Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 50 (2023) 102752

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Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology

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Synergistic action of Thymus capitatus or Syzygium aromaticum

essential oils and antibiotics combinations against multi-resistant
Salmonella strains
Rajae Zahli a, *, Jamal Abrini a, Aicha El Baaboua a, b, Omar Belmehdi a,
Mohammed El Maadoudi b, Badredine Souhail c, Kaoutar El Issaoui a,
Nadia Skali Senhaji a
a Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology Team, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
b Regional Laboratory for Analysis and Research, National Office for Food Safety, Tangier, Morocco
c Department of Chemistry, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Handling Editor: Dr. Ching Hou Antibiotic-resistant foodborne Salmonella is considered among the pathogen bacteria that
threaten public health seeing that this bacterium has become more virulent and has led to an in-
Keywords:
creased risk rate among infected patients. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial efficacy
Antibiotic resistance
of Thymus capitatus and Syzygium aromaticum essential oils (EO) against Salmonella strains, sepa-
Thymus capitatus
Syzygium aromaticum
rately and in combination with antibiotics (gentamicin and ampicillin). The antimicrobial activ-
Salmonella ity was evaluated against eight strains of foodborne Salmonella which were isolated from poultry
Antibacterial activity and shellfish, through the use of the agar well diffusion and the broth microdilution techniques.
Synergism The combined effect of EOs and antibiotics was determined by the use of the checkerboard assay.
Food The results of the antibacterial activity showed that the both EOs were active on all tested strains,
in which the inhibition zones varied from 13.6 ± 2.8 mm to 43.6 ± 4.04 mm, and MIC values
ranged from 0.125% to 0.5%. From the 36 tested combinations, three types of interactions were
obtained between S. aromaticum EO and gentamicin, in which 94% were totally synergistic, 3%
had a partial synergy against S. Typhimurium and 3% had no interaction against S. Kentucky. The
best antibacterial activity was obtained in the combination of T. capitatus and ampicillin, in
which the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICi) ranged from 0.018 to 0.5. To the best
of our knowledge, so far no study has been published before examining the combined effect of
EOs with antibiotics against multi-resistant strains of Salmonella in Morocco. Thus, these results
could be a starting point for further investigations in order to control infections that are caused by
Salmonella.

1. Introduction
Over the past few decades, Salmonella has accounted for the highest number of outbreaks of cases and deaths worldwide with an
average rate of 3–8 death cases every year (Lee and Yoon, 2021). To decrease the health risks and economic losses resulting from the
emergence of these pathogens, the use of natural alternatives appears to be an attractively difficult way to control the incidence of an-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rajae.zahli@gmail.com (R. Zahli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102752
Received 31 March 2023; Received in revised form 24 May 2023; Accepted 3 June 2023
Available online 11 June 2023
1878-8181/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Zahli et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 50 (2023) 102752

tibiotic-resistant bacteria that are often implicated in nosocomial infections (Bouyahya et al., 2018; Hachlafi et al., 2021; Khouchlaa
et al., 2021).
The worldwide dispersion of resistant bacterial strains has risen the need to discover new antimicrobial agents for confronting the
emergence and the spread of antibiotic resistance (Puvača and de Llanos Frutos, 2021). Indeed, new antibiotics are an important part
of the fight against bacterial antibiotic resistance. However, the history of serious resistance to newly established antimicrobial agents
indicates that new families of antibiotics will be also short-lived (Friedrich, 2019; Toombs-Ruane et al., 2020).
As a matter of fact, essential oils are mixtures of various compounds (terpenes, monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoter-
penes, sesquiterpenes, aromatic compounds … etc). These can be derived from different parts of plant such as leaves, flowers, seeds
and roots. These oils are rich in bio-active compounds which have been used as alternatives to antibiotic in order to treat bacterial in-
fections on a large scale (Aumeeruddy-Elalfi et al., 2018; Joana Gil Chávez et al., 2013). In fact, the use of EOs for therapeutic pur-
poses has reportedly been a fundamental part of traditional medical practices from prehistory to the present day (Bouyahya et al.,
2018; El Menyiy et al., 2021). Therefore, studies of the chemical composition of EOs and evaluation of their biological activities are
required to confirm their use in the pharmaceutical field.
Thymus (Thymus capitatus) and Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) are two medicinal and aromatic plants belonging to Lamiaceae and
Myrtaceae families, respectively. Many efforts have been expended to identify and quantify the volatile constituents of these plants, in
which many authors have concluded a dominance of thymol, eugenol, carvacrol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene with different proportions
(Joana Gil Chávez et al., 2013; Barbar et al., 2015; Ebani et al., 2018, 2019). The Lamiaceae family is one of the most widely used
families in the world as a source of extracts with powerful antibacterial and antioxidant properties. In this family, the genus Thymus is
considered to be one of the eight most important genera of about 215 species, widely distributed in the Mediterranean region and
listed in traditional regional pharmacopoeias as an antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agent (GHASEMI et al., 2015).
Cloves are the aromaticflower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, which is indigenous to the Maluku islands in Indonesia but
has recently been farmed in different places worldwide. Clove essential oil is traditionally used in inhibiting food-borne pathogens to
treat different microbial infections (Batiha et al., 2020).
Synergy, or the combination of antibiotics and essential oils, is a therapeutic strategy that may lead to a novel way of treating bac-
terial infections. This combination between antibacterial agents can decrease the drug-resistance level inbacteria. Several studies
have shown that the mixture of EOs with antibiotics improves the effectiveness of this latter, because of the strong impact on efflux
pumps that are responsible for the excretion of antibiotics out of the bacterial cell.
In this context, this study aims to investigate the antibacterial efficacy of EOs extracted from Thymus capitatus and Syzygium aro-
maticum against multi-resistant Salmonella strains being isolated from food origin, as well as to study their combined effect with ampi-
cillin and gentamicin.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Bacterial strains
In total, nine strains of Salmonella were used in this study, eight of them were isolated from food origin and one was a reference
strain (Table 1). The isolated strains were characterized by molecular techniques using Multi-locus Sequence Typing (MLST) and Mul-
tiple Loci VNTR Analysis (MLVA) and also by investigating their antibiotic susceptibility profile against 30 antibiotics using the mi-
cro-dilution method in our previous study (Zahli et al., 2021, 2022). The antibiogram of the reference strain was carried out in this
study by using the disc diffusion method.

2.2. Plant material and essential oils origin

The EOs used in this work were provided by the Cooperative society Nouara Ain Lhjer, region of Tetouan. The EOs were extracted
from the dried aerial parts of Thymus and clove plants for 3 h using hydrodistillation. The plants collection of Thymus and Clove and
the distillation process were carried out in July and October 2021, respectively. They were collected and stored at 4 °C until their use
at a later period.

Table 1
Antibiotic resistance profile of the studied Salmonella strains.

Strain number Serovar Origin Antibiotic resistance profile Reference

1 Salmonella Kentucky Shellfish NA, AXC, AM, CIP, GM, LVX, MEC, NOR, PIP, TIM Zahli et al. (2021)
2 Salmonella Kentucky Poultry NA, AXC, AM, CIP, GM, LVX, MEC, NOR, PIP, TIM Zahli et al. (2022)
3 Salmonella Kentucky Poultry NA, AXC, AM, CIP, FF, GM, LVX, MEC, NOR, PIP, TIM
4 Salmonella Typhimurium Poultry AM, ATM, CN, CFM, CRO, CXM, GM, PIP, TIM, NN, TMP, SXT
5 Salmonella Typhimurium Poultry AM, ATM, CN, FEP, CFM, CRO, CXM, GM, PIP, TIM, NN, TMP, SXT
6 Salmonella Typhimurium Poultry AM, ATM, CN, CFM, CRO, CXM, GM, NOR, PIP, TIM, TMP, SXT
7 Salmonella Chester Shellfish AXC, AM, PIP, TIM Zahli et al. (2021)
8 Salmonella Schwarzengrund Poultry NA, AXC, AM, CIP, GM, LVX, MEC, NOR, PIP, TIM Zahli et al. (2022)
Reference strain Salmonella enteritidis Human infection NA, AXC, CIP ATCC 13076
Nalidixic acid (NA), Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid (AXC), Ampicillin (AM), Aztreonam (ATM), Cefepime (FEP), Cefixime (CFM), Ceftriaxone (CRO), Cefuroxime (CXM),
Cephalexin (CN), Ciprofloxacin (CIP), Fosfomycin (FF), Gentamicin (GM), Levofloxacin (LVX), Mecillinam (MEC), Norfloxacin (NOR), Piperacillin (PIP), Ticarcillic-
Clavulanic acid (TIM), Tobramycin (NN), Trimethroprim (TMP), and TMP-Sulfamethoxazole (SXT).

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2.3. Essential oils chemical composition analysis

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of EOs were performed by GC-MS equipped with a capillary column (length of 30 m; internal
diameter of 0.25 mm; film of 0.25 mm thickness) and coupled to a mass selective detector, by Pr. Badredine Souhail (Department of
Chemistry, Abdelmalek Essadi University-Morocco). The carrier gas; Helium was regulated to a rate of 0.99 mL/min. The tempera-
ture program was established at 2 min at 40 °C ramp from 40 °C to 200 °C at 6 °C/min and then from 200 °C to 280 °C (6 °C/min). The
temperature of the injector was adjusted at 250 °C. The detector temperature used was 220 °C, the ionizing energy was 70 eV and the
mass range was between 40 m/z and 500 m/z. Concentrations of components were obtained by semi-quantifying and integrating
peak areas from GC peaks and applying correction factors.

2.4. Antibacterial activity of thyme and clove EOs

2.4.1. Preparation of bacterial suspension
Salmonella strains used in this investigation were stored in brain-heart infusion (BHI) broth (Bio-life, Italiana, Milan-Italy), at
−20 °C, supplemented by 25% (v/v) of sterile glycerol (Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd, China). The strains were recovered
from the frozen stock solution by activating them twice in quick succession in an enrichment medium and once more in BHI broth
at 37 °C for 24 h to get cells in stationary growth phase. A few colonies from the fresh culture were added to 8 mL of Muller-
Hinton broth (Bio-life, Italiana, Milan, Italy) to obtain 108 CFU/mL of bacteria, which correspond to the standard turbidity of 0.5
McFarland.

2.4.2. Agar well diffusion method

Several techniques for determining the antibacterial activity of essential oils have been reported (Bouhdid et al., 2008; El Baaboua
et al., 2022; Tagnaout et al., 2022). However, the well diffusion technique on Muller-Hinton agar (MHA) remains the simplest method
usually used for primary antibacterial screening. For this very purpose, dried Petri dishes (140 mm × 20 mm in diameter) were inoc-
ulated with the examined bacterial suspensions. Afterward, two wells of 6 mm in diameter were created in the MHA plates using the
end top of a sterile Pasteur pipette. Then, a volume of 50 μL of each EO was added to the wells. To improve the diffusion of EOs, the
plates were pre-incubated at 4 °C for 1 h before being incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. After the incubation period, the diameter of the
clear zone surrounding the wells (inhibitory zones) were measured and expressed in millimeter. The EOs diameter of inhibition were
classified into four categories: (i) non-inhibitory (without activity) if the zone of inhibition was less than 12 mm, (ii) weak activity
(zone of inhibition ≤12 mm), (iii) moderate activity (12 mm < zone of inhibition <20 mm) and (iv) strong activity (zone of inhibi-
tion ≥20 mm) (Tagnaout et al., 2022). The experiments were carried out in triplicate.

2.4.3. Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration

According to the research by Bouhdid et al. (2008), Bouyahya et al. (2017e) and El Baaboua et al. (2022), the micro-dilution tech-
nique was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of EOs. Briefly, in a sterile 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube, a con-
centration of 4% (v/v) of EO was prepared by combining a volume of 40 μL of each EO tested with 960 μL of Muller-Hinton broth sup-
plemented by 0.15% (w/v) of bacteriological agar (Bio-life, Italiana, Milano-Italy) to facilitate the miscibility of the essential oils in
the liquid medium. After homogenization, a volume of 100 μL of the sterile Muller-Hinton broth supplemented by 0.15% of agar was
added to each well with the exception of the first row. An internal serial dilution of EO was performed by adding 100 μL of 4% of EO
concentration to the first and second rows of the micro-plate in order to reach a final concentration of 2% per well. The second row
was homogenized and then a volume of 100 μL was taken and added to the third row. The binary dilution was continued until it
reached a final concentration of 0.004%. In addition, 100 μL of the previously prepared cell suspension of Salmonella were added to
each well and thoroughly mixed. Three duplicates of each experiment were carried out.
In the last row of each micro-plate, three controls containing the same tested amounts of each used solution, including bacterial
suspension as a positive growth control, Muller-Hinton broth and sterile distilled water were performed to test resazurin sterility as
negative controls. The micro-plates were sealed and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h.
After incubation, 10 μL of 0.01% (w/v) resazurin solution was added to each well. Indeed, an incubation of 2 h at 37 °C for 2 h
was necessary in order to determine the MICs. The results were determined by using the oxidation–reduction indicator resazurin
through following its color change: the oxidation (blue dye) indicates no bacterial growth and the reduction (pink dye) indicates bac-
terial growth. After 2 h of incubation MIC was determined as the lowest concentration of EO, in which any change in resazurin col-
oration was observed.

2.4.4. Determination of the minimum bactericidal concentration

The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of EOs was assessed following the determination of their MICs by spreading
10 μL, from the wells with no visible bacterial growth, onto Petri dishes that contained nutritional agar (Biolife, Italiana, Milano-
Italy). The Petri dishes with the inoculum were incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. After the incubation period, MBC was determined as the
lowest concentration, in which no bacterial growth was observed.

2.4.5. Combined effect of EOs and antibiotics

Two antibiotics were chosen (ampicillin and gentamicin) based on antibiotic susceptibility testing of selected Salmonella isolates.
The used strains were multiresistant to ampicillin and gentamicin, belonging to two different families, β-lactams and aminoglyco-
sides, respectively. We then following the thresholds that were established by CASFM (CASFM version 7.0, 2019) for each antibiotic,
gentamicin and ampicillin which were ultimately tested at various concentrations.

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R. Zahli et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 50 (2023) 102752

The types of interactions between antibiotics and EOs were determined by the checkerboard technique as it had been reported by
El Baaboua et al. (2022). Briefly, serial dilutions of two antibacterial agents were added to the first row (decreasing amount of EOs)
and column (decreasing amount of antibiotics). In order to do this, stock solutions of ampicillin and gentamicin were prepared then
followed by serial dilutions in sterile distilled water with the purpose of generating final concentrations of 8 mg/L to 0.125 mg/L for
ampicillin and 2 mg/L to 0.031 mg/L for gentamicin. The concentrations of EOs were prepared as it had been mentioned in the mi-
cro-dilution test. In the micro-plates, a total of 25 μL aliquots of the antibiotic's first dilution were placed horizontally (rows) to the
well containing 100 aliquots of MH broth and 25 μL aliquots of the second dilution of EO were added vertically (columns) so that the
wells could contain different concentration combinations of the two products. Finally, 50 μL of a fresh bacterium suspension of about
108 CFU/mL were added to each well.
The final column of the micro-plate was loaded with the sterile media for the negative control and the bacterial inoculum for the
positive control. The micro-plate was sealed and incubated for 24 h at 37 °C. Finally, MIC values of the combination of antibiotics and
EOs were determined by using resazurin. Then the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) was calculated through using the
following formula: FICI = MICA/B/MICA + MICB/A/MICB. with, MIC A/B = : MIC of A in combination, MIC A = MIC of A alone,
MIC of B/A = MIC of B in combination, MIC B = MIC of B alone (Belmehdi et al., 2021).
The type of interaction was determined according to FICI values as described by Fadli et al. (2012) (Table 2).

3. Results
3.1. Chemical composition of thymus and clove
The technique of GC–MS analysis (Table 3) allowed the identification of eight compounds in T. capitatus EO. The EO of this species
was mainly composed of carvacrol (73.52%), alongside other constituents, with relatively low concentrations, including o-cymene
(7.72%), borneol (5.06%), trans-caryophyllene (4.88%), linoelaidic acid (3.58%), linalool (3.13%), β-Myrcene (1.06%) and γ-
Terpinene (1.05%).
However, the S. aromaticum EO was found to be less quantitatively rich as compared to T. capitatus EO (Table 3), in which 5 com-
pounds were identified. Eugenol was the major constituent of this EO representing 82.06%, followed by β-caryophyllene with
14.52%. In addition, less than 10% correspond to minor components namely α-humulene (1.77%), eugenyl acetate (0.83%), and
caryophyllene oxide (0.82%).

3.2. Antibacterial activity of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum EOs

3.2.1. Inhibition zones
The measurements of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum essential oils inhibitory zones are presented in Table 4. The inhibitory action
around the wells of the studied essential oils showed variations in outcomes according to the serovars and the EOs examined.
According to the obtained results, the examined essential oils showed a wide range of antibacterial activity. Indeed, both EOs were
active on all strains tested, with inhibition zone diameters ranging from 13.6 ± 2.8 mm to 43.6 ± 4.04 mm (moderate to strong ac-

Table 2
Interpretation of FICi values.

FICi Type interaction

FICi<0.5 Synergiy
0.5<FICi<0.75 Partial Synergy
0.75<FICi<2 No interaction
FICi>2 Antagonism

Table 3
Chemical composition of Thymus capitatus and Clove EOs.

Compounds Compound class RI T. capitatus (%) S. aromaticum (%)

β-Myrcene Monoterpene hydrocarbons 991 1,06 –

p-Cymène Aromatic hydrocarbons 1022 7,72 –
γ-Terpinene Monoterpene hydrocarbons 1060 1,05 –
Borneol Monoterpene alcohols 1166 5,06 –
Linalool 1215 3,13 –
Carvacrol Phenols 1299 73,52 –
Eugenol 1317 – 82,06
Eugenyl acetate Phenol esters 1357 – 0,83
β-caryophyllene Sesquiterpenes 1406 4,88 –
Caryophyllene 1417 – 14,52
Humulene 1454 – 1,77
Caryophyllene oxide 1581 – 0,82
13-tetradece-11-ynol Alcohol – 3,58 –
Total identification 100 100
*RI: Retention Index; --: Not detected.

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Table 4
Inhibition zone diameters of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum EOs against Salmonella strains.

Isolates Inhibition zone diameter (mm)

Thymus capitatus Syzygium aromaticum

1 Salmonella Kentucky 26 ± 3.6 18 ± 1.52

2 Salmonella Kentucky 27.3 ± 2.3 21 ± 2
3 Salmonella Kentucky 27 ± 2.6 17 ± 3.46
4 Salmonella Typhimurium 25.6 ± 4.04 19 ± 3.6
5 Salmonella Typhimurium 22.6 ± 3.2 13.6 ± 2.8
6 Salmonella Typhimurium 28.3 ± 4.9 18.6 ± 4.04
7 Salmonella Chester 21.3 ± 0.57 14 ± 2
8 Salmonella Schwarzengrund 43.6 ± 4.04 17.33 ± 3
Reference strain Salmonella enteritidis ATCC 13076 90 ± 1.57 35 ± 2
Inhibition zones include the well diameter (6 mm).

tivity). Moreover, the antibacterial activity reached up to 90 ± 1.57 mm in the case of the reference strain Salmonella enteritidis ATCC
13076. Thymus capitatus EO exhibited higher impact than S. aromaticum EO. In general, Salmonella multi-resistant drug isolates
showed a strong sensitivity towards the both EOs tested.

3.2.2. Determination of MIC and MBC

The MICs of thyme and clove EOs against Salmonella serovars were determined by using the broth microdilution method. The MIC
values confirm the findings of the agar well diffusion method, as shown by the data reported in Table 5. In these trials, the two tested
EOs were active against all tested Salmonella strains with MIC values ranged from 0.125% to 0.5%. The smallest MIC value was equal
to 0.125% against S. Kentucky, S. Typhimurium and S. Schwarzengrund. On the other hand, the highest MIC value found was equal to
0.5% in the case of S. Kentucky, S. Chester and S. enteritidis ATCC 13076.
By measuring the MBC, the antibacterial effectiveness of the evaluated essential oils was then confirmed (Table 6). The obtained
results showed that Salmonella strains were killed by thymus and clove EOs at concentrations between 0.125% and 0.5%. In addition,
for the two EOs, MIC and MBC, the values were equal in the case of S. Kentucky and the reference strain, indicating a bactericidal ef-
fect against these bacteria.

Table 5
MIC and MBC of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum essential oils against Salmonella strains.

Strains EOs

T. capitatus (%) S. aromaticum (%)

MIC MBC MIC MBC

S. Kentucky 1 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.125

2 0.125 0.125 0.25 0.25
3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
S. Typhimurium 4 0.25 0.5 0.125 0.5
5 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.5
6 0.125 0.25 0.125 0.5
S. Chester 7 0.25 0.5 0.125 0.5
S. Schwarzengrund 8 0.25 0.25 0.125 0.25
S. Enteritidis ATCC 13076 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.5

Table 6
Combined effect of T. capitatus in association with gentamicin and ampicillin.

EO Serovar Strain number Gentamicin Ampicillin

MIC in combination FICi Interpretation MIC in combination FICi Interpretation

EO ATB EO ATB

Thymus capitatus S.Kentucky 1 0.125 0.5 0.254 Synergy 0.0009 8 0.018 Synergy
2 0.0625 0.0625 0.5 Synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.5 Synergy
3 0.125 2 0.27 Synergy 0.0625 0.5 0.126 Synergy
S. Typhimurium 4 0.125 0.0312 0.5 Synergy 0.0312 2 0.129 Synergy
5 0.0625 0.5 0.5 Synergy 0.0312 0.125 0.25 Synergy
6 0.0312 2 0.265 Synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.5 Synergy
S.Chester 7 0.0625 1 0.258 Synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.25 Synergy
S.Schwarzengrund 8 0.0625 0.0312 0.25 Synergy 0.0625 0.5 0.251 Synergy
S.Enteritidis ATCC 13076 0.0625 2 0.31 Synergy 0.0625 0.25 0.25 Synergy

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3.2.3. Combined effect of EOs and antibiotics

From the 36 combinations that were tested between EOs of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum in association with ampicillin and gen-
tamicin, 34 combinations (94%) showed a total synergy. While, only one combination showed a partial synergy, which was obtained
between S. aromaticum EO and gentamicin, against S. Typhimurium. On the other hand, no interaction was registered between S. aro-
maticum EO and gentamicin against S. Kentucky (Tables 6 and 7).
The combination of T. capitatus with ampicillin exhibited the best antibacterial effects, with FIC index values ranging from 0.018
to 0.5. In addition, a complete synergistic effect was obtained against all of the studied strains of Salmonella, including the one of ref-
erence, when thyme EO was combined with ampicillin or gentamicin.
On the other hand, a total synergy (FICi values from 0.12 to 0.5) and partial synergy (FICi = 0.51) were observed between S. aro-
maticum EO and the two surveyed antibiotics, ampicillin and gentamicin, where the FICi values varied from 0.125 to 0.5, and from
0.14 to 0.51, respectively. Among 18 combinations between S. aromaticum EO and antibiotics, one showed the absence of interaction
between this EO and gentamicin against S. Kentucky, in which the FICi value was equal to 1.

4. Discussion
In the 21st century, multidrug-resistant bacteria have been widely known as a severe danger to public health (Martelli and
Giacomini, 2018). Salmonella spp. is considered to be one of these pathogens with a high antibiotic resistance. The development of
novel antibacterial agents has primarily relied on naturally occurring substances that can be derived from various sources, such as
plants, bacteria, algae, fungi, and animals. However, there has been a rise in interest in bioactive compounds offered by plants as al-
ternatives to conventional antibiotics. Many studies have noted that EOs have a significant antibacterial effect in inhibiting different
bacteria (El Atki et al., 2019; El Baaboua et al., 2022; Tagnaout et al., 2022) including Salmonella (Fadli et al., 2012). Also, the combi-
nation of EOs with other antimicrobial substances like antibiotics would ensure that the bacterial target is exposed to a variety of
chemical components and generally result in better activity. In this study, eight multi-resistant strains of Salmonella were isolated
from chicken and shellfish and were subjected to the action of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum EOs both individually and in combina-
tion with antibiotics (ampicillin and gentamicin), with the aim of determining their antibacterial potency.
The EOs that underwent tests were analyzed using GC-MS in order to determine their chemical profile. This analysis allowed the
identification of eight molecules in T. capitatus EO and five in S. aromaticum EO, which were totally different from one another. In-
deed T. capitatus EO was distinguished by its high content of biologically active molecules namely carvacrol, along with other minor
components such as linalool, borneol, and p-cymene. While, S. aromaticum EO was mainly composed by eugenol and caryophyllene.
These results are in agreement with the data reported in the literature which show that eugenol is the major element of S. aromaticum
essential oil, representing at least 50% of it. Eugenyl acetate, -caryophyllene, and -humulene constitute the remaining 10–40% (Haro-
González et al., 2021a; Li et al., 2022). Eugenol is a volatile compound of phenylpropanoid nature present in several EOs (Syzygium
aromaticum, Thymus vulgaris, Cinnamomum spp, Piper nigrum, Origanum vulgare …) (Khalil et al., 2017; Lang et al., 2021). This
chemo-type which has poor water solubility (about 2460 mg/L at 25 °C), is colorless or pale yellow, and characterized by a specific
odor and flavor. Biological effects of eugenol include insecticide, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, healing, antiviral, antioxidant, and
anticancer activities (Haro-González et al., 2021a).
The diversity of T. capitatus EO composition has been investigated in several countries, and even from various other regions within
the same country leading to the identification of different chemo-types (Ainane et al., 2019; Amarti et al., 2008; Tagnaout et al.,
2022). Amarti et al. (2008) that demonstrated that the EO of T. capitatus from Tetouan (northern Morocco), contained mainly car-
vacrol (70.92%) and other compounds with minor concentrations such as p-cymene (6.34%), γ-terpinene (4.92%), linalool (3.38%),
β-caryophyllene (3.57%) and β-pinene (2.48%). The results of the analysis of T. capitatus essential oil from the same region of Tetouan
showed that carvacrol and α-terpinene were the main chemical constituents with a percentage of 76.51% (Ainane et al., 2019). In ad-
dition, Tagnaout et al. (2022) also reported similar composition of T. capitatus in Morocco. Several works around the world have in
fact reported similar results (Bounatirou et al., 2007; Cosentino et al., 1999; Goren et al., 2003; Goudjil et al., 2020). Indeed, carvacrol
(61.6–83%), p-cymene (5–17%), γ-terpinene (2–14%), and β-caryophyllene (1–4%) were the main components of T. capitatus EO that

Table 7
Combined effect of S. aromaticum in association with gentamicin and ampicillin.

EO Serovar Strain number Gentamicin Ampicillin

MIC in combination FICi Interpretation MIC in combination FICi Interpretation

EO ATB EO ATB

Syzygium aromaticum S. Kentucky 1 0.0312 2 0.26 Synergy 0.0625 4 0.5 Synergy

2 0.25 0.03 1.0002 No interaction 0.0625 0.125 0.25 Synergy
3 0.25 0.03 0.5002 Synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.125 Synergy
S. Typhimurium 4 0.0625 2 0.14 Synergy 0.125 0.25 0.25 Synergy
5 0.0625 2 0.51 Partial synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.5 Synergy
6 0.0625 0.0312 0.5 Synergy 0.0625 0.125 0.5 Synergy
S. Chester 7 0.25 0.0312 0.5 Synergy 0.25 0.125 0.5 Synergy
S. Schwarzengrund 8 0.0625 0.0312 0.5 Synergy 0.0625 0.5 0.5 Synergy
S. Enteritidis ATCC 13076 0.016 2 0.093 Synergy 0.25 0.125 0.5 Synergy

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R. Zahli et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 50 (2023) 102752

had been collected in Tunisia. Also, it was discovered that the main components of T. capitatus obtained in the Tiaret region (western
Algeria) were carvacrol, thymol, and γ–terpinene. Equally, the essential oil of T. capitatus from Turkey also included considerable
quantities of p-cymene (26.4%), carvacrol (35.6%), and thymol (18.6%). However, the major components of T. capitatus oil from Sar-
dinia (Italy) were thymol (29.3%) and carvacrol (10.8%). The main constituent of the Mediterranean basin of thyme EOs from Mo-
rocco, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia and Greece was carvacrol (Ainane et al., 2019). In the case of clove EO, the analysis of the results
showed that eugenol and caryophyllene were the principal constituents, with a percentage of 82.06% and 14.52%, respectively. The
results of this study were in strong agreement with those of Haro-González et al., (2021), where they confirmed eugenol (65.36%) and
β-caryophyllene (24.62%) as the dominant bioactive molecules in Clove EO. Likewise, Eugenol (80.00%), eugenyl acetate (5.01%),
and β-caryophyllene (2.9%) were the main components of the essential oil of S. aromaticum from Algeria (Boughendjioua, 2018). Sim-
ilar results were observed by Alma et al. (2007) in Turky and Bhuiyan et al. (2010) from Bangladesh, whose main chemical con-
stituents of clove EO studied included eugenol and caryophyllene. The variation of the chemical composition of EOs could be ex-
plained by several factors such as the geographical origin of the plant, the harvest season, the plant's vegetative stage, the method of
extraction as well as the environmental conditions (Ben Arfa et al., 2022).
The results of the antibacterial activity that used well diffusion and broth micro-dilution techniques showed that both EOs were
active against the tested Salmonella strains. Indeed, Thyme EO showed a strong antibacterial activity against all strains of Salmonella,
with inhibitory zones that varied from 21.3 ± 0.57 mm to 43 ± 4.04 mm, and then reached up to 90 ± 1.57 mm in the case of the
reference strain. The high sensitivity of this latter might be due to its low antibiotic resistance profile. On the other hand, clove EO
showed a moderate effect against the majority of the tested strains including the reference one (87,5% = 7/8 of the tested strains).
Comparable results had been reported previously about T. capitatus EOs from different origins (Jayari et al., 2018; Goudjil et al.,
2020). And according to Mkaddem et al. (2010), the EO of T. capitatus revealed a significant antibacterial potential against Gram-
negative bacteria, where they registered inhibitory zones of 20 mm and 30 mm of diameter. The present study has demonstrated that
the examined EO, in which carvacrol was the main constituent, was highly effective in comparison with antibiotics (Zahli et al., 2021,
2022). This activity of T. capitatus EO was conclusively explained by its high percentage of phenolic compounds (Moussa & al., 2020;
Moumni et al., 2020).
Although it is generally known that different bacterial species respond differently to antibiotics, it was shown that the EOs that
were examined have actually strong bacteriostatic and bactericidal actions. Additionally, it had been noted in previous investigations
that the monoterpenes and the phenolic components were associated to the EO's antibacterial activity (Hay et al., 2018; El Amri et al.,
2014). The antibacterial properties and mechanisms of these compounds had been thoroughly investigated (Mazzarrino et al., 2015).
In fact, carvacrol's functional groups do modify bacterial hydrophobicity and antibacterial activity as well as the cell membrane's per-
meability to ATP (Nazzaro et al., 2013). On the other hand, Haro-González et al., (2021) had reported that clove EO had a broad-
spectrum pathogen-inhibitory activity and hypothesized that the antibacterial mechanism had been linked to the presence of hy-
droxyl groups at the meta and ortho positions of eugnol. These functional groups can engage in interactions with bacterial cell mem-
branes and they can also modify their functional enzymes (Hui et al., 2017). Furthermore, the study of Shahbazi (2019) et al. did note
that foodborne pathogens have greater susceptibility to clove EO than probiotics and fungi. Thus, the application of clove EO in ani-
mal food products could minimize adverse reactions involved in the degradation of taste, odor, color, texture, and sensory qualities
(Dehghani et al., 2018; Saricaoglu and Turhan, 2019; Chaichi et al., 2021).
One of the recent strategies for combating bacterial resistance is the synergistic interactions of plant EO combined to antibiotics
(Belmehdi et al., 2021). In fact, a synergistic effect means that two compounds work better together than they do separately or when
the observed inhibition of a combination is higher than the predicted inhibitions of the individual compounds (Nazer et al., 2005). In
this study, a synergistic interaction between the tested EOs and antibiotics was revealed. Many other investigations on the use of
herbal extracts in combination with antibiotics have revealed a significant synergistic interaction (Nazer et al., 2005; Rosato et al.,
2007; Fadli et al., 2012; Lauteri et al., 2022). To the best of our knowledge, except the study that was conducted by Fadli et al. (2012),
and which had examined the antibacterial effects of the combination of conventional antibiotics and EOs of endemic Moroccan thyme
species on antibiotic-resistant bacteria that were involved in nosocomial infections, included a strain of Salmonella sp. CCMM B17,
and hence no study has been reported on the combined effect of essential oils and antibiotics on multiresistant strains of Salmonella in
Morocco.
Based on the obtained FICI values of the 36 interactions examined, the combination of thyme essential oils with both antibiotics
had a total synergistic effect against all the studied Salmonella strains (FICI from 0.018 to 0.5). For Clove EO, the interaction of the EO
with the two antibiotics showed synergistic interaction against all bacteria (FICI from 0.125 to 0.5), except S. Typhimurium (isolate
N°5) and S. Kentucky (isolate N°2) that revealed a partial synergistic effect (FICI: 0.51) and no interaction (FICI = 1.0002), respec-
tively, when the EO was mixed with gentamicin. These results are in agreement with the study of Fadli et al. (2012), who reported a
synergistic interaction of EOs from the Thymus genus against antibiotic-resistant bacteria implicated in nosocomial diseases. The link
between the chemical composition profile and the antibacterial activity may explain the synergistic impact, which was particularly
apparent with the combination of thyme EO and antibiotics, signaling that the studied EO's potency may be related to its highest con-
centration of carvacrol, an antibacterial compound that had been previously reported.
By comparing the combined effect results of antibiotic/clove against Salmonella strains, it was found that the effectiveness of this
oil differs from one to another. However, a strain of Typhimurium serovar showed a partial synergy vis-à-vis the combination of two
antibacterial agents that were tested (ATB/EO). This may be due to the resistance profile of this strain, which is resistant to antibiotics
from the beta-lactam family and the group of first, second, third and even fourth generation cephalosporins. In fact, cephalosporins
do target the cell wall of the bacteria. Whereas, the molecules of the essential oil do attack the bacterial cell membrane. In the present
case, the bactericidal effect of eugenol seems to be due to its hydrophobic character which is responsible for its penetration into the

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R. Zahli et al. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology 50 (2023) 102752

lipid bilayer of the bacterial cell membrane. The partial synergy observed in this case can be explained by the resistance to
cephalosporins that were observed in this strain of serovar Typhimurium, which ultimately resulted in a weak mode of action exerted
by the two antimicrobial agents. The absence of the interaction observed in the Kentucky serovar (strain N°2) in comparison with the
other strains of the same serovar and of the same origin, can be explained by its different allelic profile of housekeeping genes se-
quenced by the MLST technique (Zahli et al., 2022). From all the synergy results obtained, the resistance of the bacteria to the antimi-
crobial agent depends on the one hand on the membrane structure of the target cell, and on the other hand on the various components
of the antimicrobial agent as well as their combination.
The synergistic interaction between EOs and antibiotic could be explained by their mechanisms of action. In this study, the antibi-
otics tested, namely; ampicillin and gentamicin belong to beta-lactame, and aminoglycoside families, respectively. In fact, ampicillin
affects the bacterial cell wall synthesis, while gentamicin disrupts mRNA translation, leading to nonfunctional protein synthesis
(Yoshizawa, 1998). On the other hand, the action of essential oils on bacterial cells is mainly linked to their hydrophobicity. Indeed,
EOs have been reported to increase bacterial cell permeability leading to cytoplasmic constituents leakage. Other mechanisms have
been reported such as cell wall disturbance, alteration of ATP generation, pH disturbance, inhibition of protein synthesis, DNA dam-
age, and quorum sensing inhibition (Cox et al., 2001). From these data, the synergistic integration of EOs and antibiotics might be ex-
plained even by the action on the same target or by facilitating the way for getting the action site. In this context, EOs according to
their hydrophobicity criterion, may facilitate the entry of gentamicin into the cell to attack the mRNA by eans of gentamicin.
The biological activity of essential oils depends not only on the major compounds but also on the combination of all the compo-
nents contained in the EO (Espina et al., 2011). In fact, the antibacterial property of an EO is related to its chemical composition, the
functional groups of the major compounds and their synergistic effects. Moreover, the synergy could be a result of several mecha-
nisms, such as the inhibition of metabolic pathways or their intervening agents, as well as the disruption of bacterial cell membrane
that facilitates the delivery of other antibacterials (Sokolova et al., 2005).

5. Conclusion
The aim of this study was to determine the chemical components of T. capitatus and S. aromaticum EOs and evaluate their antibac-
terial activity against multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains. The tested EOs showed an excellent activity against the growth of multi-
ple serovars of Salmonella. This activity was related to the presence of their main compounds (carvacrol and eugenol) as potent an-
tibacterial chemical prototypes in these EOs. Moreover, a strong synergistic effect was therefore obtained between these EOs and an-
tibiotics namely ampicillin and gentamicin. The results that were obtained have led to the recommendation of the use of novel ther-
apy strategies against resistant infectious diseases by using the EOs that were studied. However, further investigations, in vitro and in
vivo, are needed in order to confirm therapeutic use of these EOs.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgements
We want to express our gratitude to Dr. Nadia AMAJOUD, Dr. Ayoub KOUNNOUN and Soumaya CHEYADMI for their serious help
in the practical part of this work.

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