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Ebook PDF Entomology and Pest Management 6Th Edition Ebook PDF Version Full Chapter
Ebook PDF Entomology and Pest Management 6Th Edition Ebook PDF Version Full Chapter
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
INSECT ABUNDANCE 1
INSECT DIVERSITY 1
WHAT AN INSECT IS 2
OTHER ARTHROPODS 3
Class Crustacea 3
Class Diplopoda 6
Class Chilopoda 6
Class Arachnida 7
WHAT ENTOMOLOGY IS 9
Entomologists 10
Producers of entomological information and services 11
Users of entomological information and services 12
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INSECTS AND PEOPLE 13
Brief History of Relationships 13
Insects in antiquity 13
Success of insects 13
Prehistoric times 16
The rise of agriculture and civilization 17
Modern times 18
The Ledger 18
Black ink: The benefits 18
Red ink: The losses 23
The balance sheet 27
INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 29
The Concept of Pest 30
The Concept of Pest Status 33
vii
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3 INSECT CLASSIFICATION 81
OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION 81
ELEMENTS OF CLASSIFICATION 83
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 84
Subclass Apterygota 85
Order Protura—proturans 89
Order Collembola—springtails 89
Order Diplura—diplurans 90
Order Thysanura—bristletails 91
Order Microcoryphia—jumping bristletails 92
Subclass Pterygota 92
Order Ephemeroptera—mayflies 93
Order Odonata—dragonflies and damselflies 94
Order Orthoptera—grasshoppers and crickets 95
Order Phasmatodea—walkingsticks 96
Order Mantodea—mantids 97
Order Blattodea—cockroaches 97
Order Mantophasmatodea—gladiators 98
Order Dermaptera—earwigs 98
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CONTENTS ■ ix
Order Isoptera—termites 99
Order Embioptera—webspinners 101
Order Plecoptera—stoneflies 102
Order Zoraptera—zorapterans 102
Order Psocoptera—psocids and booklice 103
Order Phthiraptera—chewing lice and sucking lice 104
Order Thysanoptera—thrips 106
Order Hemiptera—true bugs, aphids, hoppers, and scales 108
Order Neuroptera—nerve-winged insects 115
Order Coleoptera—beetles 115
Order Strepsiptera—twisted-winged parasites 122
Order Mecoptera—scorpionflies 123
Order Trichoptera—caddisflies 123
Order Lepidoptera—butterflies and moths 124
Order Diptera—flies 130
Order Siphonaptera—fleas 134
Order Hymenoptera—ants, bees and wasps 135
MITE AND TICK CLASSIFICATION 141
Order Acari—mites and ticks 141
Suborder Mesostigmata 142
Suborder Ixodida 142
Suborder Prostigmata 143
Suborder Astigmata 143
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CONTENTS ■ xi
xii ■ CONTENTS
CONTENTS ■ xiii
11 CONVENTIONAL INSECTICIDES
FOR MANAGEMENT 369
INSECTICIDE NAMES AND FORMULAS 370
Insecticide Nomenclature 371
Chemical Formulas 371
SURVEY OF COMMON INSECTICIDES 372
Pyrethroids 374
Third-generation pyrethroids 375
Fourth-generation pyrethroids 375
Carbamates 378
Organophosphates 379
Aliphatic derivatives 380
Phenyl derivatives 382
Heterocyclic derivatives 383
Neonicotinoids 385
Phenylpyrazoles 388
Pyrroles 388
Pyrazoles 389
Pyridazinones 389
Pyridine Azomethines 390
Oxadiazines 390
Insect Growth Regulators 391
Repellents 391
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 391
DDT and relatives 391
HCH and lindane 394
Cyclodienes 394
Polychloroterpenes 396
Botanicals 396
Pyrethrum 396
Azadiractins 397
Nicotine 397
D-limonene 398
Rotenone 399
Ryania 399
Sabadilla 399
Fumigants 400
p-Dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 400
Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 400
Methyl bromide 401
Chloropicrin 401
Oils 401
Other Insecticides 402
Formamidines 402
Dinitrophenols 403
Organosulfurs and organotins 403
Inorganics 404
Insecticidal soaps 404
Other insecticides 404
CHEMICALS USED WITH INSECTICIDES 404
Synergists 405
Solvents 405
Diluents 405
Surfactants 406
Stickers 406
Deodorants 406
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CONTENTS ■ xv
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CONTENTS ■ xvii
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CONTENTS ■ xix
xxi
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxii
PREFACE
Writing the original version of Entomology and Pest Management was an en-
joyable but daunting task. Deciding on how to combine basic entomology with
applied aspects of the science was particularly difficult. That difficulty re-
mains, even after six editions.
Based on recommendations gathered from comprehensive reviews, we decided
to continue approximately the same mix of basic and applied topics in this
sixth edition. Yet, we wanted to place increased emphasis on advances in the
technology of management. In an attempt to accomplish this goal, we devel-
oped a new chapter entitled Biopesticides for Management. This chapter
(Chapter 12) embodies new writing plus a reorganization of previously treated
subjects.
Chapter 12, Biopesticides for Management, covers a rapidly growing list of
pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency. These materials
include microbial pesticides, biochemical pesticides, and plant-incorporated
protectants. They have the great benefit of being environmentally friendly and
safe to handle. This chapter will be of particular interest to students and oth-
ers involved in organic-food production and horticultural crops.
However, the addition of the biopesticides chapter does not diminish the im-
portance of conventional insecticides, and this edition has ample information
for students interested in use of these materials. The chapter on traditional in-
secticides (Chapter 11) has been completely updated to reflect newly registered
compounds and provides improved explanations of established ones.
To bring Entomology and Pest Management in line with current thinking in
insect systematics, the sixth edition also addresses a new classification
scheme. This change in Chapter 3 focuses on the orthopteroid and hemipteroid
groups. A new key to the insect orders also reflects this change in classifica-
tion.
Other changes in the sixth edition include a new emphasis on horticultural
crops in the case-histories chapter (Chapter 18), with a detailed discussion of
insect management in California almonds. Moreover, new insect diagnostic
boxes, color photographs, and enhanced black-and-white photographs improve
student comprehension in this and other areas.
Lastly, in addition to updating information in almost every chapter, Favorite
Web Sites at the end of each chapter have been verified and updated, making
the Internet a valuable companion in student learning. Also, the popular sec-
tion World Wide Web Sites of Entomological Resources (Appendix 3) has been
reviewed and completely updated, offering even greater direction in locating
specific entomological Internet sites and the wealth of information they provide
for students.
xxiii
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xxiv ■ PREFACE
TARGET AUDIENCE
Entomology and Pest Management can be used as an introduction to applied
entomology for undergraduates or beginning graduate students. For under-
graduates with only an elementary biology background, early chapters provide
a basis for understanding the remaining content on insect ecology, surveillance,
and management. Students with at least one course in entomology may wish
to omit early chapters and focus on the strategy and tactics of management
found in later chapters. Omitting Chapters 1 through 4 for graduate courses
will not result in a loss of continuity.
Special Features
Basic and applied entomology. The primary purpose of the book is to
promote an understanding of major elements of general entomology and relate
A01_PEDI2959_06_SE_FM.QXD 5/16/08 12:59 AM Page xxv
PREFACE ■ xxv
them to modern principles of insect pest management. Both theory and practice
are emphasized in a conceptual approach to the topics, and numerous examples
are presented to facilitate learning.
Ecological approach. Pest management topics are discussed as aspects of
applied ecology, and solutions to pest problems are presented with regard to
environmental quality, profitability, and durability.
Insect diagnostic boxes. Sixty-eight insect diagnostic boxes are presented
throughout the text. Each box contains detailed information on distribution,
importance, appearance, and life cycle of a species or species group. Insects
chosen are from examples mentioned in the text. Grouping specific data in
boxes provides background information about a species through examples and
case histories without detracting from the main discussion. Students not
familiar with the species can consult the boxes to better understand and
appreciate the examples in the text. Information in the boxes is referenced in
the index. Additional information about major pests are given in Chapter 3 as
insect families of major economic importance are included in presenting
information on insect classification.
Boldface type. This feature allows the student to recognize new terms and
important concepts quickly and serves as a basis for topic review.
Appendices. Three appendices facilitate learning and serve as reference
material. Appendix 1 presents a key to the orders of insects, allowing identification
of both adult and immature insects. Appendix 2 contains a list of insect common
names, scientific names, and classifications. Appendix 3 is a comprehensive list
of World Wide Web sites of entomological resources that can be used for
customized computer searches.
Glossary. An expanded glossary for quick reference appears at the end of the
book.
Favorite Web Sites. The Web Sites accessible through the Internet are
presented as URL addresses along with a short description of the site’s content.
Readers can receive updates on a topic by consulting these sites and navigating
links to other related sites for additional information.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We owe many thanks to several of our colleagues here at Iowa State University
for their valuable input in preparing the sixth edition of Entomology and Pest
Management. Of particular note is the valuable review and advice of Joel Coats
and his graduate student, Gretchen Palauch, in developing the new chapter on
biopesticides and refining the chapter on traditional insecticides. We thank Les
Lewis, Research Leader, USDA/ARS, Corn Insect and Crop Genetics Research
Unit, for his excellent, review and suggestions on the discussion of microbial pes-
ticides. Special thanks also go to Carol Pilcher, Iowa State University Coordina-
tor, Pest Management and the Environment, for her help with the section on
insect pest management in almonds as a model management system. Addition-
ally, we thank John VanDyk, Adjunct Assistant Professor and Systems Analyst,
Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, for preparing and allowing
xxvi PREFACE
us to publish his list of World Wide Web addresses in this edition. We also thank
Scott Hutchins, Dow AgroSciences, and Bob Peterson, Montana State Univer-
sity, for their involvement in the preparation of insect diagnostic boxes; and
Laura Karr, Dow AgroSciences, for her work on the glossary.
Thanks to the following reviewers for their valuable feedback: John J. Brown,
Washington State University; Lynn A. DuPuis, Alfred State College; Henry
Fadamiro, Auburn University; and Allan S. Felsot, Washington State Univer-
sity. Lastly, we thank our editor William Lawrensen for providing us the opportu-
nity to update this work.
Larry P. Pedigo
Marlin E. Rice
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CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
“YOU STUDY WHAT?” “Insects? You mean bugs?” “Yuck. What for?” These are
common utterances of people in casual conversations at parties and other
gatherings. Although we are usually taken aback and a little disgusted by
some of the remarks and guffaws, the question is certainly legitimate. The
standard answer, of course, is that insects represent one of the most important
forms of life on this planet. They have influenced human existence since its
very beginning and continue to control many of our daily activities. Therefore,
we need to know about them so we can deal with them, usually in the context
of a threat. When we begin to study insects, we find that they are fascinating
creatures and that learning about insect life is engrossing.
INSECT ABUNDANCE
The fact is, today’s human population is adrift in a sea of insects. If we look at
numbers alone, the estimated ratio of insects to humans is 200 million to 1,
and insects average about 40 million per acre of land. Being much larger than
insects, we might be tempted to argue that humans are ecologically more suc-
cessful, making up in mass for our lower numbers. However, analysts estimate
that the United States is home to some 400 pounds of insect biomass per acre,
compared with our 14 pounds of flesh and bone. Another amazing statistic is
that in the Brazilian Amazon, ants alone outweigh the total biomass of all ver-
tebrates by four to one. Based solely on numbers and biomass, insects are the
most successful animals on earth!
INSECT DIVERSITY
Along with humans, insects live in almost every habitable place on the earth,
except the ocean depths. According to the distinguished entomologists Eisner
and Wilson (1977), insects all but own the land. They are the chief consumers
of plants; they are the major predators of plant eaters; they play a major role
in decay of organic matter; and they serve as food for other kinds of animals.
Knowing these ecological facts, we might expect these organisms to be di-
verse and adaptable—and they are. Today, more than 900,000 kinds (species)
have been described, and many believe that five to seven times as many are
yet to be discovered.
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2 ■ CHAPTER 1
Figure 1.1 Chart showing size of various arthropod groups and other life forms.
Pie slices are proportional to the number of species in the group. (Redrawn from
Daly et al., 1978, Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity. McGraw-Hill Book
Company)
These statistics make other animal groups seem small by comparison (Fig.
1.1). For instance, species in the class Mammalia, of which humans are mem-
bers, count less than 1 percent of those in the class Hexapoda. Furthermore,
insects boast more species than any other kind of organism, making up about
three-fourths of the total number known. Indeed, it has been estimated that
every fifth animal is a beetle, only one group in the class Hexapoda. Without a
doubt, this extraordinary diversity is yet another mark of insects’ ecological
success.
WHAT AN INSECT IS
Insects are grouped with other animals sharing similar characteristics in the
phylum Arthropoda. Arthropods, as they are known, are characterized as hav-
ing a body divided by grooves to form segments and a well-developed cover-
ing, the integument, which makes up the outer shell, or exoskeleton. Some
of the arthropod body segments possess one or more pairs of jointed ap-
pendages from which the phylum name was derived (from arthro, joint; poda,
foot). In addition, arthropods have a heart at the top and a nerve cord at the
bottom of their body cavity. Examples of arthropods other than insects include
spiders, shrimp, and centipedes.
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INTRODUCTION ■ 3
Figure 1.2 Side (left) and top aspects of a grasshopper, showing important external
body features of insects. (Redrawn from T. Nolan, 1970, Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization, The Insects of Australia. Melbourne University Press)
OTHER ARTHROPODS
Other arthropod classes have fewer total numbers and species than insects.
Although a detailed survey of all classes is beyond the scope of this book, a
brief overview of the four most important classes may help clarify the unique-
ness of insects. These other important arthropods include those in the classes
Crustacea, Arachnida, Diplopoda, and Chilopoda. A complete classification of
living arthropods is outlined in Table 1.1.
Class Crustacea. This class includes many common animals such as cray-
fish, lobsters (Fig. 1.3), pillbugs, crabs, and shrimp (Fig. 1.4). Crustaceans as a
group are mostly aquatic, and they play major ecological roles in marine habi-
tats that are devoid of insects. A few species of terrestrial crustaceans, such as
pillbugs and sowbugs, are commonly found in basements and other humid
places of the home. When disturbed, they curl up into a compact ball (Fig. 1.5).
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 4
4 ■ CHAPTER 1
Figure 1.3 Side aspect of the American lobster, Homaris americana, showing the various
modifications in appendages and other body structures. (Reprinted with permission of
Macmillan Publishing Company from Insects in Perspective by Michael D. Atkins. © 1978
by Michael D. Atkins)
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INTRODUCTION ■ 5
6 ■ CHAPTER 1
Figure 1.5 Class Crustacea, a sowbug. Sowbugs can assume a defensive po-
sition by rolling into a ball. (Photos by Marlin E. Rice)
Most crustaceans breathe by using gills, and they are covered by a hard
shell from which their name is derived (from crusta, shell). In a number of in-
stances, they have two pairs of antennae, a number of pairs of legs modified for
swimming, and a number of body segments fused with the head to form a
cephalothorax (head-body).
As a group, crustaceans are mostly beneficial to humans, serving as food di-
rectly or as food for fish and other aquatic animals. Harmful species include
barnacles, sessile marine forms that attach to vessels and destroy shore in-
stallations, and sowbugs and pillbugs, which may injure greenhouse and gar-
den crops.
Class Diplopoda. (Fig. 1.6). The common name for members of this class is
millipede (thousand legs). They are cylindrical with 25 to 100 segments, and
most segments bear two pairs of legs (see Color Plate 1). These arthropods are
found in dark, humid environments: under leaves and bark, in woodlands, and
in basements of homes. When disturbed, they curl up into a characteristic spiral.
Millipedes feed mostly on decaying organic matter and, therefore, are bene-
ficial to humans. However, most people consider them pests because of their
mere presence in homes.
Class Chilopoda. (Fig. 1.7). These arthropods are the sometimes-feared cen-
tipedes. People may fear them because some centipedes are venomous and can
inflict a painful bite. However, most times they are secretive and run away
when approached.
Most centipedes have a flattened body with many segments and one pair of
legs on each segment (see Color Plate 1). A pair of claws behind the head is
INTRODUCTION ■ 7
used to inject venom and paralyze insects and other invertebrates that serve
as food for the centipede.
Class Arachnida. (Fig. 1.8). Next to the Hexapoda, this is the most diverse
class of terrestrial arthropods. Members of this class possess a cephalothorax,
as do crustaceans, but they lack antennae. Spiders breathe through structures
that act like bellows, called book lungs, but other arachnids breathe through
the skin or with air tubes. Most arachnids live on land.
Based on their relationship to humans, the most significant of the Arach-
nida are the spiders, mites, ticks, and scorpions. Other orders that contribute
to the diversity of the class Arachnida include the Opiliones (harvestmen),
Pseudoscorpiones (pseudoscorpions), and Uropygi (whipscorpions).
Spiders belong to the order Araneae and are represented by thousands of
species. They are distinguished by their unsegmented abdomen, which is
attached to the cephalothorax by a slender stalk, or pedicel (see Color Plate
1). Spiders feed mainly on insects by using mouthparts that crush their prey
and allow these predators to suck out the body fluids. Silk-spinning organs
are located on the underside of the abdomen, permitting spiders to build
webs. Spider webs may be orb-shaped, funnel-shaped, triangle-shaped, or ir-
regular. Insects and other prey become snared in the web and are killed outright
or are paralyzed by venom from the spider’s bite. As a group, spiders benefit
humans by serving as natural enemies of insect pests. Some, however, are
medically hazardous pests because of their dangerous bite. In North America,
these include the black widow (Latrodectus mactans) and the brown recluse
(Loxosceles reclusa).
From the standpoint of harm to humans, the most important order of the
Arachnida is the Acari, comprising the mites and ticks. Here can be found
pests of humans, other animals, and plants. Their saclike body and unseg-
mented abdomen broadly joined to the cephalothorax make the Acari distinc-
tive. Mouthparts of mites and ticks pierce tissues and suck out the contents.
Mites are usually very small arthropods (1 to 3 mm long) that feed on
plants, animals, and organic debris. Some mites are important predators of
small insects and, particularly, other plant-feeding mites. One plant-feeding
M01_PEDI2959_06_SE_C01.QXD 4/30/08 4:38 PM Page 8
8 ■ CHAPTER 1
A B
C D
E F
Figure 1.8 Representatives of important groups in the class Arachnida. A. Scorpion. B. Spider.
C. Harvestman (daddy longlegs). D. Tick. E. Pseudoscorpion. F. Mite. (Photos by Marlin E. Rice)
mite is the twospotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), which injures many
crops in dry climates or during droughts in wetter regions (see Color Plate 1).
Chiggers (larvae of Trombicula alfreddugesi and others) infest humans, caus-
ing intense itching when they inject enzymes to dissolve skin tissue on which
they feed. Mange mites (Sarcoptes scabiei) are examples of mites that feed on
many animals, including hogs, horses, dogs, and humans. These mites feed in
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.