DAMS

A dam is a prestigious civil engineering structure, which block a river channel and
accumulate the running water within the associated reservoir. Whenever this accumulation of
water exceeds the desired limit of storage in any reservoir, the surplus water is allowed to flow
downstream. The opening which controls the discharge of surplus water from any reservoir
together constitute, the spillway. The spillway is commonly placed on a sound foundation within
or outside the body of a dam and the openings are controlled by suitably designed gates .The
water over flowing through the spillway may cause rapid wear and tear of the bed rocks on
which it falls with considerable force. The exposed weak rocks towards the downstream side of
the spillway should therefore be properly protected. For this purpose, reinforced concrete slabs
of suitable thickness are often placed on the outcrops of weak rocks which occur on the floor of
the river valley and these together constitute the spillway apron. Spillway training walls are the
retaining walls of adequate strength, which protects the weaker rocks on the valley sides and
guide the overflowing water to a certain distance downstream.
Impounded water is utilized for following objectives:
i. Hydropower generation
ii. Irrigation purpose
iii. Water for domestic consumption
iv. Drought and flood control
v. For navigational facilities
vi. Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries and for recreational purposes

DIFFERENT PARTS OF A DAM

 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side
 Toe: contact on the downstream side
 Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest
 Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.
 Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of
dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
 Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to
downstream side
 Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir side.
 Crest: The top of the Dam. These may in some cases be used for providing a roadway or
walkway over the dam.
 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the
crest.
 Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of
the dam.
 Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.
 Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to
bypass the dam construction site. The dam is built while the river flows through the
diversion tunnel.
Selection of site
The type and size of dam constructed depends on the need for and the amount of water available,
the topography and geology of the site, and the construction materials that are readily obtainable.
Dams can be divided into two major categories according to the type of material with which they
are constructed, namely, concrete dams and earth dams.
The former category can be subdivided into gravity, arch and buttress dams, whereas rolled fill
and rockfill embankments comprise the other.
As far as dam construction is concerned, safety must be the primary concern, this coming before
cost. Safety requires that the foundations and abutments be adequate for the type of dam
selected.
Based on the functions of dam, it can be classified as follows:
1) Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there is
a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in dry
summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved habitat for fish and
wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or for a
flood control project. Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in general the
dam means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
2) Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure for pushing
water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter dams are used for
irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage reservoir. A diversion dam
is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion
dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and has a small storage.
Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used synonymously.
3) Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam
retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water.
Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water retained in the
reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying capacity
of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is
protected against flood.
4) Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift
wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is
relatively clear.
5) Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude water
so that the construction can be done in dry. A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam
constructed for facilitating construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the
upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel) during the
construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during construction of the dam is not
much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer
dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.

Based on the construction material used, dams are chiefly grouped into CONCRETE DAMS OR
MASONRY DAM and EARTH DAMS OR EMBACKMENT DAMS. Based on design, the
concrete dams may be further grouped into GRAVITY DAMS, BUTTRESS DAMS AND
ARCH DAMS. Similarly, earth dams too are sub-grouped into EARTH FILL DAMS AND
ROCK FILL DAMS based on the kind of material used.
1) GRAVITY DAM
 A gravity dam is a solid masonry or concrete structure of triangular profile in which the
whole weight acts vertically downwards
 As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation, such dams are
constructed where rocks are competent and stable.
 They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using concrete, the weight of
the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.
 This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially holds the dam down to the
ground, stopping water from toppling it over.
 Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their
own weight.
 They use their weight to hold back the water in the reservoir.
 If the valley is narrow and the foundation rocks are strong, a masonry dam is preferred.
 The height of the gravity dam depends upon shear strength and bearing capacity of the
foundation rock.
 Ex. Bhakra dam, Koyana dam (in Deccan terrain, Maharashtra), Srisailam dam, Krishna
river.
2) Buttress Dam
 If the valley is wide and the foundations rocks have varying strength a buttress dam can
be constructed.
 It consists of an upstream sloping deck of reinforced concrete that bears the load of
impounded water.
 The deck which takes the entire load is supported from behind by walls called buttresses,
extending perpendicular to the axis of the dam.
 Such buttresses are further strengthened by cross walls called struts.
 The buttress dam facilitates the distribution of loads acting over a wide area covered by
buttresses and struts .
 This means that even slightly weaker rocks can be considered as suitable for the
construction of this kind of dam.

 Buttress dams are of three types :

 (i) Deck type,
 (ii) Multiple-arch type, and
 (iii) Massive-head type.
 i. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses
are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the
foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically spaced across
the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress
dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall
stretching across a river valley. The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported
between the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.

 ii. In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches
supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete.
 This type of dam can be preferred for larger heights about more than 50 meters. As
compared to deck slab type buttress dams, multiple arch buttress dams are more flexible
and stable.
 iii. In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the
upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance
between the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But
they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form
work, reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress
dam are usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.

3) Arch Dam
 As the name indicates, this kind of dam is arch– shaped and is always convex in the
upstream side.
 An arch dam structure is designed in such a way that a major part of the thrust forces
acting on the dam are transmitted mainly by the arch action, on to the abutment rocks,
i.e., rocks forming the left and right sides of stream valley. Hence, such dams can be built
on those sites where the foundation rocks are sufficiently strong.
 Arch dams are better suited for narrow valleys with strong and uniformly slopping walls
or abutments.
 An arch dam can be constructed even at those sites where the foundation rocks are not
very strong, provided that these are
properly treated for the control of leakage
and the abutments are very strong,
competent and immovable.
 Arch dams are quite thin walled compared
to gravity dams and hence lighter in
weight. Sometimes the designer mix the
better points of both the gravity and arch
dams and prefer to design a mixed arch-
gravity dam.
 Ex: - Idduki dam in Kerala, across a narrow valley of Perriyar river.
 There are two main types of arch dams
 1) The constant radius arch dam: - The radius of curvature throughout the structure is
constant and upstream face is vertical.
  2) The variable radius dam: - The curvatures are different on the upstream and
downstream sides.
 Multiple Arch Dams is a combination of series of arch dams. It is built when the valley is
too wide for a single arch or gravity dam.

4) Earth dams
 They are trapezoidal in shape
 Earth dams are constructed where the river valley is wide and foundation or the
underlying material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam or where the suitable
competent rocks are at greater depth.
 Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base
 They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as Earth fill
dam or Rock fill dam
 It is constructed as a homogenous construction but very commonly with a compacted
core of impervious material such as clay
 Embankment dams are massive dams made of earth or rock.
 They rely on their weight to resist the flow of water, just like concrete gravity dams.
 Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An
impervious membrane is placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage
through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic
concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel and timber membrane were also used, but now they
are obsolete.

5) Composite dams
 Some sites that are geologically unsuitable for a specific type of dam design may support
one of composite design.
 For example, a broad valley that has strong rocks on one side and weaker ones on the
other possibly can be spanned by a combined gravity and embankment dam, that is, a
composite dam Composite dams are combinations of one or more dam types.
 Most often a large section of a dam will be either an embankment or gravity dam, with
the section responsible for power generation being a buttress or arch.
 Cow Green Dam in Teesdale, northeast England, an example of a composite dam.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION IN THE SELECTION OF A DAM SITE

A decision regarding placing a dam across a particular river and creating a reservoir is always
based on socio-economic consideration, its design and construction.
The success of dam means its own safety and stability along with the success of its associated
reservoir. Supposed a dam stands firmly its reservoir leaks profusely then such dam is to be
treated only as a failure because the purpose for which it was constructed has not been served. In
such a case, the dam may be successful structurally but virtually it is a failure. Therefore, utmost
care is needed in planning for the success of both the dam and the reservoir.
Various factors which are responsible for the success of dam and reservoir are as follows.
1. Topography-i.e., narrow river valley.
2. Geology of the site- lithology, structure, etc.
3. Ground water conditions.
In the construction of a dam, the answers to the following questions should be obtained first.
1. Where the dam should be placed against the river along its longitudinal profile.
2. What type of dam would be most suitable for that particular site
3. Where from the material required for the construction of the dam as proposed would
be obtained and what cost.
Obviously answers to the above questions would be obtained by systematic and thorough
geological investigations along the river valley.
TOPGRAPHY: - Narrow River Valley.
At the proposed dam site, if the river valley is narrow, only a small dam is required, which
means the cost of dam construction will be less. On the other hand, if the valley is wide, a
bigger dam is necessary which means the construction cost will be very high. Therefore, it is
preferable, from the economy point of view, to select such a site along the river valley which
has the least aerial cross section with enough catchment area available behind so that it
would easily store a calculated volume of water in the reservoir. But such sites should not be
selected blindly without further investigations, because sometimes they may have severe
defects, which may lead to serious leakage from reservoir and may even affect the safety of
dam.
GEOLOGY OF THE AREA :-
Lithology: -
The single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the site and all around
and below the valley up to a reasonable depth is the lithology. i.e, types of rocks that make
the area. Surface and subsurface studies using the conventional and latest techniques of
geological and geophysical investigations are carried out. Such studies would reveal the type,
the composition and textures of the rocks exposed along the valley floor, in the wall and up
to the required depth.

Relative Suitability of Different rocks : -

In India there are more than 3600 major dams constructed, but no two dams might be called
duplicate of each other. This is because no two sites are exactly similar in all geological
details and as such design of each dam has to be in accordance with the site conditions for
that dam. The stability of a site to serve a foundation for major dams depends on following
factors.
1. The existing rock type at the dam site.
2. The extent of weathering it has undergone.
3. The occurrence of intrusions.
4. The extent of fracturing.
5. The mode and number of rock types concerned.

Suitability of Igneous Rocks:-

Among the rock types, the occurrence of massive plutonic or hypabyssal rocks is the most
desirable at the dam site because they are very strong and durable due to their dense
character, interlocking texture hard silicate mineral composition, occurrence of negligible
porosity and permeability, absence of any inherent weak planes ( like bedding, foliation,
lineation, etc.) and resistance to weathering. Of course, it is necessary that such rocks should
not have been affected by any intense fracturing, shearing, faulting and jointing. Thus all
plutonic rocks like granites, syenites, diorites and gabbros are very competent and desirable
rocks for the foundation at the dam site. But volcanic rocks which are generally vesicular or
amygdaloidal are not equally desirable, these characters contribute to porosity permeability
and hollowness which inturn reflect the strength of the rock. However, it should be
remembered that massive basalts, which are very fine grained, are one of the toughest rock in
nature and are most desirable for the foundation at the dam site.

Suitability of Sedimentary Rocks:-

Massive, well cemented, thoroughly compacted and fine textured sedimentary rocks
generally form sound, stable and durable sites for dams. But rocks of this group occur in a
deformed and profusely jointed and layered fashion, great care and caution is necessary while
constructing dams on them.
Sandstones with siliceous cements are generally reliable. But those varieties of sandstones
which have clayey or ferruginous cements, and those rich in mica and other weak minerals
may require thorough treatment for improving their qualities.
Limestones which are carbonate type sedimentary rocks are always to be viewed with
caution. These are more often richly traversed by solution cavities and channels. Because of
these negative points, limestone is not desirable for foundation at the dam sites.
In spite of this, massive thoroughly compacted and fine textured limestones from quite sound
foundations.
Shales are perhaps the most troublesome sedimentary rocks for dam sites, because they are
incompetent and slippery. Thoroughly compacted and well cemented and hardened shales
may prove to be quite suitable. Even the apparently suitable shales often create variety of
problems such as,
1. Gradual consolidation under load that may lead to sinking of the dam.
2. Rapid deterioration under conditions of alternate wetting and drying.

Suitability of Metamorphic Rocks:-

This group of rocks exhibits greatest variation in terms of suitability of dam sites. Some
varieties are hard, compact, well crystalline and massive and the ideal rock for dam
foundation such as granitic gneisses, quartzites and marbles. However, some other varieties
like schists slates and phyllites may create trouble and require very thorough investigation
with regard to their foliation, mica content cleavage and so on.
After learning the suitability of the occurrence of different varieties of common rocks at dam
sites, it should be remembered that all types of rocks exhibits within themselves some
variation in their chemical and mineral composition. They may also possess some porosity,
fracturing and other physical weaknesses. Because of all these factors the strength of any
rock is not definite but shall vary within certain limits. The competence of site rocks can be
improved to a reasonable extent by good concrete. (grouting, backfilling, rock bolting, etc.).

Influence of Weathering: -
All rock types are adversely affected by weathering in terms of their strength, colour,
durability, etc,. Sometimes along shear zones or fault zones there may be locally deep
pockets of weathering. Hence the extent of weathering should be carefully assessed to
ascertain whether a rock is suitable or unsuitable for a required purpose. Dull appearance,
faded colour and emitting a dull sound to hammer blow are some simple indications of
weathering. The weathering of rocks gives rise to formation of clay which is not only
slippery but also have a strong swelling and shrinkage property which create serious problem
in stability of dam and are required special treatment.

Effects of Occurrence of Intrusion :-

Dolerites and quartz veins occur frequently as intrusions in country rocks. In general,
intrusions differ from the surrounding rocks interms of their composition, competence, etc.
Therefore, if intrusions are present, they contribute heterogeneity at the dam site and hence
are undesirable. Further, the contact planes of intrusions serve as weak planes and they serve
as channel for leakage. In such cases depending on the condition of intrusions, grouting is
carried out to the necessary extent. If grouting is not sufficient, then intrusive material is
excavated as required and the resulting trench is filled with concrete. Inspite of treating the
site, there is leakage of water, for these reasons the presence of intrusions at dam sites is not
desirable. However, generally they do not pose any major drawback.

Effects of fracturing-
Fracturing is a phenomenon observed in all kinds of rocks. Random fractures, of local extent,
can just be ignored because they do not represent any serious drawback in the rock. But, if
the fractures are numerous and occur over a large area and also extend to a considerable
depth, they can be rectified by suitable grouting. But if fracturing represents a serious type
such as shear zone or fault zone, it should be given due attention by removing it to the
necessary extent by excavation and refilling that space by rich concrete. Generally, fracturing
of rocks is more nearer the surface but diminishes in number and magnitude with increasing
depth. Thus, the nature of fracturing should be known and suitable remedial measures taken
up to make the site rocks fit for location of the dam.

Influence of Mode And Variety of Rock Types: -

1. Beds which are thick, compact, uniform and without any structural defects are very
desirable at the dam site because they will be strong and will have uniform competence
throughout. Further, in such a case, the dam can rest on a single bed.
2. Exactly for the opposite reasons, thin beds are undesirable at the dam site.
3. Alternate soft and hard beds, when inclined, are bad for obvious reasons. Such a situation
leads to a variety of problems including slipping of the hard bed over softer ones at the
time of excavation itself, for laying the dam foundation.

Bedrock at Shallow Depth :-

To ensure its safety and stability a dam has to be necessarily rest on very strong and very
stable rocks. If such competent bedrock occur near the surface or at shallow depths, the
foundation cost of the dam will naturally be less. On the other hand, if competent bedrock
occur at great depth, the cost of the foundation will be very high because it involves
extensive work of excavation of loose overburden and refilling it with strong concrete. Ex: at
the site of Bhakra dam on Sutlej river, the sound bedrock were at the great depth.
The general occurrence of material like clay, silt, sand and gravel along the river bed makes
it difficult to assess the thickness of loose over burden. Therefore to know the bedrock profile
in the river valley along the axis of a proposed dam, geophysical investigations such as
“electrical resistivity” or “seismic refraction” studies are carried out carefully. The data
recorded in the field during investigation are interpreted and the required bedrock profile is
visualized. Such a result gives scope for estimating the amount of excavation work of loose
material and concrete refilling required for laying the dam foundation at that site. Of course,
this interpreted data should be relied upon only after necessary checks and scrutiny. For this
purpose, a suitable number of boreholes are drilled at selected points and the actual bedrock
depths as observed at those places are recorded. Then the results of earlier interpretations are
compared with the actual observations made. If they are found to tally, then the inferred data
can be deemed to be correct and reliable. However, in some places, particularly in glaciated
regions, the occurrence of buried river valleys may create unexpected problems. A buried
river valley which occurs in the river bed is generally deep and composed of loose material
which is highly porous and permeable. This poses problems of weakness and leakage which
are dangerous for the success of dam. Buried river valleys are remain undetected, in
geophysical investigations, if they are narrow, and the station intervals are very close. If such
situation, are encountered during dam construction, excavation must be undertaken down
through the loose material to the underlying solid rock. All this will add to the cost of the
dam.
Like buried river valleys, occurrence of huge boulders in glaciated regions may also create
difficulty during the construction of a dam. Glaciers which are huge bodies of moving ice in
mountainous regions, are capable of transporting big boulders along with them and leave
them at lower levels, when they retreat or disappear. These boulders will naturally be resting
over loose and unconsolidated material. Such giant boulders, if present along the river valley,
may be mistaken for real bed rock during investigations or trial borings. Therefore to ensure
that the bedrock has actually been reached, bores should be drilled for 20 feet or more
through the rocks in glaciated regions.
Ex:- 1. Bhakra dam- the bedrock is at great depth, excavation for foundation was one of the
major items in the project.
3. Koyana dam: - Below 6-7m of excellent basalt, there was weak volcanic breccia below it.
To remove this breccia part, foundations were taken 20m below the general level.

EFFECTS OF ASSOCIATED GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

For the stability of a dam, the occurrence of favorable geological structures is a very
important requirement Along with lithology, the structural features of rocks of the site are
also thoroughly investigated. This involves detailed mapping of planes of weakness like
bedding planes, foliation cleavage, joints, shear zones and fault zones, folding and associated
features. It is because each one of these feature, modifies the engineering properties of the
rocks to the great extent. In other words, site with the same rock types may prove favorable
or unfavorable depending upon the nature of the geological structures present at the dam site.
While mapping if such planes of weakness are recorded then they should be treated with
great caution.

EFFECTS OF ROCK STRUCTURES ON DAM

CASE – 1:- Undisturbed strata i.e. , beds which are horizontal.
CASE -- 2:- The axis of dam parallel to the strike of beds.
CASE – 3: - The axis of dam perpendicular to the strike of beds.
CASE – 4:- The axis of dam may be oblique to the strike and dip of beds.
(Note: Draw diagrams)
HORIZONTAL STRATA:-
The strength of sound, unfractured stratified rock is always greater when the stresses are
acting normal to the bedding planes than if applied in other directions. This being so,
horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of the dam. Further, the seepage of
reservoir water that may take place beneath the dam is effectively prevented by weight of-
the dam which acts vertically downwards. Thus the possible uplift pressure which is
dangerous to the stability of the dam is effectively reduced. This also means that the leakage
of the reservoir water is checked. However, if the strata are composed of alternate hard and
soft rocks (like quartzite and shale) then it is undesirable at the dam site.

TILTED BEDS:-
Beds with gentle upstream dip (10 – 30 degree), is ideal and much better than the stratified,
horizontal beds, because
1. The resultant force (due to weight of the dam and thrust of the impounded water) acts
more or less perpendicular to the bedding planes which are dipping in the upstream
direction. Hence the rocks are best positioned to take the load effectively.
2. By virtue of the prevailing upstream dip, any percolated water of the reservoir is directed
by the bedding planes to the upstream side. ( i.e. , towards the reservoir side ) Hence
there is no scope of leakage of water below the dam towards the downstream side. For
these reasons, gently dipping beds towards upstream is ideal for dam location.

BEDS WITH STEEP UPSTREAM DIP: -

This type of situation is not bad, but not as advantageous as that of the situation with gentle
dip towards upstream. In this case also there shall be no uplift pressure on the dam and no
leakage of water from the reservoir, but due to steep dip the bedding planes are not
perpendicular to the resultant force. This means that the rocks will not be as competent as in
case of beds gently dipping towards upstream side.

BEDS WITH GENTLE DOWNSTREAM DIP. (10 -30 degree)

This type of case is very undesirable and can be considered as a typical geological structure
which can create harmful or adverse conditions for the dam location. This is because
1. The water from the reservoir may percolate (under pressure due to water column of the
reservoir) along the bedding planes, thereby it causes development of uplift pressure on
the dam. Such an event obviously acts against the stability of the dam.
2. The resultant force and bedding planes are in the same direction which means that the
positioning of beds is disadvantageous and they are less competent to withstand forces
prevailing at the dam site.
3. Further, the percolated water which moves along the bedding planes towards the
downstream side may account for a significant loss of water.
4. If clay formation occurs exposed in such cases on the upstream side, it will be the worst
situation because, clay formations acts as a slippery base among rocks which already
have a disadvantageous position. As a consequent of this, the dam may get pushed
downwards along such an argillaceous formation. For Ex.:- The Doodganga dam in
kolhapur district of Maharashtra. Here the (Kaladgi) quartzite on which the dam has been
planned have intercalations of shale and there is a deep pool in the downstream side of
the dam alignment which helped in taking the necessary safeguards, so that the dam did
not slip along the shale bed.

BEDS WITH STEEP DOWNSTREAM DIP: -

For obvious reasons this situation has all the disadvantages of the previous case. Further, here
the resultant force and bedding planes are nearly parallel, which means that the beds will be
even less competent. Hence the contribution of such geological structure is not favorable and
disadvantageous. For Ex:- The Bhakra dam on sutlej river, lies on an unfavorable site
composed of sandstone and shale, which exhibit a downstream slope of the order of 55 to 80
degree. But to ensure safety, suitable measures have been taken.

BEDS WHICH ARE VERTICAL: -

In nature, the occurrence of perfectly vertical beds is rather uncommon. However, in case
such situation occurs at a given place, it will not pose problem of uplift pressure on dam or
leakage of reservoir water. However, it shall not have any advantage in terms of competence
of rocks.

BEDS WHICH ARE FOLDED: -

A fold consists of two limbs which can be considered as simple homocline, i.e., tilted beds.
When viewed from this approach, the influence of occurrence of fold at the dam site can be
interpreted either as advantageous or disadvantageous, just as in the case of occurrence of an
incline bed at the dam site. However, it should be kept in mind that the folded rocks are not
only under strain but also physically fractured along the crests. Hence, grouting and other
precaution may have to be considered to improve the stability and competence of rocks at the
site.

BEDS WHICH ARE FAULTED: -

Occurrence of fault, right at the dam site is most undesirable. If the faults are active, under no
circumstances, can dam construction be taken up there. Dams constructed on beds traversed
by fault zones and on major fault planes are more liable to shocks during an earthquake
compared to dams on non faulted rocks. Therefore, it is always desirable to avoid rocks by
rejecting site traversed by faults, fault zones and shear zones for dam foundations. But when
topography, lithology and economy do not leave a choice for an alternate site, then the
nature, extent and age of the fault should be thoroughly investigated. If the fault zone is
crushed or intensely fractured, it becomes physically incompetence to withstand the forces of
the dam. In addition to this, due to associated porosity and permeability, the water percolates
into it and cause not only reduction in competence but also provides scope for decomposition
of rock material. This kind of percolation may also cause leakage of reservoir water.
Generally these types of problems can be treated effectively by grouting or by excavating the
weak material and back filling the space with a strong concrete up to a required depth.
Further, if the faults occur in the downstream side, they will not be much harmful directly,
irrespective of their attitude. If the faults occur in the upstream side, the downstream dipping
faults are dangerous because they have all the disadvantages of a case with bedding planes of
such attitude (i.e. risk of uplift pressure, heavy leakage etc.), but if the faults dip in the
upstream side they need to be sealed to avoid possible leakage.

BEDS WHICH HAVE JOINTS: -

No sites are totally free from joints. Hence, the site cannot be abandoned. Joint represents
clear cut openings and gaps of different magnitude. They contribute to the physical weakness
of the rock and also to porosity and permeability. But since the rocks with joints are not
under any strain, and also because of the scope to over come their effect easily by simple
treatment, they are not considered as any serious defect unless the joints are prominent,
closely spaced and in different sets. Grouting is generally capable of overcoming the adverse
effects of joints because it fills the gaps of joints, brings cohesion to the rocks, increases
compactness and competence of the rock, and reduces porosity and permeability. Thus, it
brings overall improvement of the rock.

BEDS WHICH ARE PARELLEL TO THE LENGTH OF A VALLEY: -

This is a case where the dam is aligned across the strike, i.e. in the dip direction of beds. In
such a situation, beds will be dipping in the direction of the surface slope on one flank and
therefore, there will be a danger of slipping of rocks along bedding planes of the flank (side
of the river valley). This danger will almost always be present as the slope of the valley sides
are steep at the dam sites and are therefore, very likely to be steeper than the dip of the rocks
which creates instability at the site and slipping of rocks on one side.
Secondly, when beds lie parallel to the length of a valley, the water from the reservoir may
find an adequate chance to percolate below the dam along the trend of bedding planes and
porous formations and leak out in the downstream side.
Thirdly, the foundation and abutments of the dam will obviously be resting on different rock
types. Naturally such rocks differ in their strength and other physical properties and hence
are undesirable for dam location.

FORCES ACTING ON DAMS

To analyze the bearing of geological structures on country rocks in rendering a site suitable
or unsuitable for dam location, it would be proper to know about the forces that shall be
acting there after the construction of dam.
1. Weight of the dam:- A dam being a heavy construction, (hundreds of tones of material is
raised on a limited space to form a huge barrier), its load acts vertically downward on
the underlying strata.
2. Water Pressure:- As a consequence of accumulation of water in the adjacent reservoir in
the upstream side, a lateral thrust of significant magnitude develops on the dam to the
downstream side. This force is dependent on the quantity of water present in the
reservoir. Thus in a gravity dam with a vertical upstream face, the water pressure would
be equal to W X H at the base of the dam and zero at the surface level.
W- unit weight of water (1000kg /cubic meter).
H- height of the water in meters.
As the sequel of the two forces (downward force and lateral force), a resultant force emerges
and it is always inclined towards the downstream side. The inclination or dip (i.e., the angle
between the resultant and horizontal force) of this force generally varies from 60 -80 degrees.
In general the inclination of the resultant force is dependent upon the volume of water
contain in the reservoir. i.e., less water:- resultant force is steeper or nearly vertical. More
water:- resultant force is less steep.
3. Uplift Pressure:-
Although it may be desirable to make a dam an absolutely impervious structure, it may be
practically impossible at economic cost. Many pores and minute cracks and joints are left in
the dam body and also in the foundation rocks. Water is likely to find its way into these
minute openings through seepage and gradually fill them up. This trapped water exert an
upward pressure on the body of a dam. This pressure is called the UPLIFT PRESSURE.
In a dam without drainage gallery, the uplift pressure is maximum at the upstream heel and
minimum at the downstream toe. In order to get some relief from the uplift pressure, drainage
galleries (spillways) are often provided in the dams. In other cases cut-off wall is constructed
under the upstream face to reduce the seepage of water and hence the uplift pressure.
The mutual relationship between the forces and the structures of foundation rocks decides the
effect, whether the presence of concerned geological structure has an adverse or
advantageous effect on the dam foundation.

RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs are very large, artificial lakes formed along the course of a river, when dams are
constructed across it. There can be one or more dams on a river and each dam shall have its
associated reservoir. OR
Reservoir may be defined as artificially created water storage basin with water storage
capacity that may range from a few thousand cubic meters to hundreds of thousands of
million cubic meters.
Depending on the purpose of storage, reservoirs are classified into three main categories.
1. Storage and conservation reservoirs: - River water is stored by creating barriers
or dams in its path and is then released from gated or ungated outlets. These feed
the canal system for irrigation and power generation.
2. Flood control reservoirs: - These have their main function to accommodate large
volume of surplus water during peak flow times of a river. The surplus water is
released after the flood abates. Such reservoirs are provided with large sluice ways
to discharge inflows received by the reservoir during a flood up to a volume which
could be safely accommodated in the channel downstream. Excess or surplus
inflow is retained back till a desirable time.
3. Distribution reservoirs: - These are actually small storage reservoirs which hold
supplies in a water supply system for short spell of time. Water is constantly
pumped from these reservoirs and is distributed for drinking and other purposes in
a regulated manner.

Many reservoirs serve more than one objectives and are called multipurpose reservoirs.

Most important terms related to the design of a reservoir are pool level, storage capacity
and reservoir yield.
 POOL LEVEL: - It indicates the designed level up to which the reservoir shall be full of
water at a particular point of time. There is thus, the maximum pool level, the minimum
pool level and the normal pool level. No water can be stored beyond maximum pool level
and no water shall be available when the storage is below the minimum pool level.
STORAGE CAPACITY: - It is expressed as
A) Useful storage: - Volume of water in cubic meters available between minimum
pool level and normal pool level.
B) Dead storage: - Volume of water which is not available for use and is
represented in the reservoir below the minimum pool level.
C) Surcharge storage: - Volume of water which is available between the
maximum pool level and normal pool level.
RESERVOIR YIELD: - It is the measure for the volume of water that can be drawn from
a given reservoir in a certain interval of time and is also express in terms of safe or
guaranteed yield.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR A SUCCESSFUL RESERVOIR:
From the geological point of view, a reservoir can be claimed to be successful if it is water
tight and if it has a long life due to a very low rate of silting in the reservoir basin.
Since reservoirs are essentially water storage basins, the area should posses such geological
characteristics that favor holding of water in the basin. Such characteristics are
1. TOPOGRAPHY:
Topographically, the area should be a broad valley preferably ending in a narrow gorge
where a barrier could be placed. The valley could be U shaped glacial valley, V shaped
river valley or a broad synclinal valley.
2. GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS:
The area must be thoroughly established for an approximately accurate evaluation of
storage capacity of the reservoir.
a) The general water table is much above the max. pool level in the proposed
reservoir. This is a very favorable situation, as there is no risk of water loss from
the reservoir to the surrounding area.
b) The general water table is much below the minimum pool level in the reservoir.
Depending upon the permeability of rocks along the base and the flanks of the
reservoir, water would be lost from the reservoir to the surrounding.
c) The general water table of the area and the max. pool level of the proposed
reservoir is almost same. This is an ideal situation ensuring a no loss no gain
condition but generally not available on a large scale. (Note: Draw diagrams)

3. EFFECTS OF EVAPORATION:
The natural process of evaporation reduces the quantity of water in the reservoir. This
process is unavoidable. Since reservoirs are open and extend over large areas, the
magnitude of evaporation will be extensive. Such a loss shall be less if the topography is
such that a reservoir covers a small area but has a great depth to provide adequate capacity.
4. EFFECTS OF FRACTURED AND WEATHERED ROCKS:
As a consequence of weathering, which is a natural process, the surface is covered by loose
soil and below it lies the fractured rocks. The bed rock which is massive occurs further
below. When a river flows over such a loose or fractured ground, it is natural that some
water of river percolates underground.
Before the construction of dam, this leakage shall be less and limited only to the extent
over which the river flows. But when the dam is constructed, the impounded water
accumulates in large quantities in a reservoir which covers a large area. Further due to
considerable height of the water in the reservoir, significant hydrostatic pressure develops
which will make the leakage more effective on the sides and the floor of the reservoir.
5. BURRIED RIVER CHANNELS:
Buried river channels, which are more frequent in glaciated regions, are also a serious
source of leakage when they occur at the reservoir site. This is so because they are
generally filled with loose and course sediments which allow heavy loss of water along the
old course of the old channel.
6. INFLUNCE OF ROCK TYPES:
( Refer notes on dams )
Water tightness of a reservoir basin is very much influence by the kind of rocks that occur
at the reservoir site. If the rocks are porous and permeable they will cause the leakage of
water and hence such rocks are undesirable at the reservoir site.
7. INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES:
(Refer notes on dams)
8. RESERVOIR SILTING:
Silting of a reservoir can cause the failure of the reservoir, if it occur seriously. The silting
of the reservoir reduces the storage capacity of the reservoir. This problem of siltation can
be controlled by removal of the silt at fixed interval by dredging or by constructing check
dams at the mouth of the tributaries.