 1).
crust. This process may not lead to any particular brian have been proposed to explain the rarity of Magma ascent through the crust is thought to
increase in metal endowment in the magmatic sys- porphyry Cu deposits in older rocks (Evans and be controlled by visco-elastic processes, with flow
tem (perhaps even the opposite; Chiaradia 2014), Tomkins, 2011; Richards and Mumin, 2013a, 2013b). predominantly along fractures (Lister and Kerr, 1991;
but it may act to enrich derivative melts in volatiles These conditions would result in the retention of Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Rubin, 1993, 1995; Pet-
(H2O, S, and Cl) and further increase oxidation state the bulk of chalcophile and siderophile elements in ford et al., 2000). Disregarding extensional settings
(Burnham, 1979; Candela, 1992; Streck and Dilles, the mantle source region, decreasing magma fertil- (where normal faults can allow primitive magmas to
1998; Rohrlach and Loucks, 2005; Chambefort et al., ity for later porphyry-type ore formation. Tomkins ascend directly to surface, with little potential to form
2008; Richards, 2015; Hutchinson and Dilles, 2019) et al. (2012) have also suggested that the pres- upper crustal plutons and porphyry deposits; Takada,
and forming relatively viscous, intermediate com- ence of carbonaceous materials in lower-crustal 1994), contractional and transpressional settings will
position magmas. Such magmas will have a higher sequences may cause reduction of arc magmas control magma ascent in different ways. Simple hor-
probability of rising buoyantly from the lower crust in the MASH zone, leading to voluminous sulfide izontal compression will favor vertical opening and
but stalling in mid- to upper-crustal plutons, rather precipitation and retention of chalcophile and sid- horizontal propagation of fractures, resulting in the
than being erupted at surface (Richards, 2003, 2015; erophile elements in cumulates, potentially forming emplacement of sills (Ida, 1999; Simakin and Talbot,
Chiaradia and Caricchi, 2017). In addition, the pro- orthomagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE ore deposits (e.g., Manor 2001; Chaussard and Amelung, 2014). Such condi-
cess of storing magma in lower-crustal MASH et al., 2016). Although this process reduces the tions will tend to trap mafic magmas in the deep

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crust, in the sill complexes envisaged by Hildreth to an exsolving volatile phase. Copper and many magmas (Holloway, 1976; Hedenquist and Lowen-
and Moorbath (1988). Any magma that escapes into other base and precious metals partition strongly stern, 1994; Lowenstern, 2001; Baker and Alletti,
the upper crust is likely to do so under high pressure, into saline aqueous fluids relative to silicate melt 2012). Volatiles exsolve in inverse order to their sol-
leading to volcanism (e.g., Tibaldi, 2008). Conse- (Candela, 1992; Candela and Holland, 1984; Candela ubility, with CO2 being released first, probably during
quently, many contractional “orogenic” episodes in and Piccoli, 1995; Heinrich et al., 1999; Frank et al., early ascent from deep crustal levels, followed by
arcs are characterized by mafic-intermediate volca- 2011; Simon et al., 2005, 2006; Williams et al., 1995), H2O, S, Cl, and F (Holloway, 1976; Stix et al., 1993;
nism but little plutonism (except in the deep crust; and so, if this fluid phase equilibrates with a large Lowenstern, 2001; Caricchi et al., 2018). Arc magmas
see review in Richards, 2003). volume of magma, it can be expected to efficiently may contain more CO2 than commonly assumed
In contrast, transpressional tectonic settings, extract metals from the melt. Recently it has been (3000–4000 ppm CO2; Wallace, 2005; Blundy et al.,
which are common in obliquely convergent arcs, fea- suggested, based on observations of magmatic 2010), such that an exsolved fluid phase may be
ture orogen-parallel strike-slip fault systems along sulfide inclusions in igneous rocks associated with present throughout their ascent from deep crustal
which extensional (or lower confining pressure) ver- some porphyry deposits, that partitioning of metals or even mantle levels (Holloway, 1976). Because of
tically oriented pathways can develop at step-overs into sulfide minerals or melts separating from the the relatively low solubility of CO2 in silicate melts
and jogs (de Saint Blanquat et al., 1998; Tosdal and magma prior to fluid exsolution may serve as an compared to H2O, the initial deeply exsolved flu-
Richards, 2001). These structures can act to focus important pre-enrichment step, with those sulfide ids will have high CO2/H2O values (Newman et al.,
magma ascent from deep reservoirs toward the phases subsequently breaking down (oxidizing) 2000), becoming H2O-dominant by the time mag-
upper crust, restricting direct hydraulic connectivity and releasing their metal contents during later fluid mas reach mid- to upper-crustal levels (consistent
to surface, thereby promoting plutonism over volca- exsolution (Spooner, 1993; Keith et al., 1997; Bor- with the aqueous, relatively CO2-poor composition
nism (D’Lemos et al., 1992; Tikoff and Teyssier, 1992; rok et al., 1999; Larocque et al., 2000; Halter et al., of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids sampled in most
Vigneresse, 1995; Benn et al., 1998; Brown and Solar, 2002, 2005; Stavast et al., 2006; Nadeau et al., 2010, shallow crustal porphyry Cu systems).
1999; Klepeis et al., 2003; Romeo et al., 2006; Olivier et 2016; Wilkinson, 2013). However, it is not clear to this Little is known about the composition or fate of
al., 2016; Bedrosian et al., 2018). Transpressional con- author why this extra step is necessary or increases deeply exsolved fluids in arc magmatic systems, or
ditions are therefore ideally suited to the formation the probability of ore formation, notwithstanding whether these fluids physically separate from or
of mid- to upper-crustal batholiths and associated that some sulfide saturation is probably inevitable in ascend with magma rising into the shallow crust.
porphyry deposits (Fig. 1; Tosdal and Richards, 2001; these S-rich magmas as they fractionate and crystal- Their much lower viscosity and density compared
Carranza and Hale, 2002; Drew, 2006; Cloos and lize. In fact, if sulfide separation was voluminous and to silicate magmas suggest that they may rise
Sapiie, 2013). The transition from a protracted period its redissolution was not almost complete, then this through the crust as a separate plume, but it is also
of compression, leading to the build-up of a large process would be expected to decrease the efficiency possible that much of this deep fluid is absorbed by
lower-crustal MASH zone, to transpression, would of ore formation. My assessment is that this process reaction with hot wall rocks to form carbonate and
facilitate the rapid ascent and emplacement of a large is probably common in upper-crustal arc magmatic hydrous silicate alteration minerals (e.g., Rosing
volume of evolved magma (i.e., a batholith). These systems, but it may not be a critical step in ore for- and Rose, 1993).
two criteria, large volumes and rapid emplacement mation (Audétat and Pettke, 2006; Richards, 2015). By the time the magma has reached the
of magma, are critical for subsequent ore formation Exsolution of volatiles from magma during mid–upper crust and evolved to more felsic com-
(Richards, 2003; Chiaradia and Caricchi, 2017; Schöpa depressurization and/or cooling is an inevitable con- positions, much of its CO2 will have been lost,
et al., 2017). However, these tectonic conditions, and sequence of decreasing solubility in silicate melts and exsolved fluids will be dominantly hydrous,
especially the transition from contractional to trans- with decreasing pressure and temperature, as well with high S-Cl concentrations. This is the depth at
pressional strain, are relatively uncommon during as the low concentration of volatiles in most crystal- which porphyry ore-forming fluids are thought to
the history of arcs, reducing the overall probability lizing phases relative to silicate melt (which increases originate, as indicated by the compositions of the
to perhaps 1% (steps 1–4 in Fig. 2). the volatile content of the residual melt; Burnham, deepest fluids sampled (in fluid inclusions) from
1979; Candela, 1989). This has led to a distinction porphyry systems. For example, Rusk et al. (2004,
between “first boiling” during ascent (depressur- 2008) report that fluid inclusions from deep quartz
■■ STEP 5: FOCUSED FLUID EXSOLUTION ization) and “second boiling” during cooling and veins from the Butte, Montana, porphyry Cu-Mo
FROM UPPER-CRUSTAL MAGMA crystallization (Burnham, 1979; Candela, 1989), deposit trapped 550–700 °C supercritical aqueous
CHAMBERS although technically this is not boiling (the trans- fluids at depths of 6–9 km, containing 2–5 wt% NaCl
formation of a liquid to a vapor), and the process equivalent, minor amounts of CO2 (2–8 mol%), and
A key step in the formation of porphyry Cu of volatile exsolution is probably semi-continuous up to 1.3 wt% Cu (typically ~1000 ppm Cu). Similar
deposits is the transfer of metals from silicate melt during the ascent and crystallization of volatile-rich deep magmatic-hydrothermal fluids were reported

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from the Bingham Canyon porphyry Cu-Au-Mo

deposit, Utah (Redmond et al., 2004). The high
Cu contents (as well as other elements such as Fe, A. Quasi-steady state vapor-
Mo, Pb, Zn, Ag, Au, As, and Sb) reflect the strong saturated magma chamber Minor volcanism
partitioning of metals into high-temperature Cl-S–
bearing hydrothermal fluids, relative to silicate melt
(Candela and Holland, 1984, 1986; Candela, 1992;
Groundwater circulation;
Williams et al., 1995; Simon et al., 2006; Frank et al.,
propylitic alteration
2011; Tattitch and Blundy, 2017; Zajacz et al., 2017). 5 km fluid flo
d
The probability that such fluids will be exsolved Disperse w
from hydrous arc magmas emplaced in the mid–
upper crust is 100% (i.e., it is inevitable). Simple Passive degassing
calculations of the volume of typical andesitic
magma carrying ~60 ppm Cu that could supply
10 Mt Cu to a large porphyry Cu deposit return val-
ues ≥100 km3 (Dilles, 1987; Cline and Bodnar, 1991;
Richards, 2005; Steinberger et al., 2013), whereas
similar calculations of the volume of fluid contain-
ing ~1000 ppm Cu that could transport this amount B. Massive fluid saturation
Potential explosive volcanism
of Cu come to 10–20 km3 (which could be sourced and expulsion if fluids vent to surface
from 100 to 200 km3 of magma containing 4 wt%
H2O; Plank et al., 2013). Such magma and fluid vol-
umes are not unrealistic in mid- to upper-crustal Hydrothermal
magma chambers, as suggested by the size of system
Diatreme and breccia
typical arc plutons and the scale of geodetic and
pipe formation
geophysical anomalies around active arc volcanoes
(e.g., Schilling and Partzsch, 2001; ANCORP Work-
ing Group, 2003; Comeau et al., 2015; Perkins et Groundwater circulation;
al., 2016; Laumonier et al., 2017). However, under 5 km propylitic alteration
normal conditions, this fluid will be released slowly
and progressively as the pluton cools and crystal-
lizes, and will mostly be dispersed along fractures
and joints into the overlying country rocks (Fig. 4A).
Escape
Diffuse fluid flow will not form ore deposits and will
likely only be detectable as broad low-grade hydro- Accumulation
thermal alteration zones, with no significant metal
enrichments. Such systems are very common in
arc volcanoplutonic complexes and are probably Migration
the default product of batholithic devolatilization.
In contrast, porphyry Cu deposits form where Exsolution
the flow of large volumes of magmatic-hydrother-
mal fluid has been focused into narrow (typically
Figure 4. Evolution of a mid- to upper-crustal batholith. (A) Progressive batholith growth by semi-
≤1-km-wide) cylindrical or elliptical zones rising
continuous recharge, crystallization, and degassing, with limited volcanism. (B) Triggering of explosive
above the batholith, termed “cupolas” (Fig. 5). fluid flow through cupola zone, potentially leading to breccia pipe or diatreme formation in shallow
These zones may be the equivalent of feeder sys- systems, and explosive eruption, if the system breaches the surface.
tems below large composite volcanoes (e.g., Sillitoe,
1973), although surface volcanism does not appear

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the probability of subsequent ore formation during

ascent and cooling of the magmatic-hydrother-
Limited volcanism; mal fluids.
fumarolic emissions The formation of a singular large apical zone
in the roof of a batholith is less likely than the
development of multiple small apices, or simple
Argillic
fluid dispersion into the brittle cover rocks, but the
exact probability is not known. Nevertheless, there
is some evidence that, once such a central structure
Phyllic is developed, it becomes self-reinforcing as contin-
ued flow of hot fluids and melts establish a heated,
Porphyry Cu deposit
permeable pathway toward the surface (Weis, 2015;
Veins and stockworks Ardill et al., 2018). I have therefore estimated the
Potassic
probability of forming a single, large, well-focused
Late dike
5 km cupola zone above a batholith to be ~10%, bringing
Groundwater circulation; Early dikes the cumulative probability of reaching the next step
propylitic alteration to 0.1% (Fig. 2).
Early breccia pipe
C
0°
C
0°
30
55
Batholith ■■ STEP 6: SUSTAINED, RAPID FLUID FLOW
IN CUPOLAS
Figure 5. Cross section of a typical porphyry Cu deposit formed in the cupola zone above a batho- The total amount of metal that could potentially
lith. Hydrothermal alteration (potassic, phyllic, and argillic) overprint all intrusions except late dikes. be deposited by fluids flowing through the cupola
zone is limited by the volume of fluid, which in turn
is limited by the volume of devolatilizing magma.
to be necessary for porphyry formation (Sillitoe, brittle cover rocks (e.g., Guillou-Frottier and Burov, As noted above, a batholith containing 100–200 km3
2010). In detail, cupola zones in porphyry systems 2003; Montanari et al., 2017). These apical regions of typical andesitic magma (4 wt% H2O) could in
are characterized by complex overlapping histo- will focus the accumulation of lower density bubbly theory source all the fluid and Cu in a giant por-
ries of dike and stock emplacement, magmatic and magma and fluids, whose buoyant, high-pressure phyry Cu deposit (10 Mt Cu), but this would require
hydrothermal breccia pipe formation, hydrother- ascent toward the surface will then be channeled almost complete degassing of the magma chamber,
mal alteration, and vein and stock-work formation, along extensional structures in the overlying brittle highly efficient extraction of Cu from the melt, and
which are described in more detail below. The rocks (or carapace; Burnham, 1979; Dilles, 1987; channeling of the entire fluid volume up a single
origin of these structures is unclear, but their com- Shinohara and Hedenquist, 1997; Cloos, 2001; Tos- cupola zone. A decrease in the efficiency of any
mon pipe-like form (as opposed to planar dikes or dal and Richards, 2001). Because there will always one of these processes, or dispersion along multi-
sills) suggests either that they are controlled by be apical irregularities at the top of any magma ple pathways, correspondingly either reduces the
vertically oriented structural intersections in the chamber, accumulation of low-density magma amount of metal that could be deposited (form-
tensionally stressed cover rocks above the inflat- and fluid at these points is also inevitable. How- ing a smaller, probably subeconomic deposit), or
ing batholith, and/or that they originate as breccia ever, the degree to which this accumulation occurs, increases the volume of magma required to source
pipes or diatremes generated by explosive fluid and the proportion of the total fluid volume that the ore deposit. Furthermore, there is a requirement
release from the magma chamber (possibly also becomes focused here, will depend on the number that this fluid exsolution event should be extremely
utilizing vertical structural intersections; Fig. 4B; and prominence of such apices. Numerous coeval rapid in terms of the overall lifespan of the batholith.
Richards, 2011a, 2018). apical zones will disperse fluid flow and bubbly Porphyry Cu deposits form on geologically
Cupola zones develop at apical irregularities in magma ascent from the batholith, whereas a single very short timescales of 100,000 yr or less (Arri-
the roof of the underlying batholith; these irreg- dominant apex could focus the entire magma-fluid bas et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 1997; Shinohara and
ularities in turn develop in response to the force flux. Therefore, where there is a greater degree of Hedenquist, 1997; Barnes, 2000; von Quadt et
of intrusion and differential uplift or foundering of fluid focusing, there is a concomitant increase in al., 2011; Weis et al., 2012; Chiaradia et al., 2013;

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Chelle-Michou et al., 2015, 2017; Mercer et al., 2015; fluids will cool quickly at depth before their flow (Gardner et al., 2000). Normally, such fluids would
Buret et al., 2016; Correa et al., 2016; Li et al., 2017; can be focused, leading to reprecipitation of metals slowly bleed off along intergranular pathways and
Cernuschi et al., 2018). In contrast, a typical arc at background levels. Instead, it appears that the fractures as the magma cools and crystallizes (Can-
batholith has a magmatic lifespan of one to several bulk of the fluid must be released suddenly and dela, 1991; Dunbar et al., 1996; Boudreau, 2016;
million years, reflecting incremental construction the source magma chamber essentially devolatil- Parmigiani et al., 2016; Edmonds and Woods, 2018),
by quasi-continuous magma supply from lower- ized within a few tens of thousands of years, if ore leading only to diffuse hydrothermal alteration in
crustal MASH or hot zones (Matzel et al., 2006; formation is to be successful (Huber et al., 2012; the crystallized carapace and cover rocks (Fig. 4A).
Miller et al., 2007; Schaltegger et al., 2009; Pater- Chelle-Michou et al., 2014; Schöpa et al., 2017). In contrast, ore formation requires a mechanism
son et al., 2011; Fiannacca et al., 2017). An individual Indeed, the initial release of high-temperature fluid for rapid exsolution and focused escape of fluids
batholith rarely generates more than one large may be explosive, characterized by the formation of from a large volume of the batholith.
economic porphyry Cu deposit (commonly none), breccia pipes and diatremes, and occurring essen- Building on ideas relating to the triggering of
and so such deposits must be considered to be tially instantaneously (on the order of a few tens large explosive volcanic eruptions (Christopher et
rare (albeit reproducible) and short-lived events or hundreds of years; Sillitoe, 1985; Vargas et al., al., 2015; Cashman et al., 2017; Sparks and Cashman,
within the overall life of an arc batholith. The short 1999; Landtwing et al., 2002; Skewes et al., 2002; 2017), Richards (2018) suggested that an external
duration of ore formation reflects a fundamental Cathles and Shannon, 2007; Vry et al., 2010). Lower- trigger, such as sudden magma chamber depres-
characteristic of porphyry deposits, which is that temperature fluids may continue to flow over surization or seismic shaking, might be required to
ore deposition is primarily controlled by the very longer periods (105–106 yr) as the system wanes and prompt the onset of wholesale devolatilization in a
steep temperature gradient along the fluid path- fluid drains from distal parts of the magma chamber batholithic-sized magma chamber (cf. Cathles and
way, from magmatic temperatures (600°–700 °C) at (Candela, 1997; Cathles and Shannon, 2007). Shannon, 2007). Shearing is known to increase vol-
~4–5 km depth (rarely to 9 km; Rusk et al., 2008), to The timing of these fluid-release and ore-form- atile permeability in magma flowing in subvolcanic
<300 °C at 1–2 km depth (Shinohara and Hedenquist, ing events appears to be random over the life of a conduits (Gardner et al., 1996; Cannata et al., 2010;
1997). Copper is mainly deposited over a narrow batholith (Chiaradia and Caricchi, 2017), although Carey et al., 2012; Kushnir et al., 2017), but a large
temperature interval between ~550°–350 °C along there is a tendency for large porphyry depos- stagnant magma chamber may require an external
this pathway, at depths of 1.5–4 km (Fig. 5; Red- its to form relatively late in the evolution of arc shock, such as a mega-earthquake, to achieve the
mond et al., 2004; Landtwing et al., 2005; Klemm et magmatic systems (Richards, 2005; Rohrlach and same effect (Davis et al., 2007; Namiki et al., 2016).
al., 2007; Cernuschi et al., 2018). Sustaining these Loucks, 2005; Chiaradia et al., 2009a) reflecting Shearing produces transient pressure reductions
high temperatures in shallow crustal rocks requires the time required to build up a sufficient flux of that promote volatile exsolution, and also mechani-
continuous (likely pulsed) and rapid flow of hot volatile-rich magma and heat reaching the upper cally reducing the percolation threshold along grain
fluids (Weis et al., 2012; Mercer and Reed, 2013; crust, as noted above. In terms of the history of indi- boundaries, allowing channelization and rapid
Weis, 2015; Cernuschi et al., 2018). If the flow stops vidual batholiths, there are some examples where fluid escape. Similarly, pressure reduction on the
or slows, the cupola zone will rapidly cool down, ore formation is early (Chang et al., 2017; Li et al., magma chamber by sudden unroofing or mass
ore deposition will cease, and any new pulse of 2017), but the majority are intermediate to late (e.g., wasting (e.g., volcanic sector collapse; Voight et
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid flow will need to Steinberger et al., 2013), albeit with no clear pat- al., 2006) could have the same effect.
establish a new pathway, effectively restarting tern. These events are therefore considered to be Christopher et al. (2015) and Sparks and Cash-
the process of ore formation; in such cases, the stochastic: that is, although the processes involved man (2017) have proposed that overturn of density
same total tonnage of metal might be transported are largely understood and predictable, their actual instabilities arising from differential accumulation
by the combined hydrothermal systems as by a occurrence is unpredictable (Chiaradia and Caricchi, of fluids within a large heterogeneous magma
single flow event, but it will likely be deposited 2017; Richards, 2018). chamber might lead to explosive volcanic eruptions
in different places, and therefore at lower grades. Mid- to upper-crustal batholithic magma cham- where bubbly magma reaches the surface. A sim-
These characteristics place significant con- bers (5–10 km depth) are thought to exist for most ilar mechanism, but in which fluids separate from
straints on the processes that give rise to ore of their super-solidus lives as crystal mushes (Gel- magma at depth to form a subsurface hydrothermal
formation. For example, it will not be sufficient man et al., 2013; Klemetti, 2016), in which significant system, is envisaged here (Fig. 4B; cf. Edmonds
simply to progressively devolatilize a 200 km3 volumes of fluid may be trapped as interstitial and Woods, 2018). Dunbar et al. (1996) anticipated
magma chamber over its typical million year his- bubbles (seen as vesicles or miarolitic cavities in this in a conceptual model (their fig. 4) that links
tory, because it will not be possible to sustain a granitic rocks; Candela and Blevin, 1995; Candela, coalescence of interstitial bubbles to form porous
single hot fluid pathway toward the surface over 1997; Edmonds et al., 2014; Edmonds and Wallace, zones in the crystal mush, escape by fracture flow
this long period, with the result that the exsolved 2017) or in supersaturated viscous silicate melt into the brittle carapace, and stock-work vein and

Research Paper
breccia formation in the shallow cover rocks (see

also Candela, 1991). Once such a fluid pathway
develops, it is likely to become self-reinforcing as A B
a structurally weak and heated conduit, in the same
way that the entire magma column is thought to
Later vein
become self-focusing by sustained magma flow Cp Early veins
(McCuaig and Hronsky, 2014; Weis, 2015; Ardill et
al., 2018). Thus, although the initial, explosive fluid
flow event may be marked by a breccia pipe or Ea
rly
diatreme (Fig. 4B), this permeable structure will ve Ea
in rly
subsequently be intruded by more slowly flowing
Potassic- vei
Quartz vein ns
Dik
bubbly magma (forming dikes and stocks) inter- altered margin
diorite
e
leaved with multiple sets of veins and stock works,
each potentially depositing metals to build up an
ore deposit (Figs. 5, 6A, and 6B; Sillitoe and Saw- Quartz vein
margin
Di
ke
kins, 1971; Norton and Cathles, 1973; Burnham and
Later veins
Ohmoto, 1980; Burnham, 1985; Sillitoe, 1985; Car-
rigan et al., 1992; Maimon et al., 2012). The largest 1 cm 10 cm
ore deposits will likely be those that feature the
most complex overlapping and overprinting mag-
matic intrusion, hydrothermal brecciation, veining,
C
and alteration events, to the extent that the earliest
breccia pipe stages may be almost unrecognizable
(Figs. 5 and 6C; Skewes and Stern, 1994; Vargas
et al., 1999; Vry et al., 2010; Harrison et al., 2018). Later veins
The key difference between a weakly mineral-
ized hydrothermal alteration zone and a giant ore Early sheeted
deposit (or a small versus giant explosive erup- veins with
Dike
tion) may simply be one of scale and timing, with molybdenite-
pyrrhotite
a sudden and violent external trigger leading to
the latter, and quasi-steady-state fluid exsolution
leading to the former. Overall, the probability of a
major event affecting a large batholith, albeit one
already primed to exsolve hydrothermal fluids, is
relatively low, perhaps 1 in 10, reducing the overall 10 cm
probability of achieving this step to 0.01% (Fig. 2).
Figure 6. Examples of overlapping sequences of hydrothermal veins and dikes in porphyry

■■ STEP 7: ORE DEPOSITION deposits. (A) Dacite porphyry dike injected along the centerline of a quartz vein, which
both crosscuts and is cut by earlier and later quartz veins containing chalcopyrite (Cp)
and minor molybdenite, all cutting potassic-altered (biotitic) diorite (Reko Diq H14 por-
The previous steps in this analysis have focused phyry, Pakistan; drill hole RD116 at ~478 m). (B) Gray dacite porphyry dike injected along
on the source and transportation of ore metals in the centerline of a quartz-(molybdenite) vein (white), cutting and cut by earlier and later
arc magmas and exsolved fluids. It has been shown quartz-(molybdenite) veins in metasedimentary country rocks (MAX porphyry Mo deposit,
British Columbia). (C) Multiple sets of sheeted quartz-molybdenite-pyrrhotite veins cut by
that, although such systems commonly have the
a dacite porphyry dike, itself cut by late veins (high-grade ore zone, >2 wt% MoS2, MAX
potential to deliver metals into upper-crustal hydro- porphyry Mo deposit, British Columbia).
thermal systems, few (perhaps 0.01%) do this
efficiently. Of those systems that achieve this step,

Research Paper
the transported metal load still needs to be depos-

ited in high enough concentrations (typically >0.4%
Cu equivalent, or >1.2% for deeper deposits that
can only be mined underground) to be considered A Cp
economic (i.e., an ore deposit, as opposed to a min-
eral deposit or geochemical anomaly). Many large Bn
porphyry systems exist, but perhaps only one in ten
of these prove to be economic to mine (under pres- Cp
ent-day conditions), reducing the overall probability
Bn
of forming a large ore deposit to perhaps 0.001%
Cp Bn
(Fig. 2). The greatest risk to successful ore forma-
tion at this stage is that the fluids vent directly to
surface through breccia pipes, diatremes, or large
explosive volcanic eruptions (perhaps due to shal-
low emplacement depth), rather than cooling and
circulating below surface where their metal load
B
can be precipitated (Figs. 4B and 5). At the Lihir Bn
epithermal gold mine in Papua New Guinea, an ear-
lier stage of porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit formation
was abruptly terminated by an explosive caldera
eruption or volcanic sector collapse (Moyle et al.,
1990; Müller et al., 2002; Carman, 2003; Sykora
et al., 2018), whereas at the El Teniente porphyry
Cu-Mo deposit in Chile, ore formation was followed
by emplacement of the large (1-km-wide) Braden
Breccia pipe (Skewes et al., 2002; Vry et al., 2010).
Assuming that the bulk of the magmatic-
hydrothermal fluid flux remains below surface,
high-grade zones of hypogene mineralization in
C D
porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits are commonly Cp
characterized by either highly focused fluid flow or
the presence of reactive wall rocks that efficiently
precipitated ore-forming sulfide minerals (Sillitoe,
2010; Richards, 2013). Mo Mo
In the first case, high-grade ore zones are char- Cp
acterized by sheeted vein sets or dense vein stock
works, in which each vein has introduced additional
metal into the rock volume (e.g., Ridgeway, Austra-
lia, Wilson et al., 2003; Red Chris, Canada, Rees et Figure 7. Samples of porphyry Cu ore. (A and B) Drill core samples from Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia, showing intense
al., 2015). In some of the most extreme examples, stock work and sheeted veining in quartz monzodiorite intrusions, with abundant chalcopyrite (Cp; yellow)
such as the Oyu Tolgoi porphyry Cu-Au deposit in and bornite (Bn; purple). The sample in (B) is from drill hole OTD 976 at ~1227.0 m, and contains 3.18% Cu
and 1.18 g/t Au. The scale bar is marked in centimeter intervals. (C) Disseminated chalcopyrite (Cp; yellow)
Mongolia, quartz veins exceed 90% of the rock vol-
in mafic andesitic wall rock, El Teniente, Chile (reflected light photomicrograph). (D) Quartz vein stock work
ume, and grades of 3%–4% Cu plus 1–2 g/t Au were with chalcopyrite (Cp; yellow) and molybdenite (Mo; blue-gray) in biotite-altered (potassic) monzonite in-
encountered over 100 m intervals during drilling trusion, Bingham Canyon, Utah.
(Figs. 7A and 7B; the Hugo Dummett North zone
of the deposit contains a measured resource of
41 Mt at 1.56% Cu and 0.41 g/t Au, an indicated

Research Paper
resource of 365 Mt at 1.15% Cu and 0.30 g/t Au, ■■ STEP 8: POSTMINERALIZATION HISTORY not the shallow, cool, deposit level. Thus the Meso-
and an inferred resource of 807 Mt at 0.77 Cu and zoic Sierra Nevada and Peruvian Coastal Batholiths
0.27 g/t Au; Rio Tinto, 2015). Such intense focusing Porphyry Cu deposits typically form 1.5–4 km are largely unprospective for porphyry depos-
of fluid flow, especially in sheeted (parallel) vein below the surface (rarely down to 9 km), whereas its. Erosional loss of upper-crustal porphyry Cu
sets, implies a structural control, either along pre- high-sulfidation type epithermal Cu-Au deposits may deposits increases with geological age (Kesler and
existing structures that offer high-permeability fluid form coevally in the shallower parts of the system Wilkinson, 2006, 2008; Wilkinson and Kesler, 2007,
pathways or along hydraulically fractured veins (Arribas et al., 1995; Einaudi et al., 2003; Sillitoe and 2009) and in large part explains the increasing rarity
and breccias that are aligned by a regional stress Hedenquist, 2003; Simmons et al., 2005). This means of these deposits in Mesozoic, Paleozoic, to Protero-
field (Tosdal and Dilles, 2020). The existence of such that, at the time of formation, most porphyry Cu zoic rocks, and their almost complete absence in the
pathways or stress states at the place and time of deposits will be too deep to mine from open pits at Archean. Alternative explanations for this rarity in
ore formation may not be predictable, being func- surface, and only the richest deposits could be mined older rocks in terms of different tectonic processes
tions of local structural frameworks and transient as underground operations. However, porphyry and atmospheric and/or oceanic oxidation state
stress fields, and as such become part of the sto- systems form in active convergent margin settings, have been proposed by Evans and Tomkins (2011)
chasticity of ore-forming processes. where uplift and erosion are typically rapid. Conse- and Richards and Mumin (2013a, 2013b).
In the second case, high-grade mineralization quently, after only a few million years, these systems These various factors further reduce the prob-
occurs where hot metal-rich fluids react with cooler may have been eroded down to levels where the ability of discovering a mineable porphyry Cu
wall rocks that preferentially cause precipitation mineralization can be accessed from surface. It is deposit (reaching step 9 in Fig. 2) in any given arc
of metal-sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite partly for this reason that the Eocene–Miocene arcs segment to 0.0001%, with this probability decreas-
(CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4), which commonly of the South American Andes host many of the larg- ing further with age to almost zero in Archean rocks.
also host Au. Extreme examples of this type of est porphyry Cu mines in the world (Sillitoe, 1992).
chemical precipitation occur in skarn deposits, Younger stratovolcanic centers of the current High
where magmatic-hydrothermal fluids react with Andes may well overlie porphyry systems, but until Supergene Enrichment
carbonate wall rocks to produce locally massive the volcanic cover has been eroded down, they are
concentrations of sulfide minerals (Meinert et al., unlikely to be economic (e.g., Sillitoe, 1973, 1975). One additional geological factor can improve the
2005; Henley et al., 2017). In other deposits, such as Only where exceptionally high uplift and erosion odds of forming an economic porphyry Cu deposit,
Resolution (Arizona; indicated resource of 132 Mt rates occur will younger deposits be exposed at sur- commonly spectacularly. During uplift and weather-
at 2.63% Cu, inferred resource of 1655 Mt at 1.45% face, such as the Grasberg (3 Ma; Pollard et al., 2005) ing, sulfide minerals such as pyrite and chalcopyrite
Cu; Rio Tinto, 2015) and El Teniente (Chile; mea- and Ok Tedi (1 Ma; Page and McDougall, 1972) por- oxidize and dissolve to form highly acidic ground-
sured resource of 2956 Mt at 0.83% Cu, indicated phyry Cu-Au deposits in Highlands of New Guinea. water. Normally this will result in the destruction
resource of 2701 Mt at 0.56% Cu; Codelco, 2016), In some cases, erosion or unroofing may be so rapid of the orebody and dispersion of the metals. How-
the high Fe-content of mafic wall rocks (dioritic that the porphyry system is uplifted during formation, ever, under some circumstances, the dissolved Cu
or andesitic sills or volcanic rocks) acts to precipi- leading to “telescoping,” where shallow-level epi- may be reprecipitated below the water table as
tate Cu-Fe-sulfide minerals in rich disseminations thermal alteration overprints the marginally earlier secondary chalcocite (Cu2S), leading to supergene
(Fig. 7C; Manske and Paul, 2002; Rabbia et al., 2009; porphyry system (Sillitoe, 1994; Houston and Dilles, enrichment of the orebody below this level (Brimhall
Sillitoe, 2010; Vry et al., 2010). To some extent, the 2013; Catchpole et al., 2015). et al., 1985). This process operated particularly effi-
possibility of occurrence of such high-grade ore Continued uplift and erosion will progressively ciently in the Paleogene arcs of northern Chile and
zones can be predicted by observing the presence remove the porphyry deposit itself, exposing deeper southwest North America, where rapid erosion and
of carbonate or mafic rock units in the country and deeper levels until the batholithic roots are deep weathering of Paleocene–Eocene porphyry
rocks surrounding volcanoplutonic complexes, revealed below 4–5 km depth. With the excep- systems uplifted them to near-surface conditions
and both ore types are amenable to geophysical tion of younger porphyry systems that have been where thick supergene enrichment blankets formed
targeting due to their distinctive magnetic and emplaced into older uplifted and eroded batholiths in the Oligocene and Miocene (Alpers and Brim-
electrical properties. Large high-grade skarn and (e.g., the 158–153 Ma San Carlos–Panantza-Sutsu hall, 1988; Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Arancibia et
porphyry deposits nevertheless remain rare, and porphyry Cu-Mo deposits hosted by the mid-Ju- al., 2006). Continued uplift and erosion would likely
most porphyry Cu deposits are characterized by rassic Zamora batholith, Ecuador; Chiaradia et al., have destroyed these transient weathering profiles,
pervasive but lower-grade stock-work zones in 2009b), batholithic terrains are generally unpro- but in the early Miocene, uplift of the current High
coeval porphyritic intrusions and their immediate spective for porphyry Cu deposits, because they Andes began to the east, and, along with a change
volcanosedimentary host rocks (Fig. 7D). represent the deep, hot, source levels of the system, in ocean circulation patterns, led to the extreme

Research Paper
aridification of the Atacama Desert region, termi- of the mobilizing effect of subducted volatiles, espe- volumes of fluid and source magma (to supply
nation of the weathering and enrichment process, cially H2O, S, and Cl. Under moderately oxidizing metals). Consequently, conditions that promote the
and partial burial of the deposits by thick blankets conditions (ΔFMQ ≈ +1 to +2, typical of most arc mag- emplacement of large volumes of evolved magma
of Atacama gravel (Dunai et al., 2005; Rech et al., mas) chalcophile and siderophile metals dissolve in mid- to upper-crustal batholiths are essential for
2006). Most porphyry Cu deposits in this region of preferentially as sulfide species in silicate magmas ore formation. Transpressional strain can localize
Chile have undergone some degree of supergene (forming “fertile” magmas for ore formation) but magma ascent and promote plutonism, but this
Cu enrichment, but the Escondida orebody, dis- then strongly partition into Cl-rich hydrothermal condition is transient and limits favorability to per-
covered below gravel cover in 1981, was the most fluids that inevitably exsolve from these hydrous haps 10% of arcs, reducing overall probability of
spectacular, when drill hole DDH61 intersected magmas upon emplacement in the shallow crust. ore formation to 1%.
250 m of chalcocite-enriched material averaging Under the right conditions, metals such as Cu, Mo, Assembly of a large mid- to upper-crustal batho-
3% Cu (pre-production reserves estimated to be and Au may be deposited in concentrations that are lith is not sufficient to form an ore deposit, however,
1.76 Mt at 1.59% Cu; Lowell, 1991; Ortiz, 1995; cur- economic to mine (porphyry Cu and related epither- because even though exsolution of most of the ≥4
rent measured sulfide resource is 5350 Mt at 0.63% mal and skarn deposits), and these are referred to wt% H2O dissolved in the contained magma is
Cu; BHP Annual Report, 2017). as ore deposits. However, such deposits represent inevitable as it cools and crystallizes, unless the
end members of a spectrum of deposits that range flow of this fluid is focused and its release is rapid,
through marginally subeconomic (at today’s metal metals will not be efficiently extracted from the
Non-Geological Factors prices, using current technology, and under current batholith and channeled into narrow volumes of
geopolitical conditions) to background concentra- rock where their reprecipitation could generate an
One of the great frustrations for exploration geol- tions. Such subeconomic deposits and geochemical ore deposit. The formation of a structurally focused
ogists is that it is possible to find large and high-grade anomalies are far more common than economic cupola zone and the sudden release of the bulk
mineral deposits, but for them to prove impossible ore deposits and represent the normal products of of the fluid contained in the batholith into this
to mine (currently) for various logistical (access to arc magmatism. conduit are rare and stochastic events, perhaps
transportation, power, and water), environmental, In this analysis, I have reviewed the various triggered by a sudden random external process
or political reasons. This is not the place to examine steps in the process of generating an economic such as a mega-earthquake or volcano sector col-
these problems in detail but just to note that such porphyry Cu deposit, and I show that Phanerozoic lapse. The low probability of such an event affecting
issues further reduce the probability of discovering a subduction zones are well suited to the formation a “primed” (volatile saturated or supersaturated)
mineable ore deposit. Two recent examples illustrate of fertile magmas that have the potential to form batholith with a well-formed cupola is low, perhaps
the point. Large tonnages of high-grade mineraliza- such deposits (estimated to be 90% of arcs). How- less than 1% of such systems, which reduces the
tion were discovered in 2005 at the Pebble porphyry ever, a first-order control on ore-forming potential overall probability of ore formation to ~0.01%.
Cu-Au-Mo deposit in Alaska, with a measured and is the volume of arc magma generated, and this is a Multiple factors affect the efficiency of metal
indicated resource of 5942 Mt at 0.42% Cu, 0.35 g/t function of arc geodynamics. Long-lived, static arcs precipitation from hydrothermal fluids, and the prob-
Au, and 250 ppm Mo (Kelley et al., 2013); however, with normal subduction angles (~30°–45°) and mod- ability of depositing economic concentrations of Cu
development has been blocked on environmental erately compressional stress states will generate ± Mo ± Au is likely less than 10% of well-plumbed
grounds. Similarly, a large high-grade resource was large volumes of basaltic arc magma that become hydrothermal systems. Such mineralization is typ-
delineated in 2011 at the Reko Diq porphyry Cu-Au trapped by density contrasts at the base of the ically precipitated 1.5–4 km below surface, which
deposit in western Pakistan (Razique et al., 2014), with upper-plate crust (MASH zones). Here the magma is too deep to mine (except for exceptionally high
a mineable resource of 2200 Mt at 0.53% Cu and undergoes fractional crystallization and interaction grade deposits with >1.2% Cu equivalent). Uplift
0.30 g/t Au (Tethyan Copper Company, http://www with lower-crustal lithologies, evolving to interme- and erosion is therefore required to bring these
.tethyan.com/the-reko-diq-project/reko-diq-resource/, diate calc-alkaline compositions. Perhaps 10% of deposits nearer to the surface where they can be
accessed 1 November 2018), but development has arcs form large lower-crustal fertile MASH zones. mined economically. This additional step reduces
been blocked on political and legal grounds. Evolved andesitic magma will tend to rise buoy- the overall probability of finding an economic por-
antly until it pools again in the mid–upper crust as phyry Cu deposit in any given arc batholithic system
a second density barrier, although exsolution of to perhaps 0.0001%. However, continued uplift and
■■ SUMMARY volatiles to form low-density bubbly magma can erosion will begin to remove these shallow crustal
drive it to erupt at the surface. Porphyry Cu deposits ore deposits, such that their preservation in the geo-
Convergent plate margins host a wide range of form from magmatic hydrothermal fluids exsolved logical record falls rapidly with age, to almost zero
magmatic and hydrothermal ore deposits because below surface, and large deposits require large in the Precambrian.

Research Paper
This exercise shows that, although Phanerozoic ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Axen, G.J., van Wijk, J.W., and Currie, C.A., 2018, Basal conti-
I thank Gray Bebout for inviting me to write this paper. The ideas nental mantle lithosphere displaced by flat-slab subduction:
arcs are inherently fertile for ore formation, the Nature Geoscience, v. 11, p. 961–964, https://doi.org/10.1038
presented here are based on those of others too numerous to
actual process of generating an economic porphyry mention individually but hopefully properly acknowledged in /s41561-018-0263-9.
deposit depends on multiple steps that cumulatively the references cited. I thank John Dilles and an anonymous Baker, D.R., and Alletti, M., 2012, Fluid saturation and volatile
partitioning between melts and hydrous fluids in crustal
reduce the probability to very low values. These reviewer for thorough and constructive comments on the
manuscript. This work was supported by a Natural Sciences magmatic systems: The contribution of experimental mea-
processes are all geologically “normal,” although surements and solubility models: Earth-Science Reviews,
and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grant
some may be rare and/or random in their occur- (RGPIN-2017-05082), which is gratefully acknowledged. v. 114, p. 298–324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012
rence, but they must align; missing any one step, .06.005.
Barnes, H.L., 2000, Energetics of hydrothermal ore deposition:
or its inefficient operation, will reduce or eliminate
International Geology Review, v. 42, p. 224–231, https://doi
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Porphyry Copper Deposit Formation in Arcs: What Are The Odds?

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Research Paper THEMED ISSUE: Subduction Top to Bottom 2

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

of Cu-Fe-​sulfide minerals (mainly chalcopyrite,

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

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9. Large economic porphyry

<0.0001%, decreasing with age

6. Voluminous flow of magmatic-

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A. Normal subduction Contraction or transpression B. Slab retreat Extension

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from the Bingham Canyon porphyry Cu-Au-Mo

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the probability of subsequent ore formation during

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breccia formation in the shallow cover rocks (see

Figure 6. Examples of overlapping sequences of hydrothermal veins and dikes in porphyry

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the transported metal load still needs to be depos-

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GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

GEOSPHERE | Volume 18 | Number 1

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of Cu-Fe-sulfide minerals (mainly chalcopyrite,