Clean Energy, 2020, 1–11

doi: 10.1093/ce/zkaa020
Advance Access Publication Date: 24 December 2020
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Research Article

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Strategies for reducing the costs of clean-energy
technologies in buildings in Nigeria
Samuel Ekung1,*, Victor Ohama1 and Reginald Ajiero2
Department of Quantity Surveying, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria
1

Department of Building, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

2

*Corresponding author. E-mail: elbason6@gmail.com

Abstract
The costs of clean-energy technologies are currently very high and their adoption in buildings is voluntary. This
study evaluated strategies for improving the cost performance of photovoltaic (PV) electricity applied in buildings
in Nigeria using a questionnaire survey involving 415 targets. The efficacy of each strategy and consensus
in respondents’ perceptions were determined using Fuzzy Set Theory and Kruskal–Wallis tests. The top four
strategies for achieving PV-cost reduction are mandating green buildings, standardization of building designs
and PV components, facilitating import licensing and massive public education. Developing these strategies to
improve the PV value chain will increase the supply capacity of clean energy in emerging markets.

Graphic abstract

Strong government
intervention

Low adoption of PV Cost Diffused

in building due to Collaborative PV
reduction Low cost PV adoption of PV
high costs supply chain
policies in buildings

Education, training
and increased
awareness

Keywords: buildings; cost reduction; photovoltaic; sustainable energy; sustainable development

Introduction across developing countries is predominantly fossil-based

electricity. The transmission of electricity to point-of-use
Buildings consume a significant proportion of global energy
involves an estimated loss of 6.8% and this proportion
stock [1]. The main source of energy supply to buildings

Received: 2 July 2020; Accepted: 19 October 2020

© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy
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 2 | Clean Energy, 2020, Vol. XX, No. XX
adds to the quantity of emitted carbon [2]. The environ-
mental consequences of fossil-based electricity enhance
the upsurge in the adoption of point-of-use-generated
zero-carbon energy. Zero-carbon energy sources are re-
newable and various sources of renewable technologies
exist, but solar photovoltaic (PV) energy has gained wide-
spread approval in developing countries [3]. The expansion
in renewable energy in Africa is further due to its contribu-
tion to increasing building energy efficiency, carbon reduc-
tion and aiding sustainable development goals [4–7]. The
lack of reliability and non-availability of power supply are
specific drivers supporting the penchant for the integra-
tion of PV technologies in buildings [5]. In Nigeria, power
supply to buildings is not only low, but the spread is also
low. The access to electricity by households in Nigeria was
60% in 2014 [8], with no significant growth in 2016 [9] and
persistently declining [10]. The building sector in Nigeria
consumes 55–60% of the current electricity output for 4–6
hours daily [10–12]. As in other nations, the energy de-
mand by buildings in Nigeria is high but the efficiency of
the current output is low. Strategic upscaling of the in-
stalled capacity of PV energy in this region is the desirable
alternative for tackling energy poverty and the associated
environmental problems [7, 13].
The potentials for solar energy and the applications of
related technologies in buildings in Nigeria are compelling
[4, 14], although accessibility and uptake of PV are laggard
based on inferred high costs [15–17]. Despite advances in
the dissemination of awareness relating to sustainable-
energy development, most developing countries lack
strategic policies for driving enabling technologies in the
energy sector [9, 18]. Unlike related development in Asia
[5, 19], the PV policies in Africa remain marginal after sev-
eral decades [7]. The competition resulting from the niche
created by the vast PV market in Africa seems inadequate
as an incentive to improve the adoption of related tech-
nologies in the emerging markets. The high costs of PV
systems continue to hinder the decision-making to adopt
these technologies, replacing fossil-based electricity and
fuel-based generators [15, 16, 20, 21]. Therefore, to thrive,
several international intervention policies promoting PV
adoption in this region, and clear and effective strategies
for promoting cost reduction are imperative [7].
Various studies have appraised renewable-energy pol-
icies and strategies for improving access in Nigeria [14, 18,
22] and overseas [5–7, 19]. However, these studies focused
on enablers, drivers, potentials and barriers, mainly using
literature synthesis. The empirical evidence underlying
the conclusions of these studies, in most cases, does not
advance the severity and perceived performance of the
relevance strategies for improving access to renewable en-
ergy along with regional variations. Therefore, despite the
number of studies that evaluated the spread of PV tech-
nologies, the strategic mitigation policies to improving
critical cost barriers are sketchy. PV-optimization studies
researched the targeted selection process and building
energy performance [23]. Other studies, amidst the empir-
ical gap, focused on reforms aimed at solving national and
regional energy problems [5, 19]. The inclination towards
regional policies in past studies suggested that the critical
problems inhibiting adoption require context-based solu-
tions. Efforts to optimize the costs of Building-Integrated
Photovoltaic (BIPV) systems [24] and the overall perform-
ance of the BIPV systems [24–27] also exist, but the adop-
tion of PV technologies is currently very low due to the
dearth of strategies to mitigate the perceived high costs.
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This paper argues that the cost of PV is a function of
closely related drivers in the different phases of PV uses in
buildings. A plethora of cost-related triggers such as com-
ponent quality, low reliability, poor installation procedures
and maintenance requirements are a few related con-
cerns, which, when mitigated, would expedite PV adoption
[26]. Chen and Riffat [28] reiterated the need for research to
advance PV-cost mitigation to advance the sustainability
of the built environment. This study, therefore, evolved
practical steps to upscale the uptake of PV technologies in
buildings, through empirical authentication of in-country
perceived cost-mitigation strategies in Nigeria. The devel-
opment of strategies to enhance point-of-use generation
is capable of stimulating the supply of clean energy in
emerging markets [4]. The research also provides desktop
benchmarks for various actors in the PV value chain such
as policy developers, industry partners and building devel-
opers to upscale adoption. The inability to generate data
for policymaking in Nigeria is severe [29]; this study, there-
fore, contributes to resolving these problems in the energy
sector. The objective of the study was to evaluate strategies
for reducing the costs of PV technologies towards diffused
integration in buildings in Nigeria.
1 The PV system
The origin of the term ‘photovoltaic’ can be traced to
Greek, in which ‘photo’ indicates light and ‘Volta’ was an
Italian scientist who invented the chemical battery in 1800
[30]. The PV effect is therefore a direct conversion of solar
energy into electricity. The panels are fabricated using ma-
terial that allows electrons to energize in a free state from
their atoms when subjected to light [30]. The current flows
in one direction; hence, the electricity is direct current
(DC). Photovoltaic systems, therefore, convert solar energy
into electricity using PV cells combined in modules, and
modules combined to form arrays. In developing coun-
tries, the most widely used method of deployment is to
mount arrays on the roofs of buildings [15, 16, 19]. Solar PV
is a member of the renewable-energy-technologies family.
Renewable energy refers to energy obtained from sources
that are replenished at a similar rate as used [28]. Other
renewable sources include solar thermal, wind, biogas and
hydroelectric technologies.
There are three types of PV-cell technologies in the market
across developing countries, namely mono-crystalline,

silicon/polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon and
thin-film technology of Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS)
[30]. The mono-crystalline silicon is single-crystal silicon
and has the highest efficiency rating of >26.7% [31]. The
polycrystalline silicon is more expensive than mono-
crystalline silicon; cells are fabricated from a block of cast
silicon. Polycrystalline silicon has a conversion efficiency
of 22.3% [31]. The amorphous silicon has the lowest con-
version efficiency amongst all PV technologies (10–15%).
However, mono-crystalline technology is readily available
across market segments of the world, including Nigeria.
The PV cell (panel) is the most significant component of
the PV system, and the most significant cost driver [32].
The rooftop integration of PV across buildings accounts for
>80% of applications across the globe [19, 33]. Current in-
novations to improve the cost management of PV adoption
consider crystalline silicon technology to be more expen-
sive and other technologies are economically viable sub-
stitutes [20].
2 PV-cost-optimization strategies
Global renewable-energy indices suggest a steady growth
in the uptake of PV technology. Sustaining this growth tra-
jectory requires reducing the costs (prices) of PV compo-
nents, as an incentive to promote widespread adoption
[3]. The vast proportion of extant literature links PV-cost
mitigation with government actions as well as those of
other stakeholders [3, 24, 34]. Yang and Zou [3] observed
that strong government policy support and incentives are
capable of motivating the adoption of PV technologies
across sectors. This viewpoint leads to the postulation that
effective, consistent and viable government policies are
prerequisites to PV-costs reduction. Developing strategies
for cost optimization must therefore focus on improving
government policies to stimulate market growth. Lawton
[34] established a relationship between the soft costs of
PV and regional or local policies, while panel and module
costs are affected by international trade regimes, the
scale of technological development and production eco-
nomics. The analysis of the causes of PV-cost reduction
over 30 years revealed that enhanced module efficiency,
increased research and development (R&D) and economies
of scale could sustain the cost economy [35]. However,
cost-mitigation solutions are pertinent through long-term
policies and synergy between relevant stakeholders across
the value chain. Cost-reduction strategies refer to drivers
(policies) that contribute to lower PV costs by eliminating
barriers and cost factors [5]. The effectiveness of cost-
reduction strategies depends on the degree of their effect-
iveness to decimate cost factors and barriers. A Malaysian
study showed that PV-integration policies must develop
from the contexts of inherent drivers, enablers and barriers
[6]. Enablers are facilitating policies, barriers are inhibitors,
while drivers are strategies that can eliminate barriers
[5]. Finance, incentives, policy, maintenance, promotion
Ekung et al. | 3
and housing-loan policies are focal drivers [6]. Therefore,
market development and the provision of incentives are
fundamental drivers to cost reduction [5].
Lawton [34] advanced five strategies for achieving eco-
nomic competitiveness in the PV market. The five strategies
focused on new corporate and public reforms and financing
options, standardization of designs, streamlining permit
issues, utility regulation and mandating green buildings.
The study also proved that the early conception and in-
corporation of a photovoltaic system in the design stage
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are significant to mitigate the costs of remedial or retrofit
works to roofs during installations. This study considers
these strategies too generic to address the focal cost trig-
gers predisposing high costs. Accordingly, standardizing
panels, mandating solar homes, massive education and
awareness campaigns can improve the costs of customer
acquisition. Developing local technologies to aid the local
manufacturing of PV components represents an enormous
opportunity to improve the installed costs. The costs of PV
modules and other components are consistent barriers
to PV adoption across studies [15, 16]. The participants in
these studies likewise agreed that interventions aimed at
improving the reliability of PV components are essential
to direct cost reduction. Similarly, mandating solar homes,
the standardization of panels and relaxed permitting and
inspection are strategic to improve installation costs.
Encouraging and providing third-party financing is suit-
able to manage finance-related problems. Stimulating the
local production of non-hardware components through the
R&D of local content supports are imperative to lowering
overall costs. Developing from the premise of innovation-
system theory, Strupeit [36] revealed seven processes that
could improve the soft costs in PV systems. The soft-cost-
reduction policies include demand and market growth,
supply-chain-agent interactions, knowledge acquisition
and dissemination, producing variety and choice, and the
development of institution capacity [36].
Improvement of the framework for supply-chain-based
PV-cost governance is also significant to unbundle PV costs
[3]. This strategy encompasses collaboration between key
actors in the construction industry, namely government,
professionals, manufacturers, clients, users and a league
of others. The collective intervention of these stake-
holders in their relevant sectors can eliminate knowledge
gaps, provide subsidies, improve efficiencies and enhance
market uptake. The roles of the identified stakeholders
in PV-market uptake have been documented in past lit-
erature [37–39]. The strategies for the long-term cost op-
timization of BIPV also exist, namely the establishment
of BIPV-information services, awareness and capacity-
building programmes, the development of PV-market
enhancement and infrastructure development, and im-
provement of policy and financial frameworks supportive
for PV-market sustainability [24]. PV-market-development
initiatives are needed to resolve technical feasibility
and economic viability using demonstration projects, to
 4 | Clean Energy, 2020, Vol. XX, No. XX

promote a wider level of acceptance and to deepen under-
standing of the technology and its benefits [37, 38]. PV pol-
icies and financing programmes are adequate to advance
activities directed at enhancing the ability of policymakers
to institute appropriate, proactive and integrated plans,
which can ensure the development and sustenance of a
supportive business environment. Enhancing R&D is also
a strategic way to develop, strengthen and organize the
human-resource capacities of stakeholders [5]. Synergy
through partnership with international joint ventures
The scope of achievable cost reduction and the validity of
the cost-reduction strategies are imminent empirical gaps
in the literature. This study seeks to validate the potency
of PV-cost-reduction strategies using empirical data, since
the formative studies in the literature are non-empirical
research.
3 Research methodology

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and companies can upgrade local firms, R&D institutions
and the provision of technical infrastructures to test and
standardize PV products. In Malaysia, Sopian [24] observed
that the highlighted strategies improved PV-application
rates by >300% over a 5-year strategic plan. The review of
related literature in this section has shown that efforts to
improve the cost-effectiveness of PV technologies require
strategic planning, designed in phases to achieve short-,
medium- and long-term cost-reduction targets. Table 1
provides a summary of theoretical cost-optimization vari-
ables for PV technologies from the literature. The strat-
egies are categorized into three major groups, namely
design; financing; and education, training and research.
The postulation suggests the relevant policies for PV-cost
reduction to enhance PV-system and building designs,
financing, research, education and training. However, the
existing PV-cost-reduction strategies are non-empirical
and the product of institutional and technical literature.
The research involved a survey research design. A self-
study structured questionnaire was administered to tar-
gets drawn from relevant stakeholders associated with PV
marketing, manufacturing, distribution, installation, de-
sign and promotion. The population of the study consisted
of respondents from the Nigeria Energy Commission, con-
struction professionals, PV contractors and electrical en-
gineers. Preliminary inquiry data obtained from various
databases of these bodies revealed a total population of
1010 targets. The Kish formula for sample-size determin-
ation [48] generated a sample of 415 respondents, including
applied correction for non-response bias. The study was
conducted in the six geo-political zones of Nigeria in eight
cities: Abuja, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Dutse, Gombe, Calabar,
Uyo and Enugu. The choice of survey research design using
the questionnaire followed the trend in past studies [49,
50]. The survey therefore represents a strategic approach
adapted to improved the existing theoretical data and

Table 1: Theoretical variables of PV-cost-reduction strategies

Code Strategies Sources

Design strategies
PCS1 Early conception and incorporation of photovoltaic system in the design stage [3, 40]
PCS2 Mandate Green buildings [41]
PCS3 Standardization of designs [34, 40]
PCS4 Promotion of new business practices and developers [42]
PCS5 Encourage PV supply chain cost framework collaboration of actors in the building sector, [37, 43]
professionals, manufacturers, vendors, clients, users and community
PCS6 Simplifying permits and inspections [34]
PCS7 Mandating solar power [3]
PCS8 Relax level of inspection, permits and regulations policies [25]
Financing strategies
PCS9 Provide financing incentives [34, 42]
PCS10 Develop and provide local content through research [26]
PCS11 Facilitate import licensing to check & improve purchasing power benefits [39, 44]
PCS12 Favourable tax policies [40, 45]
Education, training and research
PCS13 Massive public education and awareness campaign [24, 34]
PCS14 Promote research to encourage local production of non-hardware components [35, 46, 47]
PCS15 Provide real-time experiences for development in training and skills of stakeholders [26]
PCS16 Institute relevant standards and update as at when required [26]
PCS17 Set new guidelines for providing technical assistances to the industry [26, 38]
PCS18 Detailed and document barriers and opportunities to cost efficiency to maximized shared [26]
experiences
PCS19 Promote installers licensing and certification [45]

knowledge of PV-cost-reduction strategies using key stake-
holder experiences.
The research instrument, the PV Cost Optimisation
Strategies Questionnaire, was implemented to collect the
study’s data. The questionnaire consisted of two parts:
the first part contained questions relating to respondents’
background information including the role of respond-
ents in the PV value chain, years of experience and educa-
tional qualifications; the second part elicited respondents’
perceived level of the effectiveness of identified PV-cost-
mitigation strategies (Table 1). The respondents ranked
their perceived level of effectiveness of the listed strategies
on a five-point Likert scale. The five-point Likert scale was
defined as 1 indicates that the strategy is not effective, the
method has no potential to reduce costs; 2 indicates low
effectiveness, the method has low potential to reduce cost;
while 3 means medium effectiveness, a moderate effect
on costs reduction; 4 indicates a high level of effective-
ness, strategy is highly effective to mitigate PV cost; and
5 means very high effectiveness, the perceived level of the
cost reduction of the strategy is very high. The adminis-
tration of the research instrument involved a face-to-face
survey and e-mails. The questionnaire-administration ap-
proaches yielded a response rate of 70% and an efficiency
rate of 65% [51]. The study also determined the quality of
the research design and measurement variables by con-
ducting reliability tests because the literature review
showed that the formative studies were non-empirical re-
search. The result of the Cronbach’s alpha test indicated
that the variables were indicative of optimization strat-
egies for improving PV cost (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78–0.92).
Other data analysis involved Fuzzy Set Theory (FST) and
the Kruskal–Wallis test. The Kruskal–Wallis test evaluated
variance in the respondents’ perceptions of the effective-
ness of PV-cost-reduction strategies, while FST determined
the critical performance of each strategy following similar
adoption in related studies [52, 53]. The effectiveness of
each optimization strategy was therefore based on the
critical-performance score obtained using FST. Studies [52]
and [53] provide inclusive discussion about the theoret-
ical dimensions of FST and its application in determining
critical performance. The tool addresses fuzziness in the
qualitative ranking and the analysis involves four steps:
calculations of mean and standard deviation (SD), deter-
mination of Z score (Mean-3/Standard Deviation) and de-
termination of the degree of membership using the Excel
NORMDIST function. The degree of association forms the
basis for setting a benchmark to select an effective strategy
Survey the adoption of
PV in real-life,
investigate low
adoption PV cost
perception Preliminary literature
search on PV cost
reduction (PCR) and
formulate research
problem
Fig. 1: Adopted research processes
Ekung et al. | 5
based on a 0.85 cut-off point [46] and scores in the range
of 0.85–1.00 indicate full membership and a very high level
of effectiveness. FST has diffused application in the de-
termination of critical-performance indices within the re-
search environment [54]. Overall, the research involved the
five stages depicted in Fig. 1.
4 Results
4.1 Characteristics of respondents
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The descriptive analysis of respondents’ characteris-
tics validated the quality of the field data. The result in
Table 2 shows that the lowest educational qualification of
the respondents is Higher National Diploma (HND). The
population of first- and higher-degree holders is also sig-
nificant. The population of degree holders in the sample
is 73%, while the combined population of degree holders
and those with an HND is 90%. The composition of the
sample with a valid academic qualification is therefore ad-
equate to accept their perceptions about the effectiveness
of identified PV-cost-reduction strategies. The majority of
the respondents (57%) are design consultants, construc-
tion professionals and stakeholders in the PV-supply
chain. The remaining 43% consists of vendors/distributors,
building contractors and project managers. Fifty-one per
cent operate in southern Nigeria and another 21% are in
the northern part. Another 28% operate in Nigeria’s former
and current capital cities (Lagos and Abuja). The sample is
homogenous; 33% of respondents are in northern Nigeria,
while 67% are in the southern part.
4.2 Critical performance of PV-cost-reduction
strategies
The level of effectiveness of the cost-mitigation strategies
was analysed using FST. The result (Table 3) shows that 15
strategies (81%) out of 19 strategies evaluated are signifi-
cant and effective to improve PV-cost performance. These
strategies obtained λ-cut (Lambda Cut) values greater than
the 0.85 benchmark adopted in the study (see the ‘Research
methodology’ section). Further detail indicates that, overall,
mandating green buildings emerged as the most effective
strategy to improve PV-cost performance with a degree of
association of 0.97. This strategy would ensure that newly
built homes and major retrofitted homes adopt solar power
and other passive design strategies towards energy effi-
ciency. The spread of solar homes is capable of promoting
Develop variables for Analyze field data,
PCR and validate with report findings and
focus group publish results
Construct instrument,
pilot and collect filed
data
 6 | Clean Energy, 2020, Vol. XX, No. XX

Table 2: Respondent characteristics

Educational qualifications Professional qualifications Years in related business

Variables N % Variables N % Variables N %

HND 24 13 Vendor/distributor 36 19 0–5 years 160 85

First degree 80 43 Design consultant 108 57 5–10 years 28 15
MSc and above 56 30 Project manager 24 13 10–15 – –
Other qualifications 28 15 Building contractor 20 11 – –
Total 188 100 Total 224 100 Total 188 100

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Location
South N % South N % Cosmopolitan N %
Calabar 22 12 Jos 10 5 Abuja 23 12
Port Harcourt 38 20 Gombe 5 3 Lagos 30 16
Uyo 20 11 Dutse 10 5 - –
Enugu 15 8 Kano 15 8 - -
N,number.

Table 3: Effectiveness of PV-cost-reduction strategies

Code Strategies SD Z M(xi) Decision

PCS1 Early conception and incorporation of photovoltaic system in the design 0.92 1.22 0.89 ✓
stage
PCS2 Mandate green buildings 1.32 1.79 0.97 ✓
PCS3 Standardization of designs 0.98 1.35 0.93 ✓
PCS4 Promotion of new business practices and developers 0.77 0.57 0.74 –
PCS5 Encourage PV supply chain cost framework collaboration of actors in the 1.01 1.10 0.87 ✓
building sector, professionals, manufacturers, vendors, clients, users
and community
PCS6 Simplifying permits and inspections 0.94 1.11 0.88 ✓
PCS7 Mandating solar power 1.11 1.42 0.93 ✓
PCS8 Relax level of inspection, permits and regulations policies 0.92 1.24 0.90 ✓
PCS9 Provide financing incentives 0.84 1.06 0.88 ✓
PCS10 Develop and provide local content through research 0.82 0.89 0.89 ✓
PCS11 Facilitate import licensing to check & improve purchasing power benefits 1.01 1.46 0.95 ✓
PCS12 Favourable tax policies 0.99 1.29 0.91 ✓
PCS13 Massive public education and awareness campaign 1.01 1.49 0.94 ✓
PCS14 Promote research to encourage local production of non-hardware 0.89 0.98 0.86 ✓
components
PCS15 Provide real-time experiences for development in training and skills of 1.04 1.32 0.93 ✓
stakeholders
PCS16 Institute relevant standards and update as at when required 0.89 0.36 0.67 –
PCS17 Set new guidelines for providing technical assistances to the industry 0.87 0.77 0.25 –
PCS18 Detail and document barriers and opportunities to cost-efficiency to 1.04 1.25 0.88 ✓
maximize shared experiences
PCS19 Promote installers licensing and certification 0.95 1.42 0.91 ✓

✓ = Effective; – = Not effective; MIS, mean item score; M(xi), degree of association to a set/critical performance.

the mass production of components to meet demand; the
economies of scale would instruct cost reduction. The solar
mandate would reduce costs by guaranteeing a customer
base and promoting the benefit of economies of scale and
design standardization. The second most effective strategy
to optimize PV is to facilitate import licensing to check and
improve purchasing-power benefits (λ-cut, 0.95). A massive
public education and awareness campaign obtained a λ-
cut score of 0.94 and emerged as the third most effective
strategy to improve PV costs. Strategies with a low level
of effectiveness represent 16% of the surveyed PV-cost-
optimization strategies. This band of PV-cost-mitigation

strategies obtained λ-cut values less than the 0.85 bench-
mark adopted by the study. The conclusion portrays their
level of effectiveness to decimate the costs of PV tech-
nologies as low. Strategies in this category include PCS4
(the promoting of new business practices and developers),
PCS16 (instituting relevant standards and updating them
as and when required) and PCS17 (setting new guidelines
for providing technical assistance to the industry). Growth
drivers of PV-technologies adoption in the building sector
are therefore unconnected to new business culture, new
standards and guidelines based on the results of the study.
Current and existing business practices, standards and
guidelines are therefore adequate to support enabling pol-
icies towards adoption.
4.3 Test of variation in respondents’ perceptions
of the significant cost-reduction strategies
Data analysis also determined the consensus in respond-
ents’ perception of the critical performance of cost-
reduction strategies. The study assessed variance using
the sectors of the respondents based on the Kruskal–
Wallis test. The statistic determined the hypothesis which
states that there is no significant variation in respond-
ents’ perceptions about the efficacies of identified PV-cost-
reduction strategies. The result presented in Table 4
indicates a lack of significant variance in the aggregated
perceptions of respondents about the efficacies of the sig-
nificant and insignificant PV-cost-reduction strategies (p,
0.323 > 0.05). The null hypothesis was accepted. The con-
clusion shows consensus in respondents’ perception and
the inference means that tested strategies are imperative
to PV-cost reduction.
5 Discussion
The significant strategies for mitigating the cost of PV
technologies in the building sector are summarized as
promoting strong government incentives, a collaborative
PV-supply chain and the provision of incentives and edu-
cation, training and research. The level of effectiveness of
PCS14 (to promote research to encourage local production
of non-hardware components) is low, despite exceeding
the targeted benchmark (0.85). The implication is that the
impact of R&D relating to PV manufacturing using local
resources is low. The result of PCS14 also indicates low
Table 4: Result of the Kruskal–Wallis test
Respondents’ Mean Chi Asymp.
group rank square df Sig. Decision
Public authority 45.87
Construction 43.90 60.460 2 0.323 Accepted
professionals
PV contractors 15.67
Ekung et al. | 7
valorization of academic research related to PV technolo-
gies in practice within the study area. It also indicates a lack
of synergy between academia and industry in solving chal-
lenges associated with the diffusion of the PV market in
the critical building sector. The study also draws attention
to the high level of effectiveness of PCS18, PCS9, PCS6 and
PCS5 (Table 3). The result of PCS18 (detail and document
barriers and opportunities to cost-efficiency to maximize
shared experiences) is not a surprise; it is therefore con-
sistent with the perception of respondents about PCS14.
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Lack of academia–industry collaboration and the dearth
of strategic research to promote PV technology underpin
PCS18. The implication is that the barriers to achieving
cost economy in the use of PV technology are less priori-
tized in research. Therefore, the PV-market policy towards
improving cost performance in Nigeria must prioritize
R&D. Lack of collaborative supply-chain practices in de-
sign, manufacturing, marketing and distribution are also
insignificant, based on the result of PCS5. The PV market
in Nigeria is largely fragmented, and dominated by traders
and vendors instead of by professionals. The dearth of the
capacity to undertake design, installation, maintenance
and performance monitoring is significant [7]. Design con-
sultants in the building sector must improve skills in these
areas to benefit the cost and quality of PV systems towards
improving adoption. In addition, strategies focusing on
mitigating low access to finance, cumbersome permits and
inspection regimes are focal international trade barriers in
most places including Nigeria. The low effectiveness rating
of PCS6 (simplifying permits and inspections) and PCS9
(provide financing incentives) are therefore consistent.
5.1 Promote strong government intervention
The mitigation of PV costs revolves around strong govern-
ment policy and programmes. This is missing, however, in
most developing countries. Lawton [34] corroborated this
position, noting that strong government support was es-
sential to achieving a common level of economic competi-
tiveness in the PV market in the USA [34]. Eleri et al. [22]
also observed that a strong national agenda on renewable
energy is a prerequisite to achieving efficiency. Government
intervention is important to stimulate competition locally,
as well as to galvanize funding for commercializing re-
search in renewable technologies. A study interpreted this
strategy as developing a renewable-energy industry to-
wards achieving overall sustainable development [14]. Past
studies including Hwang et al. [47] agreed concerning the
role of government and its supporting agencies in ensuring
cost-effective sustainable building features. As observed
by Lawton [34], the costs of non-hardware (soft costs) are
significant drivers of PV costs, accounting for >50% of the
installed cost of PV systems. Eighty per cent of the drivers
of soft costs are concerns that are solvable using local or
national policies; examples include customer acquisition,
permitting, inspection and interconnection, financing,
 8 | Clean Energy, 2020, Vol. XX, No. XX
installation costs, affiliated non-module hardware, and
taxes [34]. Soft-cost reduction requires sectoral or re-
gional innovation strategies [36]. Pertinent strategies for
soft-cost reduction require demand and market growth,
interactions between supply-chain agents, education and
training, careful selection of systems and the production
of varieties, and institutional-capacity development [36].
The seven strategies align the philosophies of PCS4, PCS5,
PCS10, PCS13 and PCS17-19 in Table 3.
The strongest links to reducing the soft costs of PV tech-
nologies are the local manufacturing of non-hardware ac-
cessories and human-capacity development. The study
by Bizzarri et al. [55], judging from the sharp decrease
in the price of PV systems over the years, posited that a
cost-effective PV regime is possible through production
efficiency and technology improvement. A related study
by Bachellerie [41] also found that the extent of PV adop-
tion depends on the extent to which technologies become
affordable and readily efficient. The first mechanism to
achieving affordability is to increase the level of tech-
nology adaptation and acquisition of related expertise by
local manufacturers and scientists. This would mean cre-
ating requisite knowledge and skills as fundamental re-
quirements of technological competences in the industrial
development pathway. The second aspect deals with pro-
moting the fitness and cost-efficiency of PV technology to
local conditions, increasing R&D and initiating demonstra-
tion projects in order to create niches for the technology
in the region.
The primary cost driver of PV costs, namely mod-
ules, remains an imported component in emerging mar-
kets. Government incentives/subsidies, low-interest
loans, the design of customized financing schemes for
sustainable-energy development, subsidizing research
in support of hardware development and tax relief are
important to achieving cost economy in hardware com-
ponents. Government intervention can also take the
form of designed learning in renewable-energy educa-
tional courses and technical information. This dimen-
sion would improve the knowledge and skills essential to
mitigating the cost of hardware in PV systems. A study by
Eleri et al. [22] maintained that related information em-
powers communities, companies and civil-liberty society
groups to make choices. Retzlaff [46] found that federal-
government guidance, building a strong research agenda
for renewable-energy policy, was significant to spur innov-
ation and increase the adoption of PV. Access to informa-
tion on available technologies, costs, benefits, government
programmes and international support mechanisms in
Nigeria are, however, inadequate. There is need for active
engagement of the local media such as radio, TV, news-
paper and the internet as part of environmental education.
Festus and Ogoegbunam [56] recommended environ-
mental education to enlighten the public on the benefits
and the need to adopt renewable technologies to protect
the environment. The pertinent viewpoints emerging
from the Indian experience that can promote large-scale
application are dependent on three fundamental goals.
The three strategies were defined as prioritizing rooftop
technologies, developing clear PV-integration policies
and enforcing renewable-energy deployment mandates.
The government can also provide incentives as the best
strategy to enhance the spread of solar homes [15]. Fina
et al. [57] concluded that government subsidies and finan-
cial incentives are imperative to promoting active building
designs.
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5.2 Encourage a collaborative PV-supply-chain
management framework
The first level of collaboration and integration must target
multiple parties’ roles within the construction industry,
including government, professionals, client, end-users
(community) and manufacturers. The government role is
to promote policies and generate funding, education and
R&D, and increase awareness towards sustainable-energy
uses [37]. Manufacturers must invest in R&D to upscale ef-
ficiency in order to reduce costs [3]. Azadian and Radzi [38]
also considered skills and knowledge as being imperative
to reducing the delays and costs associated with custom-
ized design. The client’s duty is to stimulate an environ-
mentally friendly energy system by seeking knowledge
about its benefits [43]. However, the quest for knowledge
advocated by the literature also requires a commitment to
investing in PV adoption [3].
Supply-chain collaboration would also ensure that
shared experiences are fertilized across regional levels be-
tween project developers, PV contractors, policymakers
and regulators. This level of collaboration would assist in
the supply chain to examine cost structures and the in-
fluence of in-country circumstances on cost. Supply-chain
collaboration would also enhance in-country strategy
development based on applied lessons from unique ex-
periences. However, the effectual analysis of the PV-cost
structure would also require detailed documentation of
barriers to and opportunities for efficient cost structures
in the market. The use of regional dialogue through joint
projects and workshops is also proficient to benefit cost-
related learning [44]. This could also support shared per-
spectives and the identification of the responsibilities of
each stakeholder in contributing to efficient implementa-
tion of cost-mitigation trails.
6 Education, training and increased
awareness
Appropriate information services, awareness and capacity-
building programmes can be beneficial in a number of
ways. They will improve the level of understanding and
raise awareness for understanding the technology, its
benefits and ecological significance. The results of PCS13
(massive public education and awareness campaign) and
PCS15 (provide real-time experiences for development in

training and skills of stakeholders) validate the import-
ance of this dimension. Deep awareness relies on exten-
sive education campaigns and capacity building. Studies
have found seminars, workshops and information re-
source databases to be significant practices in achieving
an appropriate level of penetration. Sopian et al. [24] sup-
ported these tools to improve stakeholders’ level of com-
petence and the quality of work of the service providers.
Information services will further situate decision-makers
to gain market opportunities towards enhanced policy ini-
tiatives. Exemplar projects are also important to entrench
deep learning and awareness in providing real-time ex-
periences and increased efforts in R&D activities. Market-
development policies are also important education and
awareness-dissemination practices for ensuring that rele-
vant standards are in place and are updated in a timely
manner as a set of new guidelines for providing technical
assistance to the industry. Market-development policies
include appropriate legal, institutional, financial and fiscal
measures for PV-market development. Education, training,
research and increased awareness have benefited related
market development in Asian countries [24]. The benefits
of R&D would therefore stimulate an increase in installed
capacity and a long-term cost reduction of technology
through an increase in demand, economies of scale and
competitive local manufacturing.
Education, awareness, knowledge and skills improve-
ment are also strategies for mitigating labour costs. The
creation and dissemination of prerequisite knowledge re-
lating to PV are drivers of soft costs within the PV system
[36]. The study by Bachellerie [41] agreed that the PV la-
bour market requires nationalization in order to regu-
late and mitigate the cost of labour. This understanding
places PV-market development, for instance, with the
development of national capital or local contents. Non-
professionals dominate the existing market structure in
most developing countries and these entrepreneurs lack
the prerequisite expertise on the design and integration of
PV systems into the building system. The drive to improve
the labour costs of PV is unconnected with loss of jobs, and
rather with promoting the efficiency, effectiveness and
standardization of the work [34]. A study by Hwang et al.
[47] also showed that improving the skills and experience
of contractors and professionals is a strong driver of cost
reduction towards the wider adoption of green-building
technologies in Singapore. In addition to the education,
awareness and skills development, past study identified
technological innovation systems as one of the most im-
portant realms to unravel the institutional barriers bedev-
illing PV diffusion in Africa [7]. The issues of technology
innovation within the context of education policy advo-
cated in this research and in line with past studies concern
the appropriate use of R&D [19]. The scope of R&D has no
significant consequence on renewable-energy innovation
[58]; therefore, research promotes growth in PV expansion
in varying ways.
Ekung et al. | 9
The cost of PV systems is important for their selection
and integration into building-project development. Cost
determines the duration, quality of projects, profitability
and the overall building costs [13]. This understanding
places a premium on the need to achieve cost economy
in the application of PV technologies to optimize project
duration, quality, profitability and building costs. The sig-
nificance of efficient regulatory apparatuses for PV-cost
reduction is consistent with the norms established across
previous studies [14, 28]. The three framings of strong gov-
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ernment policy, collaborative supply chain and education,
and training and increased awareness are veritable di-
mensions of cost-reduction applications in the PV market.
Some policy dimensions advanced in this paper corrob-
orate the positions in Shukla [5]. Shukla [5] posited that
the mitigation of implementation barriers, deployment of
incentives and advanced R&D are pertinent drivers of PV
adoption. Therefore, R&D, appropriate regulatory govern-
ance and the mitigation of cost factors are coherent cost-
reduction strategies for PV integration into buildings [14,
28].
Even though these cost-reduction policies are im-
portant, other critical cost factors and barriers impeding
PV adoption in buildings must be mitigated. The under-
standing is that the incorporation of PV systems into
buildings is conditioned to face cost barriers until policies
and reforms become more effective, technologies become
more affordable, awareness, education and training are
upscaled, and every stakeholder is oriented to pursue en-
ergy efficiency as a part of sustainable development goals.
Therefore, policymakers in developing markets must judi-
ciously plan their future energy policies around strategies
that optimize government intervention, education and
training, supply-chain collaboration and awareness of en-
ergy efficiency, including how PV adoption can fast track
sustainable development goals. The important strategies
outlined above emphasize cooperation and a more active
involvement of the public/private sector, professionals,
professional bodies, regulatory agencies and households
contextualized as a component of long-term strategic
policies.
7 Conclusion
Policies in the building sector to incorporate sustainable-
energy systems in buildings in most developing countries
have not been able to balance costs with the need to en-
sure diffused adoption. This study evaluated strategies for
mitigating the costs of PV technologies applied in build-
ings in the typical context of a developing country: Nigeria.
The results showed that strong government intervention,
a collaborative PV-supply chain, and education, training
and increased awareness are strategic to PV-cost reduc-
tion. These strategies are significant to drive mandatory
green-building policies, the standardization of building
designs/PV components, import-licensing facilitation,
 10 | Clean Energy, 2020, Vol. XX, No. XX
massive public education and the provision of real-time
experience-based training for installers. The strategies
are also adequate to optimize the cost drivers associated
with customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and li-
censing, financing and the lack of incentives to importers,
manufacturers and users. The development of future
PV-market-penetration policies for developing countries
should optimize these strategies for optimal results. The
implementation of these strategies, however, requires
phasing, and the specific comprehensive PV-diffusion goal
should tie to the respective strategic phase. Further study
is, however, important in designing a strategic framework
for PV-cost-reduction implementation in developing coun-
tries, based on these drivers, needs and enablers. It is also
necessary to evaluate the effects of validated strategies
on cost factors and barriers to the affordability of PV. The
models, depicting the interaction between cost-reduction
strategies and cost factors, would quantify the scope of
achievable cost reduction.
Conflict of Interest
None declared.
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