Geology

Dr. Saeed Basaleh

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Geology Dr. Saeed Basaleh

‫ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮر ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺑﺎﺳﺎﻟﻴﻪ‬

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Introduction to Earth
Science!!!
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Introduction to Earth Science!!!

!!!‫ اﻷرض ﻋﻠﻮم‬‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ إﻟ‬

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What is Earth Science?
Earth Science is the
study of earth and it’s
events. Not just solid
earth, but everything
it’s a part of. Ex. the
air surrounding the
earth (atmosphere)
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What is Earth Science? Earth Science is the study of earth and it’s events . Not just solid earth, but
everything it’s a part of. Ex. the

‫ ال‬.‫ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ‬.‫ء إﻧﻪ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ‬‫ﻦ ﻛﻞ ﺷ‬‫ وﻟ‬، ‫ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺻﻠﺒﺔ اﻷرض‬.‫ اﻷﺣﺪاث‬‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻷرض؟ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻷرض ﻫﻮ دراﺳﺔ اﻷرض وﻫ‬

air surrounding the earth (atmosphere)

(‫اﻟﻬﻮاء اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻂ اﻷرض )اﻟﺠﻮ‬

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What is Earth Science?
What are the 4 branches of E.S.?
Geology
Astronomy
Meteorology
Oceanography
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What is Earth Science? What are the 4 branches of E.S.? Geology Astronomy Meteorology
Oceanography

‫؟ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﻔﻠﻚ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻرﺻﺎد اﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺎت‬.E.S ‫ اﻟﻔﺮوع اﻷرﺑﻌﺔ لـ‬‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻷرض؟ ﻣﺎ ﻫ‬

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Which picture belongs to which
branch of Earth Science?

METEOROLOGY
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Which picture belongs to which branch of Earth Science? METEOROLOGY

‫ إﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﺮع ﻋﻠﻮم اﻷرض؟ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻرﺻﺎد اﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ‬‫ أي ﺻﻮرة ﺗﻨﺘﻤ‬‫إﻟ‬

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Which branch?

GEOLOGY
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Which branch? GEOLOGY

‫اي ﻓﺮع؟ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬

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How about this branch?
ASTRONOMY
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How about this branch? ASTRONOMY

‫ﻣﺎذا ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻔﺮع؟ اﻟﻔﻠﻚ‬

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Last but not least….

OCEANOGRAPHY
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Last but not least…. OCEANOGRAPHY

‫ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺎت‬.…ً‫أﺧﻴﺮاً وﻟﻴﺲ آﺧﺮا‬

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Geology- Study of the Earth’s
origin, history and structure.
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Geology - Study of the Earth’s origin, history and structure.

.‫ﻞ‬‫اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ‐ دراﺳﺔ اﻷرض اﻷﺻﻞ واﻟﺘﺎرﻳﺦ واﻟﻬﻴ‬

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Activities of Today’s Geologists
TOPIC 2 What are some activities?
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Activities of Today’s Geologists What are some activities? TOPIC 2

2 ‫ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ؟ اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع‬‫أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﻴﻮم ﻣﺎ ﻫ‬

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Astronomy- the study of space and
the universe
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Astronomy - the study of space and the universe

‫ﻮن‬‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻔﻠﻚ ‐ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻔﻀﺎء و اﻟ‬

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Topic 3- What Astronomers do
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Topic 3 - What Astronomers do

‫ ‐ ﻣﺎذا ﻳﻔﻌﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﻔﻠﻚ‬3 ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع‬

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Meteorology- the study of weather
and climate
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Meteorology - the study of weather and climate

‫اﻷرﺻﺎد اﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ‐ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻄﻘﺲ واﻟﻤﻨﺎخ‬

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Topic 4- What Meteorologists Do
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Topic 4 - What Meteorologists Do

‫ ‐ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻔﻌﻠﻪ ﺧﺒﺮاء اﻷرﺻﺎد‬4 ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع‬

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Oceanography- the study of the
oceans.
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Oceanography - the study of the oceans.

.‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺎت ‐ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺎت‬

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What Oceanographers Do
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What Oceanographers Do

‫ﻣﺎ ﻳﻔﻌﻠﻪ أﺧﺼﺎﺋﻴﻮ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺎت‬

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Geology

Word “geology” is taken from Greek language and

consists of two parts: geo and logy first part means
earth and latter is science
Geology is often defined as the study of earth. A more
helpful definition is that geology is the branch of
science that seeks to describe and understand the
composition, behavior and history of earth, including
the evaluation of life in earth .
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Word “geology” is taken from Greek language and consists of two parts: geo and logy first part means
earth and latter is science Geology is often defined as the study of earth. A more helpful definition is
that geology is the branch of science that seeks to describe and understand the

‫ﺎ ﻣﺎ‬‫ اﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻏﺎﻟﺒ‬‫ اﻷرض واﻷﺧﻴﺮ ﻫ‬‫ واﻟﻠﻮﺟﺮ اﻷول ﻳﻌﻨ‬‫ اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓ‬:‫ﻮن ﻣﻦ ﺟﺰأﻳﻦ‬‫ﻛﻠﻤﺔ "اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ" ﻣﺄﺧﻮذة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﺔ و ﻳﺘ‬
‫ وﺻﻒ وﻓﻬﻢ‬‫ إﻟ‬‫ ﻓﺮع اﻟﻌﻠﻢ اﻟﺬي ﻳﺴﻌ‬‫ أﻛﺜﺮ اﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ اﻟﻤﻔﻴﺪ ﻫﻮ أن اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻫ‬.‫ أﻧﻬﺎ دراﺳﺔ اﻷرض‬‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻋﻠ‬

composition, behavior and history of earth, including the evaluation of life in earth . Geology

‫ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬.‫ اﻷرض‬‫ ذﻟﻚ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﺤﻴﺎة ﻓ‬‫ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓ‬، ‫ﻮﻳﻦ واﻟﺴﻠﻮك وﺗﺎرﻳﺦ اﻷرض‬‫اﻟﺘ‬

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What Do Geologists Do ?
They seek to understand all processes that operate on and inside the Earth.
They study:
• Our planet’s long history.
• Water bodies (rivers and lakes).
• Hazardous processes such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, flood, and landslides.
• Rocks.
• Spot surface patterns.
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They seek to understand all processes that operate on and inside the Earth. They study: • Our planet’s
long history. • Water bodies (rivers and lakes). • Hazardous processes such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, flood, and landslides .

‫ • اﻟﻤﺴﻄﺤﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬.‫ • ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ ﻛﻮﻛﺒﻨﺎ اﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ‬:‫ أﻧﻬﻢ ﻳﺪرﺳﻮن‬.‫ اﻷرض وداﺧﻠﻬﺎ‬‫ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠ‬‫ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎت اﻟﺘ‬‫ﻳﺴﻌﻮن إﻟ‬
.‫ • ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎت ﺧﻄﺮة ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺰﻻزل واﻟﺒﺮﻛﺎﻧﻴﺔ اﻻﻧﻔﺠﺎرات واﻟﻔﻴﻀﺎﻧﺎت واﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎرات اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬.(‫)اﻷﻧﻬﺎر واﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮات‬

• Rocks. • Spot surface patterns. What Do Geologists Do ?

‫ ﻣﺎذا ﻳﻔﻌﻞ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﻮن؟‬.‫ • أﻧﻤﺎط اﻟﺴﻄﺢ ﺑﻘﻌﺔ‬.‫• اﻟﺼﺨﻮر‬

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 Physical Geology Also Studies
• Plate tectonics.
• Volcanism. • Rocks.
• Earthquakes. • Minerals.
• Landslides. • Air.
• Floods. • Seawater.
• Formation of mineral • Soil.
deposits. • Sand
• Mountain-building.
• Shore erosion.
• Landscape formation.
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• Rocks. • Minerals. • Air. • Seawater. • Soil. • Sand

‫ • رﻣﻞ‬.‫ • ﺗﺮﺑﺔ‬.‫ • ﻣﻴﺎه اﻟﺒﺤﺮ‬.‫ • ﻫﻮاء‬.‫ • اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن‬.‫• اﻟﺼﺨﻮر‬

• Plate tectonics. • Volcanism. • Earthquakes. • Landslides. • Floods. • Formation of mineral

‫ﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن‬‫ • ﺗﺸ‬.‫ • اﻟﻔﻴﻀﺎﻧﺎت‬.‫ • اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎرات اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬.‫ • اﻟﺰﻻزل‬.‫ • اﻟﺒﺮﻛﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬.‫ﺘﻮﻧﻴﺔ‬‫• اﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ اﻟﺘ‬

deposits. • Mountain -building. • Shore erosion. • Landscape formation. Physical Geology Also Studies

‫ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﺠﺴﺪﻳﺔ أﻳﻀﺎ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت‬.‫ﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻇﺮ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‬‫ • ﺗﺸ‬.‫ • ﺗﺂﻛﻞ اﻟﺸﺎﻃ‬.‫ • ﺑﻨﺎء اﻟﺠﺒﻞ‬.‫اﻟﻮداﺋﻊ‬

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The Scientific Method
Geologists use a research strategy called the scientific method.
The scientific method includes the following steps:
• Observe and measure.
• Form a hypothesis (a plausible, but unproved, explanation for the
way something happens).
• Test the hypothesis (by comparing the predictions against the new
observations).
• Formulate a theory (a generalization about natural phenomena).
• Formulate a law or principle (statements that some natural
phenomenon is invariably observed to happen in the same way,
and no deviations have ever been observed).
• Continually reexamine the law or principle in the light of new
evidence.
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Geologists use a research strategy called the scientific method. The scientific method includes the
following steps: • Observe and measure. • Form a hypothesis (a plausible, but unproved, explanation
for the way something happens). • Test the hypothesis (by comparing the predictions against the new

• .‫ • ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺔ وﻗﻴﺎس‬:‫ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ اﻟﺨﻄﻮات اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬.‫ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬‫ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﻮن اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤ‬
‫ • اﺧﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﻔﺮﺿﻴﺔ )ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆات‬.(‫ء ﻣﺎ‬‫ ﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ ل ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻳﺤﺪث ﺷ‬، ‫ﻦ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺜﺒﺘﺔ‬‫ وﻟ‬، A Plaable) ‫ﻴﻞ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺔ‬‫ﺗﺸ‬
‫ﺿﺪ اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ‬

observations ). • Formulate a theory (a generalization about natural phenomena). • Formulate a law or

principle (statements that some natural phenomenon is invariably observed to happen in the same
way, and no deviations have ever been observed). • Continually reexamine the law or principle in the
light of new

‫ﺎ‬‫ وﻳﻼﺣﻆ داﺋﻤ‬‫ • ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن أو ﻣﺒﺪأ )ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺤﺎت ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ‬.(‫ • ﺻﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ )ﺗﻌﻤﻴﻢ ﺣﻮل اﻟﻈﻮاﻫﺮ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‬.(‫اﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺎت‬
‫ ﺿﻮء اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ‬‫ • إﻋﺎدة اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮار ﻋﻦ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن أو اﻟﻤﺒﺪأ ﻓ‬.(‫ وﻟﻢ ﻳﻼﺣﻆ أي اﻧﺤﺮاﻓﺎت‬، ‫أن اﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮة ﺗﺤﺪث ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ‬

evidence. The Scientific Method

‫ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬.‫ﺷﻬﺎدة‬

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Branch of geology (1) :
Like the major science, geology has strong relationship with other sciences such as
mathematic, physic, chemistry, biology, geography etc. and due to development of
geology as of science many of its theatrical branches appeared:
 Geochemistry ( study of earth's composition and chemical dynamics )
 Geochronology( study of earth time through the dating of rocks )
 Geomorpho9logy ( landscape formation and evolution)
 Geophysics (study of physical features of earth)
 Mineralogy ( study of minerals and mineral substance of the earth)
 Paleontology ( study of fossils and the evolution of life )
 Sedimentary / stratigraphy (the of the sediments, rock pieces and their
deposition )
 Tectonics (study of movements of the earth's surface )
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Like the major science, geology has strong relationship with other sciences such as mathematic,
physic, chemistry, biology, geography etc. and due to development of geology as of science many of
its theatrical branches appeared :  Geochemistry ( study of earth's composition and chemical
dynamics )  Geochronology( study of earth time through the dating of rocks )  Geomorpho 9 logy (
landscape formation and evolution)

‫ﻴﻤﻴﺎء واﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ واﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﻴﺎ‬‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﻠﻮم اﻷﺧﺮى ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎت واﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎء واﻟ‬، ‫ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻌﻠﻢ اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴ‬
‫ﻮﻳﻦ اﻷرض‬‫ﻴﻤﻴﺎء اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ )دراﺳﺔ ﺗ‬‫ اﻟ‬ :‫ ذﻟﻚ وﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻛﻌﻠﻮم ﻇﻬﺮت اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺮوﻋﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﺴﺮﺣﻴﺔ‬‫وﻣﺎ إﻟ‬
‫ﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻇﺮ‬‫ )ﺗﺸ‬Geomorpho 9 logy  (‫ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ )دراﺳﺔ وﻗﺖ اﻷرض ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻮاﻋﺪة اﻟﺼﺨﻮر‬ (‫ﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬‫واﻟﺪﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﺎت اﻟ‬
(‫اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ واﻟﺘﻄﻮر‬

 Geophysics (study of physical features of earth )  Mineralogy ( study of minerals and mineral
substance of the earth)  Paleontology ( study of fossils and the evolution of life )  Sedimentary /
stratigraphy (the of the sediments, rock pieces and their deposition )  Tectonics (study of movements
of the earth's surface )

‫ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﺤﻔﺮﻳﺎت )دراﺳﺔ‬ (‫ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن )دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن واﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻤﻌﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻸرض‬ (‫ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎء )دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺴﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﺎدﻳﺔ ﻟﻸرض‬
(‫ )دراﺳﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺎت ﺳﻄﺢ اﻷرض‬tectonics ( ‫ ﻃﺒﻘﻴﺔ )ﻣﻦ اﻟﺮواﺳﺐ واﻟﻘﻄﻊ اﻟﺼﺨﺮﻳﺔ و إﻳﺪاع‬/ ‫ رﺳﻮﺑﻴﺔ‬ (‫اﻟﺤﻔﺮﻳﺎت وﺗﻄﻮر اﻟﺤﻴﺎة‬

Branch of geology ( 1 ) :

:(1) ‫ﻓﺮع اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬

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Branch of geology (2) :

 branches appeared such as :

 Petroleum geology ( study of ways of discovery of oil fields )
 Hydrogeology ( study of the groundwater )
 Economic geology ( estimation of fields productivity )
 Mining geology (study of ways to discovery of the minerals )
 made by Echo https://t.me/mkfrbot
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 branches appeared such as :  Petroleum geology ( study of ways of discovery of oil fields ) 
Hydrogeology ( study of the groundwater )  Economic geology ( estimation of fields productivity ) 
Mining geology (study of ways to discovery of the minerals ) Branch of geology ( 2 ) :

 (‫ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺟﻴﻦ )دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﺎه اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬ (‫ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﺒﺘﺮوﻟﻴﺔ )دراﺳﺔ ﻃﺮق اﻛﺘﺸﺎف ﺣﻘﻮل اﻟﻨﻔﻂ‬ :‫ ﻇﻬﺮت اﻟﻔﺮوع ﻣﺜﻞ‬
:(2) ‫ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻦ )دراﺳﺔ ﻃﺮق ﻻﻛﺘﺸﺎف اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن( ﻓﺮع اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬ (‫اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﻳﺔ )ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ إﻧﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﻘﻮل‬

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History of geology )
History of earth began when people wanted to know
about everything that surrounded them. People tried to
understand many natural phenomenon such as
earthquake, volcanisms, floods, landslides, etc. that's why
geology is considered as one of the oldest science.
Ancient Egyptians first discovered minerals and used
them for drawing and writing. They used stones to build
status and monuments.
Many ancient scientists and philosophers such as Aristotle
(384 – 322 BC ) Leonardo Da Vinci( 1452 -1519 )
James Hutton ( 1726 – 1797 ) William smith ( 1769 -1839)
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History of earth began when people wanted to know about everything that surrounded them . People
tried to understand many natural phenomenon such as earthquake, volcanisms, floods, landslides, etc
. that's why geology is considered as one of the oldest science . Ancient Egyptians first discovered
minerals and used

، ‫ ﺣﺎول اﻟﻨﺎس ﻓﻬﻢ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻈﻮاﻫﺮ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺰﻟﺰال‬.‫ﺑﺪأ ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ اﻷرض ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ أراد اﻟﻨﺎس أن ﻳﻌﺮﻓﻮا ﺣﻮل ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺤﻴﻂ ﺑﻬﻢ‬
‫ اﻛﺘﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻳﻮن اﻟﻘﺪﻣﺎء أوﻻ‬.‫ ﻟﻬﺬا ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ أﻗﺪم اﻟﻌﻠﻮم‬.‫ إﻟﺦ‬، ‫ اﻻﻧﻬﻴﺎرات اﻷرﺿﻴﺔ‬، ‫ اﻟﻔﻴﻀﺎﻧﺎت‬، ‫اﻟﺒﺮاﻛﻴﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن واﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮا‬

them for drawing and writing . They used stones to build status and monuments . Many ancient
scientists and philosophers such as Aristotle (384 – 322 BC ) Leonardo Da Vinci( 1452 -1519 ) James
Hutton ( 1726 – 1797 ) William smith ( 1769 -1839 ) History of geology )

‫ ﻗﺒﻞ‬322‐ 384) ‫ واﻟﻔﻼﺳﻔﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ أرﺳﻄﻮ‬‫ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء اﻟﻘﺪاﻣ‬.‫ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮا اﻟﺤﺠﺎرة ﻟﻠﺒﻨﺎء اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ واﻵﺛﺎر‬.‫ﺘﺎﺑﺔ‬‫ﻟﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﺮﺳﻢ واﻟ‬
(‫( ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ اﻟﺠﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬1839‐ 1769) ‫( وﻟﻴﺎم ﺳﻤﻴﺚ‬1797‐ 1726) ‫( ﺟﻴﻤﺲ ﻫﻮﺗﻮن‬1519‐ 1452) ‫اﻟﻤﻴﻼد( ﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎردو داﻓﻨﺸ‬

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