PSTM WEEK 16 | CLINICAL TEACHING 3.

CLIENTELE FACTORS
I. INSTRUCTIONAL SETTINGS
• An environment in which health education takes place to provide individuals
with the opportunity to engage in learning experiences for the purpose of
improving their health or reducing their risk for illness
• Is conceptualized on the basis of what relationship health education has to
the primary function of the organization within which it occurs
• Is an entity whose fundamental mission is to provide health care, to engage
in activities related to health care, or to be involved primarily in activities
unrelated to health care (education)
TYPES
1. HEALTH CARE SETTING: One in which the delivery of health care is the
primary or sole function of the institution, organization, or agency.
2. HEALTH CARE-RELATED SETTING: One in which healthcare-related
services are offered as a complementary function of a quasi-health
agency.
3. NON- HEALTH CARE RELATED SETTING: One in which health care is an
incidental or supportive function of an organization.
a. HEALTH STATUS OF CLIENT (STUDENT): The client who is well most
likely has a low or moderate state of anxiety and is therefore likely
to be receptive to teaching and learning.
b. NATURE OF THE CONTACT TIME OF CLIENT: Contact with the client
is highly variable, depending on the situation. The opportunity for
frequent contact may be more concentrated, over a week or just a
few days or even hours.
c. DEVELOPMENTAL LEVELS OF THE CLIENT: language skills, age,
literacy levels, disabilities, and cultural beliefs of the client.
d. SELF-DIRECTEDNESS OF THE CLIENT: internally oriented individuals
prefer to maintain self-control and are likely to be health oriented
and receptive to health teaching.
e. SIGNIFICANCE OF EDUCATIONAL CONTENT TO CLIENT: If what is
being taught is viewed as important information that can be used
to help attain or maintain optimal health then the clients’ attention
will be oriented to learning
f. AVAILABLE RESOURCES TO ASSIST CLIENTS IN ACHIEVING
EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES

III. STANDARD LABWORK

• Instructors build upon students' everyday knowledge of the world around
them – and augment this by providing carefully designed activities in which
students observe or interact with real objects and materials.
• Health teaching can occur during any encounter between a healthcare • These activities are usually carried out in teaching laboratories or in the field.
professional—in this case, the medical laboratory scientist in the role of • Labwork tasks are implemented to observe what the students actually do on
educator—and another person or group seeking health-related information, the task, and to assess what they actually learn.
regardless of the setting in which the information is shared. • Both of these will be influenced by the students' views of science and of
learning, and by the practical and institutional setting.
II. FACTORS RELATED TO INSTRUCTIONAL SETTING
1. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS PRODUCING A PROFILE OF A LABWORK TASK
a. ADMINISTRATIVE PERSPECTIVE: The attitude of the administration • One measure of effectiveness
about the teaching of health information is of utmost importance ('effectiveness 1') is the
to the success of educational endeavors extent to which the students'
b. TIME ALLOCATED TO TEACHING: Time for educational activities is actions match those that the
often a scarce in healthcare agencies, where contact time with teacher intended.
patients is being further limited by organizational responses to • A second, and rather
external healthcare reforms stronger, measure of
c. AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES: Adequate resources make possible effectiveness ('effectiveness
the implementation of efficient and effective educational 2') is the extent to which the
interventions; Teaching time can be decreased by combining more students' learning matches
standardized teaching materials with the sharing of resources the learning objectives
among healthcare settings.
d. EXPERTISE OF STAFF IN TEACHING ROLE: In a healthcare A. OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE
environment, the informal reward system often recognizes physical PROFILE
care as more important than the teaching of self-care. • The profile describes the
e. LEVEL OF SUPPORT FROM OTHER COLLEAGUES: Good following aspects of a
communication and positive relationships among colleagues are labwork task:
necessary to provide continuity of care, which includes patient A: THE INTENDED LEARNING
education as one very important aspect of overall treatment. OUTCOMES (OR LEARNING
2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OBJECTIVES)
a. AVAILABILITY OF EXTERNAL RESOURCES: The services of other B: KEY ELEMENTS OF THE TASK
healthcare disciplines must be available to complement the efforts DESIGN, including:
by MLS educators in helping clients to acquire skills needed to • B1: the cognitive
attain or maintain optimal wellness. structure of the task
b. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT STIMULATE EDUCATION • B2: the level and nature
PROGRAMS: Location, travel time, space availability, costs, of student involvement
scheduling, and accessibility when designing a new program or • B3: the practical context
continuing an existing one. of the task
IV. EVALUATION
• A systematic process by which the worth or value of something—in this case, •
teaching and learning—is judged.
DETERMINING THE FOCUS OF EVALUATION
• Evaluation focuses on five basic components: audience, purpose, questions,
scope, and resources.
• To determine these components, ask the following questions:
1. For whom is the evaluation being conducted? (Audience)
2. Why is the evaluation being conducted? (Purpose)
3. What questions will be asked in the evaluation? (Questions)
4. What is the scope of the evaluation? (Scope)
5. What resources are available to conduct the (Resources) evaluation?
FIVE TYPES OF EVALUATION
1. PROCESS EVALUATION (FORMATIVE EVALUATION): is intended to
adjust in an educational activity as soon as they are needed.
• Adjustments may need to be made after one class or session
before the next is taught or even in the middle of a single learning
experience
• “How can teaching be improved to facilitate learning?”
2. CONTENT EVALUATION: is intended to determine whether learners
have acquired the knowledge or skills taught during the learning
experience; can be considered as focusing on how the teaching–learning
process affected immediate, short-term outcomes.
• “Were specified objectives met as a result of teaching?”
• “To what degree did the learners learn what was imparted?”
3. OUTCOME EVALUATION: is intended to determine the effects or
outcomes of teaching efforts. Also referred to as summative evaluation
because its intent is to “sum” what happened as a result of education.
• Evaluation occurs after teaching has been completed or after a
program has been carried out.
• “Was teaching appropriate?”
• “Did the individual(s) learn?”
• “Were behavioral objectives met?”
4. IMPACT EVALUATION: is intended to determine the relative effects of
education on the institution or the community.
• The purpose of impact evaluation is to obtain information that will
help decide whether continuing an educational activity is worth its
cost
• “What is the effect of the education program on subsequent
medtech staff turnover?”
5. PROGRAM EVALUATION: is designed and conducted to assist an
audience to judge and improve the worth of some object, in this case
the educational program
• “How well did patient education activities implemented
throughout the year meet annual goals established for the
institution’s patient education program?”
PSTM WEEK 17 | Assessing and Evaluating Learners
I. ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
• While assessment and evaluation are highly interrelated and are often used
interchangeably as terms, they are not synonymous.
• Assessment is to gather, summarize, interpret, and use data to decide a
direction for action
• The process of evaluation is to gather, summarize, interpret, and use data to
determine the extent to which an action was successful; can be done after
the activity has been completed
Example:
o An educational activity is being planned.
o To begin, one must assess the needs of the students.
o Upon implementation of the activity, it is periodically being evaluated
to know if the activity is proceeding as planned
II. DESIGNING A PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
“If you get the assessment right, you are likely to direct students’ activities
appropriately” (Boud 1988)
o ESSENTIAL TO ALL FORMS OF ASSESSMENT IS CLARITY ABOUT
CRITERIA, and this is particularly the case when the assessor is
considering the extent to which practical skills have been satisfactorily
demonstrated.
1. In designing any practical assessment instrument, it should be seeking
answers to a series of questions that can help to make the design of
assignments systematic, coherent and aligned with the instructors’
intentions.
2. It is important to note that BADLY DESIGNED LEARNING OUTCOMES
CAN BE DIFFICULT TO ASSESS if they are:
a. Vague
b. Far from what it is really intended that students should achieve
c. Multiple, so that the assessor is confused by partial achievement;
d. Expressed in unnecessary jargon.
e. Inappropriate in terms of level, scope or extent
3. EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL SKILLS should be any and all of
the following:
a. VALID: measures a close as intended outcomes as possible
• “In other words, are we measuring exactly what we intend to
measure?”
b. RELIABLE: any assessor would come to the same grade if used
c. Consistent: ensuring inter-tutor and intra-tutor consistency,
however many assignments an individual grader tackles, the same
standards of judgement will apply.
d. FAIR: all students must have equivalent chance of achievement
e. INCLUSIVE: ensures diversity in students can engage in assessment.
The assessment of practical skills may require particular
consideration.
f. MANAGEABLE: in terms of work required, submission dates and
turnaround time. Assessment should be realistic in terms of
resources available.
g. AUTHENTIC: intended outcome is truly representative of
achievement.
h. TESTING: required standards of achievement are maintained and
are pitched at the right level for the stage of study.
i. BEYOND DISPUTE: transparent as to how the mark was achieved
j. ACCOMPANIED BY DEVELOPMENTAL AND INFORMATIVE
FEEDBACK
k. MOTIVATING: engaging and inspiring to students
l. EFFICIENT: time spent in grading should be proportionate to
importance of the work within the program
m. ENJOYABLE: for both instructor and student
n. ELEGANT IN SIMPLICITY
o. EASY TO CALCULATE: to avoid excessive use of manual calculation
with its inherent possibilities for human error
p. UNCOMPLICATED: avoiding (if possible) excessive set-ups and
actions and lots of individual assessor actions.
q. TIME SAVING: enabling multiple individual’s outputs to be
assessed and returned quickly
r. SYNOPTIC: bringing various components of a learning program
together in a single task.
III. COMPREHENSIVE PARAMETERS FOR MOTIVATIONAL
ASSESSMENT OF THE LEARNER
1. COGNITIVE VARIABLES
CAPACITY TO LEARN
• Readiness to learn
o Expressed self-determination
o Constructive attitude
o Expressed desire and curiosity
o Willingness to contract for behavioral outcomes
• Facilitating beliefs
• The educator can pose several questions in terms of the learner,
such as those focusing on previous attempts, curiosity, goal setting,
self-care ability, stress factors, survival issues, and life situations
2. AFFECTIVE VARIABLES
• Expressions of constructive emotional state
• Moderate level of anxiety
3. PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES
 • Capacity to perform required behavior
4. EXPERIENTIAL VARIABLES
• Previous successful experiences
5. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES
• Appropriateness of physical environment
• Social support systems:
o Family
o Group
o Work
o Community resources
6. EDUCATOR–LEARNER RELATIONSHIP SYSTEM
• Prediction of positive relationship

In group skills presentations, students may find it difficult to hear or understand

what one another is saying: it might be helpful therefore to encourage them to
provide outline notes, annotated diagrams or handouts to aid mutual
comprehension.

Home students should also be encouraged to consider the extent to which

colloquialisms and slang should be used

These kinds of expressions can marginalise, alienate or confuse students from a

different cultural context.