ATOC 4880/5880

Mesoscale Meteorology

Basic Equations and Tools

Spring 2023
SEEC Bldg., Room N129
Tuesdays and Thursdays 11:30 am –12:45 pm

Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Some Basic Math
• Cartesian coordinate system: x 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝐤
• Vector velocity: 𝐯=𝑢𝐢+𝑣𝐣+𝑤𝐤
• Scalar (aka Dot) product:
𝐯𝟏 ⋅ 𝐯𝟐 = 𝑢1 𝑢2 + 𝑣1 𝑣2 + 𝑤1 𝑤2
𝐢⋅𝐢=𝐣⋅𝐣=𝐤⋅𝐤=𝟏 𝐢⋅𝐣=𝐣⋅𝐤=𝐤⋅𝐢=𝟎
• Vector (aka Cross) product:
𝐯𝟏 × 𝐯𝟐 = (𝑣1 𝑤2 − 𝑣2 𝑤1 )𝐢 + (𝑤1 𝑢2 − 𝑤2 𝑢1 )𝐣 + (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 )𝐤
𝐢×𝐢=𝐣×𝐣=𝐤×𝐤=𝟎 𝐢×𝐣=𝐤 𝐣×𝐤=𝐢 𝐤×𝐢=𝐣
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• Grad operator: 𝛁 = 𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝐤 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐯 ≡ 𝐃𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
• Laplacian: 𝛁 ∙ 𝛁 = 𝛁2 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

• Total (aka Lagrangian) derivative:

𝐝 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = +𝐯⋅𝛁
𝐝𝐭 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Gas Laws

• The pressure, volume, and temperature of any gas are

related by an equation of state, the ideal gas equation.
For most purposes we may assume that atmospheric
gases obey the ideal gas equation exactly.

• The ideal gas equation may be written pV = mRT

p = pressure [Pa] V = volume [m3]
m = mass [kg] T = temperature [K]
R = specific gas constant [J K−1 kg−1]
The value of R depends on the particular gas. For dry air, it
is 287 J K−1 kg−1.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 The Hydrostatic Equation
For an atmosphere in hydrostatic equilibrium, the balance of
forces in the vertical require that:
−𝛿𝑝 = 𝑔𝜌𝛿𝑧
In the limit as δz→0,
dp
= -gr or gdz = -adp
dz
This is the hydrostatic equation. Integrating:
p ()  
− 
p( z)
dp = p( z ) =  gdz
z
⎯
⎯→ p( z ) =  gdz
z

The pressure at height z is equal to the weight of the air in

the vertical column of unit cross sectional area lying above
that level.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 The Hydrostatic Equation
Hypsometric Equation
It is often inconvenient to work explicitly with density, , a
quantity that is seldom measured. It can be eliminated in the
hydrostatic equation using the gas law:
dp pg pg Geopotential Height:
=− =−
( z ) 1
z
dz RT Rd Tv Z=
g0
= 
g0 0
gdz
dp dp
d = gdz = − RT = − Rd Tv
p p g 𝑜 ≡ g at surface
Integrating: z2 p2
dp
z d =  2 − 1 = − Rd p Tv p and
1 1

− Rd
p2
dp
Z 2 − Z1 =
g0 p Tv p Geopotential
1 Thickness
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
𝑑𝑢 – internal energy of the system
For a unit mass of gas:
𝑑𝑞 – total amount of heat added to
du = dq − dw the system
𝑑𝑤 – work done by the system
Work done pushing the piston a
distance dx is
dW = Fdx = pAdx = pdV
dw = pd (per unit mass)
When the system passes from state
A with volume V1 to state B with
volume V2 the work done is equal to
the area under the curve AB:
V2

W =  pdV
VATOC
1 Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Adiabatic Processes

General expression for the conservation of energy:

dq = cv dT + pd = c p dT − dp
Special limiting cases:
 cp   cp 
Isobaric process: 𝑑𝑝 = 0 dq = c p dT =  cv dT =  du
 cv   cv 
Isothermal process: 𝑑𝑇 = 0 dq = −dp = pd = dw

Isochoric process: 𝑑 = 0 dq = cv dT = du

Adiabatic process: 𝑑𝑞 = 0 c p dT = dp

(i.e., without losing or
cv dT = − pd
gaining heat)
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Adiabatic Processes
Potential Temperature

Temperature that a parcel of air would have if it were

adiabatically expanded or compressed to standard
pressure, 𝑝0 (=1000 hPa).
cpdT - adp = 0
c p dT dp
Substitute 𝛼 = 𝑅𝑇/𝑝: =
R T p
cp T
dT
p
dp cp T   p 
Integrate:

R  T
= p p → ln  = ln 
R    po 
0

R
æp ö Cp
Poisson’s Eqn.: q =T çç 0 ÷÷
èpø
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Water Vapor Variables
• The amount of water vapor present in a certain quantity
of air may be expressed in many different ways, some of
the more important of which are considered here

– Vapor pressure (𝑒) and saturation vapor pressure (𝑒𝑠 )

– Mixing ratio (𝑟𝑣 ) and saturation mixing ratio (𝑟𝑣𝑠 )
– Relative humidity (RH)
– Virtual temperature (𝑇𝑣 )
– Dew point temperature (𝑇𝑑 )
– Wet bulb temperature (𝑇𝑤 ) and potential temperature (𝜃𝑤 )
– Equivalent temperature (𝑇𝑒 ) and potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 )

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Idealized Horizontal Flow Regimes

Divergence
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 Shearing
+ Deformation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Stretching
Deformation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Vorticity 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 +
− 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Conservation of Mass
Mass continuity equation
Net divergence (convergence) of a
d𝜌
+𝜌 𝛁∙𝐯 =0 parcel must be compensated by a
d𝑡 decrease (increase) in parcel density

𝜕𝜌 Flux form of continuity equation;

+ 𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯 = 0 expand total derivative and apply
𝜕𝑡
identity 𝛻 ∙ 𝜌𝐯 = 𝜌 𝛻 ∙ 𝐯 + 𝐯 ∙ 𝛻𝜌

Anelastic approximation---Disregard sound waves by assuming that

density is only a function of z in an adiabatic reference state (i.e.,
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑎 (𝑧)). The local time derivative of density then vanishes,
which leads to the following form of the continuity equation:

𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯 = 0

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Conservation of Mass
The anelastic continuity equation can be expanded as follows:
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯 = 0 → 𝜌𝑤 = −𝜌 +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Vertical motions can be related to horizontal motions by integrating
this equation over a depth 𝑑:
𝑑 𝑑
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
න 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑑 − 𝜌𝑤 0 = −න 𝜌 + 𝑑𝑧
0 𝜕𝑧 0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
An upper or lower boundary condition for vertical velocity must be
specified to solve this integral. Also, a discretized, finite-difference
form is sometimes used for certain applications:
𝑘=𝑘𝑑 −1 𝑘=𝑘𝑑 −1
∆𝑢 ∆𝑣
෍ 𝜌𝑤 𝑘+1 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑘 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑘=𝑘𝑑 − 𝜌𝑤 𝑘=1 =− ෍ 𝜌 + 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 1
𝑘+2
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

Average in the layer between k and k+1

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Conservation of Mass
Boussinesq approximation---Extend the anelastic approximation to a
shallow layer where density does not vary with height. The vertical
derivative of density then vanishes, which leads to the incompressible
form of the continuity equation:
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛁∙𝐯=0 → =− +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
As before with the anelastic form of the continuity equation, vertical
motions can be related to horizontal motions by integrating this
equation over a depth 𝑑. However, the terms involving density vanish:
𝑑 𝑑
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
න 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑤𝑑 − 𝑤0 = − න + 𝑑𝑧
0 𝜕𝑧 0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑘=𝑘𝑑 −1 𝑘=𝑘𝑑 −1
∆𝑢 ∆𝑣
෍ 𝑤𝑘+1 − 𝑤𝑘 = 𝑤𝑘=𝑘𝑑 − 𝑤𝑘=1 = − ෍ + 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 1
𝑘+2
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

Average in the layer between k and k+1

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Conservation of Momentum
Approximate equations of motion in Cartesian coordinates:
Buoyancy Friction

d𝐯 1
= − 𝛁𝑝 − 𝑔𝐤 − 𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯 + 𝐅 Vector form
d𝑡 𝜌
𝑓 = 2Ω sin 𝜙
Pressure Coriolis Ω ≡ Earth′ s angular velocity
gradient (7.3x10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 )
𝜙 ≡ Earth′ s latitude

d𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 d𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐹𝑢 =− − 𝑓𝑢 + 𝐹𝑣
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

d𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝 Component
=− − g + 𝐹𝑤
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 forms

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Balanced Flow
Geostrophic balance: Pressure gradient force vs Coriolis force
d𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐹𝑢 𝑣g =
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑥
d𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
=− − 𝑓𝑢 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑢g = −
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑦
1
Vector form: 𝐯𝑔 = 𝐤 × 𝛁𝒉 𝑝
𝜌𝑓
Scale analysis of horizontal equations of motion:
Coriolis force on
𝑂 𝑓𝑣 ~ 10−4 s −1 10 ms −1 ~10−3 ms −2
synoptic scale or mesoscale
1 𝜕𝑝 1 10 mb −3 ms −2 Pressure gradient force on
𝑂 − ~ ~10
𝜌 𝜕𝑥 1 kg m−3 1000 km synoptic scale; can be much
larger on mesoscale
𝑂 d𝐯Τd𝑡 𝑉/𝑇 𝑉 2 /𝐿 𝑉
Rossby Ro = ~ ~ ~ Ro ≪ 1 Synoptic scale
Number 𝑂 −𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯 𝑓𝑉 𝑓𝑉 𝑓𝐿 Ro ≥ 1 Mesoscale
Ro ≪ 1 Quasi − geostrophic balance Characteristic Scales:
V ≡ velocity T ≡ time L ≡ length
Ro ≥ 1 Significant ageostrophic motions ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Balanced Flow
Geostrophic balance with pressure as a vertical coordinate:
Assume 𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑧):
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝑝 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

Along a constant pressure

surface, 𝛿𝑝 = 0
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕Φ
Thus: =− =− = 𝜌𝑔 =𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕Φ
Likewise, for 𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑦, 𝑧): =− = 𝜌𝑔 =𝜌
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕Φ 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕Φ
𝑢𝑔 = − =− 𝑣𝑔 = =
𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝑝
𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝑝

1 Pressure gradients on constant

Vector form: 𝐯𝑔 = 𝐤 × 𝛁𝒑 𝚽 height surfaces are height gradients
𝑓 on constant pressure surfaces.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Balanced Flow
Thermal wind: Vertical shear of geostrophic wind
1 𝑅𝑇
Use pressure as the vertical coordinate 𝜕Φ = 𝑔𝜕𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑝 = − 𝜕𝑝
𝜌 𝑝
𝜕𝑢g 𝜕 1 𝜕Φ 1 𝜕 𝜕Φ 1 𝜕 𝑅𝑇 𝑅 𝜕𝑇
− =− − =− − =− =−
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝑝
𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑝
𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝑝 𝑝
𝑓𝑝 𝜕𝑦 𝑝

𝜕𝒗g 𝜕 1 𝜕Φ 1 𝜕 𝜕Φ 1 𝜕 𝑅𝑇 𝑅 𝜕𝑇
− =− =− =− − =
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝑝
𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑝 𝑝
𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝑝 𝑝
𝑓𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝑝

Cold Warm
Vector form: Advection Advection

𝜕𝐯g 𝜕 1 𝑅
− =− 𝐤 × 𝛁𝑝 Φ = 𝐤 × 𝛁𝑝 𝑇
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝑓 𝑓𝑝

Thermal wind is parallel

to isotherms with warmer
air on the right ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Balanced Flow
Other balanced horizontal motions:
d𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐹𝑢
Pressure gradient, d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
Coriolis and Friction d𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
=− − 𝑓𝑢 + 𝐹𝑣
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

Pressure gradient, Natural Coordinate System

Coriolis and Centrifugal ≡ d𝐯h d𝑉 𝑉2
= 𝐬+ 𝐧
Gradient wind balance d𝑡 d𝑡 𝑅𝑡

s component
d𝑉 1 𝜕𝑝
=− =0 n component
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑠 1 𝜕𝑝 𝑉 2
0 = −𝑓𝑉 − −
𝜌 𝜕𝑛 𝑅𝑡
Pressure gradient and Centrifugal ≡
Cyclostrophic balance Coriolis Pressure
Centrifugal
(e.g., tornadoes, hurricanes) Gradient
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Balanced Flow
Vertical equation of motion (sans friction):
d𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
=− −g When is it appropriate to assume
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑤
hydrostatic balance (i.e., ≅ 0)?
𝑑𝑡
It is appropriate for a base state where pressure and
density only vary as a function of height.
Its appropriateness is less clear for an environment
where these terms also vary in the horizontal and as a
function of time

Decompose pressure and density into base state and

perturbation components:
𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑧 + 𝑝′ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑧 + 𝜌′ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑝
and require: 0=− − 𝜌g
𝜕𝑧
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Balanced Flow
′ ′
Combining terms from previous slide yields d𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜌
=− − g
perturbation form for vertical equation of motion: d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜌

Scale analysis of vertical equation of motion

d𝑤 𝑉𝐷
Characteristic Scales:
𝑂 𝐷
2
V ≡ velocity T ≡ time
d𝑡 𝐿𝑇
~ ~
1 𝜕𝑝′ 𝑉𝐿 𝐿 L ≡ horizontal length
𝑂 − 𝑇𝐷
𝜌 𝜕𝑧 D ≡ vertical depth

𝐷
≪1 Hydrostatic
𝐿

𝐷
~1 Nonhydrostatic
𝐿

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Buoyancy
Examine buoyancy term (𝐵)
d𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝′ 𝜌′ 1 𝜕𝑝′
of perturbation form for =− − g=− +𝐵
vertical equation of motion: d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

There are variations to the 𝜌′ 𝑇𝑣′ 𝑝′

𝐵=− g≈ − g
definition of buoyancy: 𝜌ҧ ഥ
𝑇𝑣 𝑝ҧ
This version is derived from the ideal gas law in perturbation form:
′ ′ ′ 1 ′ −1
𝑝 ҧ + 𝑝 𝜌 𝑝 𝑇 𝑣
𝜌ത + 𝜌′ = → 𝜌ത 1 + = 𝑝ҧ 1 + 𝑇ഥ𝑣 1 +
𝑅𝑑 (𝑇ഥ𝑣 + 𝑇𝑣 )
′ 𝜌ത 𝑝ҧ 𝑅𝑑 𝑇ഥ𝑣
Taking the natural log of both sides and using the approximation
ln 1 + 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 when 𝑥 ≪ 1 yields:
For many situations: 𝜌′ 𝑇𝑣′
𝜌′ 𝑝′ 𝑇𝑣′ Thus: ≈−
≈ − 𝑝′ 𝑇𝑣′ 𝜌ҧ 𝑇ഥ𝑣
𝜌ҧ 𝑝ҧ 𝑇ഥ𝑣 ≪
𝑝ҧ 𝑇ഥ𝑣
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Buoyancy
Buoyancy can also be defined as a function of virtual potential
temperature (𝜃𝑣 ) using the perturbation form of the Poisson
equation derived using the same approach:
𝑅𝑑
𝑝 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑣′ 𝜃𝑣′ 𝑅𝑑 𝑝′
𝑇𝑣 = 𝜃𝑣 → ≈ +
𝑝0 ഥ
𝑇𝑣 𝜃𝑣 𝑐𝑝 𝑝ҧ
𝜌′ 𝑇𝑣′ 𝑝′ 𝜃𝑣′ 𝑅𝑑 𝑝′
𝐵=− g≈ − g≈ + −1 g
𝜌ҧ ഥ
𝑇𝑣 𝑝ҧ 𝜃𝑣 𝑐𝑝 𝑝ҧ

An additional consideration in defining buoyancy is hydrometeor

loading. If hydrometeors are present with a mixing ratio of 𝑟𝐻 ,
then their drag on buoyancy is characterized by:
𝜌′ 𝑇𝑣′ 𝑝′ 𝜃𝑣′ 𝑅𝑑 𝑝′
𝐵=− g≈ − − 𝑟𝐻 g ≈ + −1 − 𝑟𝐻 g
𝜌ҧ ഥ
𝑇𝑣 𝑝ҧ 𝜃𝑣 𝑐𝑝 𝑝ҧ
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
http://tornado.sfsu.edu/geosciences/classes/m201/buoyancy/SkewTMastery/mesoprim/skewt/intro.htm

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Skew T – ln P Diagram
Isobars

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Skew T – ln P Diagram
Isotherms

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Skew T – ln P Diagram
Dry Adiabats

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Lines of constant saturation mixing ratio

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Skew T – ln P Diagram
Saturation Adiabats

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

PRES HGHT TEMP DWPT
hPa m C C
916.0 874 32.6 5.6
899.0 1042 29.4 5.4
850.0 1538 25.8 1.8
824.0 1810 24.8 -4.2
793.4 2134 21.8 -5.3
765.6 2438 19.0 -6.4
738.8 2743 16.2 -7.4
700.0 3204 12.0 -9.0
656.0 3743 7.0 -10.0
614.5 4267 2.4 -13.6
591.5 4572 -0.3 -15.7
569.4 4877 -3.0 -17.8
540.0 5303 -6.7 -20.7
519.0 5612 -8.3 -20.3
500.0 5900 -10.7 -20.7

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Plotting a Sounding
PRES HGHT TEMP DWPT
hPa m C C
916.0 874 32.6 5.6
905.0 982 30.0 5.0
899.0 1042 29.4 5.4
881.2 1219 28.2 4.2
851.0 1528 26.0 2.0
850.0 1538 25.8 1.8
824.0 1810 24.8 -4.2
822.2 1829 24.6 -4.3
793.4 2134 21.8 -5.3
765.6 2438 19.0 -6.4
738.8 2743 16.2 -7.4
700.0 3204 12.0 -9.0
662.7 3658 7.8 -9.8
656.0 3743 7.0 -10.0
614.5 4267 2.4 -13.6
591.5 4572 -0.3 -15.7
569.4 4877 -3.0 -17.8
540.0 5303 -6.7 -20.7
519.0 5612 -8.3 -20.3
507.1 5791 -9.8 -20.6
500.0 5900 -10.7 -20.7
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Plotting a Sounding
PRES HGHT TEMP DWPT
hPa m C C
916.0 874 32.6 5.6
905.0 982 30.0 5.0
899.0 1042 29.4 5.4
881.2 1219 28.2 4.2
851.0 1528 26.0 2.0
850.0 1538 25.8 1.8
824.0 1810 24.8 -4.2
822.2 1829 24.6 -4.3
793.4 2134 21.8 -5.3
765.6 2438 19.0 -6.4
738.8 2743 16.2 -7.4
700.0 3204 12.0 -9.0
662.7 3658 7.8 -9.8 At 700 mb
656.0 3743 7.0 -10.0 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇 ≈ 13 g/kg
614.5 4267 2.4 -13.6
591.5 4572 -0.3 -15.7 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇𝑑 ≈ 3 g/kg
569.4 4877 -3.0 -17.8 𝑟
540.0 5303 -6.7 -20.7 𝑅𝐻 = 100x ≈ 23%
519.0 5612 -8.3 -20.3 𝑟𝑠
507.1 5791 -9.8 -20.6 𝜃 ≈ 315 K
500.0 5900 -10.7 -20.7
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Plotting a Sounding
PRES HGHT TEMP DWPT
hPa m C C
916.0 874 32.6 5.6
905.0 982 30.0 5.0
899.0 1042 29.4 5.4
881.2 1219 28.2 4.2
851.0 1528 26.0 2.0
850.0 1538 25.8 1.8
824.0 1810 24.8 -4.2
822.2 1829 24.6 -4.3
793.4 2134 21.8 -5.3
765.6 2438 19.0 -6.4
738.8 2743 16.2 -7.4
700.0 3204 12.0 -9.0
662.7 3658 7.8 -9.8 At 700 mb
656.0 3743 7.0 -10.0 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇 ≈ 13 g/kg
614.5 4267 2.4 -13.6
591.5 4572 -0.3 -15.7 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇𝑑 ≈ 3 g/kg
569.4 4877 -3.0 -17.8 𝑟
540.0 5303 -6.7 -20.7 𝑅𝐻 = 100x ≈ 23%
519.0 5612 -8.3 -20.3 𝑟𝑠
507.1 5791 -9.8 -20.6 𝜃 ≈ 315 K
500.0 5900 -10.7 -20.7
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Plotting a Sounding
PRES HGHT TEMP DWPT
hPa m C C
916.0 874 32.6 5.6
905.0 982 30.0 5.0
899.0 1042 29.4 5.4
881.2 1219 28.2 4.2
851.0 1528 26.0 2.0
850.0 1538 25.8 1.8
824.0 1810 24.8 -4.2
822.2 1829 24.6 -4.3
793.4 2134 21.8 -5.3
765.6 2438 19.0 -6.4
738.8 2743 16.2 -7.4
700.0 3204 12.0 -9.0
662.7 3658 7.8 -9.8 At 700 mb
656.0 3743 7.0 -10.0 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇 ≈ 13 g/kg
614.5 4267 2.4 -13.6
591.5 4572 -0.3 -15.7 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑠 𝑇𝑑 ≈ 3 g/kg
569.4 4877 -3.0 -17.8 𝑟
540.0 5303 -6.7 -20.7 𝑅𝐻 = 100x ≈ 23%
519.0 5612 -8.3 -20.3 𝑟𝑠
507.1 5791 -9.8 -20.6 𝜃 ≈ 315 K
500.0 5900 -10.7 -20.7
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Lifting Condensation Level
The height at which a parcel of air becomes
saturated when it is lifted dry adiabatically is
the Lifting Condensation Level (LCL). When
a parcel of air is forced upward, as by being
forced upward across land, a mountain, or
over a layer of colder air, the air cools dry
adiabatically. This is called mechanical lifting.
If the air is lifted high enough, and cools
enough, the parcel is saturated and any
further cooling will result in condensation of
moisture. This is the LCL.
Graphical Procedure:
From the dew-point temperature of the level
for which the LCL is desired to be determined,
draw a line upward parallel to the saturation
mixing ratio lines

From the temperature value of the level for

which the LCL is desired, draw a line upward
parallel to the dry adiabat lines. The level
where these two lines intersect is the LCL.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
Skew T – ln P Diagram
Lifting Condensation Level

LCL

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Wet Bulb Temperature and Potential Temperature
The Wet Bulb Temperature (𝑇𝑤 ) is the lowest
temperature to which a volume of air at constant
pressure can be cooled by evaporating water
into it. Physically, 𝑇𝑤 is the temperature of the
wet-bulb thermometer rather than of the dry-bulb
thermometer.
Graphical Procedure (Normand’s Rule):
From the dew-point at the pressure level for
which the wet-bulb temperature is desired, draw
a line upward parallel to the saturation mixing-
ratio lines.
From the temperature value at the desired
pressure level, draw a line upward parallel to the
dry adiabat lines to where it intersects the
previously drawn line
From this intersection point, follow parallel to the
saturation adiabats back to where it intersects
the original pressure level. The temperature
value at this last intersection is the wet-bulb
temperature. Follow down to 1000 hPa to obtain
wet-bulb potential temperature (𝜃𝑤 )
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Wet Bulb Temperature and Potential Temperature

LCL

Tw
w

Tw ≈ 15.5oC ≈ 288.7 K w ≈ 292 K

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Equivalent Temperature and Potential Temperature
The Equivalent Temperature (𝑇𝑒 ) is the temperature a parcel of air would have if all its
moisture were condensed out by a pseudo-adiabatic process (i.e., with the latent heat
of condensation being used to heat the air sample), and the sample then brought dry-
adiabatically to its original pressure. 𝑇𝑒 is sometimes termed the "adiabatic equivalent
temperature."
Graphical Procedure:
From the dew-point temperature at the pressure level for
which the equivalent temperature is desired, draw a line
upward paralleling the saturation mixing-ratio lines
From the temperature at the desired pressure level, draw a
line upward paralleling the dry adiabat lines until it
intersects the previously drawn line. This is the LCL for the
desired level.
From this LCL point, draw a line upward following the
saturation adiabat lines to a pressure level where both
the saturation and dry adiabats are parallel; i.e., to a
pressure where all moisture has been condensed out of the
parcel.
From this pressure, follow the dry adiabat lines back to the
original pressure. The isotherm value at this point is equal
to the equivalent temperature. Follow down to 1000 hPa
to obtain equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 )

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Equivalent Temperature and Potential Temperature

LCL

𝜽𝒆 ≅ 𝜽𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑳𝒗 𝑻𝑳𝑪𝑳 𝒘𝒔 𝑻𝑳𝑪𝑳
e ≈ 333 K Te ≈ 51oC
𝒄𝒑 𝑻𝑳𝑪𝑳 ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Net effects of ascent followed by descent
T at 950 hPa is 14 C
𝑤 at 950 hPa is 8 g/kg
LCL at ~895 hPa
𝜃𝑤 ≅ 14.5 C ≅ 288K
𝑟𝑠 at 700 hPa is ≅4.7 g/kg
3.3 g/kg of liquid condensed at 700
hPa (i.e., 8 – 4.7 = 3.3 g/kg)
70% of liquid is lost to
precipitation, leaving 1 g/kg at 700
hPa before descent
Level where the 1 g/kg of
remaining liquid has been
evaporated during saturated
descent (𝑟𝑠 =4.7+1=5.7 g/kg).
This is the new LCL (~750 hPa)
New T at 950 hPa is 20 C
New 𝑟 at 950 hPa is 5.7 g/kg
New 𝜃𝑤 is unchanged
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Net effects of ascent followed by descent
All water condenses and falls out during lifting
Water partially condenses and falls out during lifting
No water condenses and falls out during lifting
z

Net Effects
(with at least some
condensation/fallout):
Saturated-
adiabatic
Increases the 𝑇 and 𝜃
LCL
Decrease in 𝑤
No change to 𝜃𝑒 or 𝜃𝑤

Dry adiabatic

T
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Static Stability

“Why does air rise on some occasions but not on others?”

It depends on the stability of the atmosphere
• Three conditions of stability:
– Stable
– Unstable
– Neutral Stability

STABLE UNSTABLE NEUTRAL

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Static Stability
Unsaturated Conditions
Consider a parcel of unsaturated air. Assume the actual
(environmental) lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic
lapse rate: Γ < Γ𝑑
• If a parcel of unsaturated air is raised vertically, its
temperature will be lower than the ambient temperature at
the higher level.
• The colder parcel of air will be denser than the warmer
ambient air and will tend to return to its original level.
• If the parcel is displaced downwards, it becomes warmer
than the ambient air and will tend to rise again.
• In both cases, the parcel of air encounters a restoring force
after being displaced, which inhibits vertical mixing. Thus,
the condition Γ < Γ𝑑 corresponds to stable stratification (or
positive static stability) for unsaturated air parcels.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Static Stability
Unsaturated Conditions
Consider a parcel of unsaturated air. Assume the actual
(environmental) lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic
lapse rate: Γ > Γ𝑑
• Under these conditions, a parcel of unsaturated air
displaced upward will have a temperature greater than that
of its environment. Therefore, it will be less dense than the
ambient air and will continue to rise.
• Similarly, if the parcel is displaced downward it will be cooler
than the ambient air, and it will continue to sink.
• Such unstable situations generally do not persist in the free
atmosphere, since the instability is eliminated by strong
vertical mixing as fast as it forms.
• The only exception is in the layer just above the ground
under conditions of very strong heating from below.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Static Stability
Unsaturated Conditions

Stable Stratification Unstable Stratification

(G < Gd ) (G > Gd )

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Static Stability
Saturated Conditions

If a parcel of air is saturated, its temperature will decrease

with height at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate s. If  is
the actual lapse rate, saturated air parcels will be stable,
neutral, or unstable with respect to vertical displacements,
according to the following:

Γ < Γ𝑠 stable
Γ = Γ𝑠 neutral
Γ > Γ𝑠 unstable

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Static Stability
Conditional Instability

If the actual lapse rate lies

between the saturated adiabatic
lapse rate and the dry adiabatic
lapse rate (i.e., Γ𝑠 < Γ < Γ𝑑 ), the
atmosphere is conditionally
unstable.

A parcel forced upward along a

dry adiabat to its LCL and then
along a saturated adiabat to its
Level of Free Convection (LFC)
attains positive buoyancy that will
allow it to continue upward
without forced ascent
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
Static Stability
Summary

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Skew T – ln P Diagram
Level of Free Convection

LFC
LCL

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Equilibrium Level

The equilibrium level (EL) is the height

where a buoyantly rising parcel, (rising
freely because it is warmer than the
surrounding air), again becomes equal to
the temperature of the surrounding
environmental air. Above this level, the
parcel is cooler, (denser) than the
surrounding air and will not rise freely.

Graphical Procedure:
From the LFC, continue drawing a line
upward paralleling the saturation adiabat
lines until the drawn line intersects the
temperature curve. This is the equilibrium
level.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Positive Area

Positive Area: When a parcel can rise

freely because it is in a layer where the
adiabat it follows is warmer than the
surrounding environment, the area
between the adiabat and the
environmental temperature curve is
proportional to the Convective Available
Potential Energy (CAPE), also called
positive areas, which is available for
conversion to kinetic energy of motion of
the parcel

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Negative Area

Negative Area: When a parcel on a

sounding lies in a negative area, energy
has to be supplied to it to move it either
up or down. The area between the path
of such a parcel moving along an adiabat
and the environmental temperature curve
is proportional to the amount of energy
that must be supplied to move the parcel.
For this reason, this negative area is
called a region of Convective Inhibition
(CIN)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Equilibrium Level, Positive/Negative Area

Equilibrium
Level

Positive
Area
LFC
LCL

Negative
Area

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Convective Condensation Level and Convective Temperature
The Convection Condensation Level (CCL) is
the height at which a parcel of air, if heated
sufficiently from below, will rise dry
adiabatically until it is just saturated. This is
the height of the base of cumuliform clouds
which are, or would be, produced by thermal
convection from surface heating. The
Convective Temperature (TC) is the surface
temperature that must be reached for this
process to occur.

Graphical Procedure:
From the surface dew-point temperature,
draw a line up the saturation mixing ratio line
to where it intersects the environmental
temperature curve. The level where these two
lines intersect is the CCL. From this level
follow down the dry adiabat to the surface
pressure isobar. The temperature at this
intersection is TC.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Convective Condensation Level and Convective Temperature

CCL

TC

TC ≈ 34oC
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Skew T – ln P Diagram
Convective Condensation Level and Convective Temperature

Equilibrium
Level

Positive
Area

CCL LFC

TC

TC ≈ 34oC
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Static Stability
Convective (Potential) Instability
Convective instability: The potential instability brought about by the
lifting of a stable layer whose surface is humid and whose top is “dry”.
Think of this as the ensemble effect of lifting several individual parcels
spread over a vertical layer.
𝜕𝜃𝑒
Layer Requirement: <0
𝜕𝑧

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Static Stability
Convective (Potential) Instability
Example of potentially unstable layer from 900 to 800 mb

At 900 mb, 𝜃𝑒 ≅ 316.4K 𝜕𝜃𝑒 After lifting the layer about 3 km, it
<0 goes from absolutely stable to
At 800 mb, 𝜃𝑒 ≅ 312.1K 𝜕𝑧 conditionally unstable
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
A simplified (i.e., approximate) version of the vertical equation of
motion can be used to describe the vertical velocity of an air parcel
(𝑤𝑝 ) in a convective cloud. This version neglects the vertical
gradient of perturbation pressure and focuses on buoyancy:
𝑑𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝′ 𝑑𝑤𝑝
=− +𝐵 → =𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝜌′ 𝑇𝑣′ 𝑝′ 𝜃𝑣′ 𝑅𝑑 𝑝′
where 𝐵 = −ഥg ≈ − − 𝑟𝐻 g ≈ + −1 − 𝑟𝐻 g
𝜌 𝑇𝑣 𝑝ҧ 𝜃𝑣 𝑐𝑝 𝑝ҧ

The buoyancy equation is typically simplified to neglect the

pressure perturbation (𝑝′ ) and precipitation loading (𝑟𝐻 ) terms.
Additionally, virtual temperature effects are often neglected.
The resulting simplified equation is then:
𝑇′
𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑒
where 𝑇𝑝 is the temperature of the air parcel 𝐵= g= g
𝑇 𝑇𝑒
and 𝑇𝑒 is the temperature of the environment.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
For applications using sounding data it is more convenient to
use a form of this equation that employs the 𝑧 coordinate rather
than the 𝑡 coordinate:
𝑑𝑤𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑤𝑝 𝑑𝑤𝑝 𝑑 1 2
= = 𝑤𝑝 = 𝑤𝑝 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2
This equation is typically integrated upward from the level of
free convection (LFC) to some level 𝑧𝑝 :
𝑧𝑝 𝑧𝑝

න 𝑑𝑤𝑝2 = 𝑤𝑝2 𝑧𝑝 − 𝑤𝑝2 𝐿𝐹𝐶 = 𝑤𝑝2 𝑧𝑝 = 2 න 𝐵𝑑𝑧

𝐿𝐹𝐶 𝐿𝐹𝐶

When 𝑧𝑝 is the equilibrium level (EL):

𝐸𝐿

𝑤𝑝2 𝐸𝐿 = 2 න 𝐵𝑑𝑧 = 2 ∗ CAPE 𝑤𝑝 𝐸𝐿 = 2 ∗ CAPE

𝐿𝐹𝐶
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
For applications with sounding data it is more practical to employ a
discretized, finite-difference version of the integral:
𝑘=𝑘𝑝 −1 𝑘=𝑘𝑝 −1

෍ 𝑤𝑝2𝑘+1 − 𝑤𝑝2𝑘 = 𝑤𝑝2 𝑧𝑝 − 𝑤𝑝2 𝐿𝐹𝐶 = 2 ෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1 𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1

Where 𝑘 is the vertical index relative to the LFC, with 𝑘𝑝 the index at 𝑧𝑝 .
𝐵𝑘+1Τ2 represents the average buoyancy in the layer between 𝑘 and 𝑘 + 1
(i.e., the layer between points of a sounding).

If 𝑧𝑝 is the equilibrium level (EL):

𝑘=𝑘𝐸𝐿 −1

෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘 = CAPE

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1

Typically, updraft speed at the LFC is assumed to be zero. Thus, the

expansion of the summation looks like:
𝑤𝑝2 𝑧𝑝 = 2 𝐵3ൗ (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝐵5ൗ (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) + ⋯ + 𝐵𝑘𝑝 −1ൗ (𝑧𝑘𝑝 − 𝑧𝑘𝑝 −1 )
2 2 2
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
As a specific example, consider a sounding with 6 levels, where the
LFC is at level 1 and the EL is at level 4. To derive CAPE:
𝑘=𝑘𝐸𝐿 −1=4−1=3

CAPE = ෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1
= 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) + (𝐵3.5 (𝑧4 − 𝑧3 ))

Assume that parcel vertical velocity (𝑤𝑝 ) is 0 at the LFC (i.e.,𝑤𝑝1 = 0).
Derive 𝑤𝑝 at all sounding levels above the LFC. For level 2:
𝑘=2−1=1 𝑘=2−1=1

෍ 𝑤𝑝2𝑘+1 − 𝑤𝑝2𝑘 = 𝑤𝑝22 − 𝑤𝑝21 = 2 ෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1 𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1
= 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
0.5 0.5
𝑤𝑝2 = 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝑤𝑝21 = 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
For level 3:
𝑘=3−1=2

෍ 𝑤𝑝2𝑘+1 − 𝑤𝑝2𝑘 = 𝑤𝑝22 − 𝑤𝑝21 + 𝑤𝑝23 − 𝑤𝑝22 = (𝑤𝑝23 − 𝑤𝑝21 )

𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1
𝑘=3−1=2

=2 ෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘 = 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ))

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1

0.5
𝑤𝑝3 = 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )) + 𝑤𝑝21
0.5
= 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ))

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Parcel Theory
Updraft Speed
For level 4:
𝑘=4−1=2

෍ 𝑤𝑝2𝑘+1 − 𝑤𝑝2𝑘 = 𝑤𝑝22 − 𝑤𝑝21 + 𝑤𝑝23 − 𝑤𝑝22 + (𝑤𝑝24 − 𝑤𝑝23 )

𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1
𝑘=4−1=2

= (𝑤𝑝24 − 𝑤𝑝21 ) = 2 ෍ 𝐵𝑘+1ൗ 𝑧𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑘

2
𝑘=𝑘𝐿𝐹𝐶 =1
= 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )) + (𝐵3.5 (𝑧4 − 𝑧3 ))
0.5
𝑤𝑝4 = 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )) + (𝐵3.5 (𝑧4 − 𝑧3 )) + 𝑤𝑝21
0.5
= 2 𝐵1.5 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (𝐵2.5 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )) + (𝐵3.5 (𝑧4 − 𝑧3 ))

Derivations for levels 5 and 6 follow the same pattern, just longer.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Parcel Theory
Entrainment Effects

Convective clouds are turbulent phenomena, which

promotes mixing with their environment. The incorporation
of environmental air into a cloud is called entrainment while
the ingestion of cloudy air into the environment is called
detrainment.
At time 𝑡, the rising parcel has a
mass m. Between 𝑡 and 𝑡 + Δ𝑡, a
mass of air Δm 𝜀 is entrained
laterally from the environment into
the cloud and a mass of air Δm 𝛿
is detrained laterally from the cloud
to the environment. From the
perspective of the parcel, we are
concerned with entrainment.
Houze: Cloud Dynamics
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Entrainment Effects

Lateral entrainment can be incorporated into the equation

for vertical velocity of an air parcel as follows:
𝑑𝑤𝑝 1 𝑑m
=𝐵− 𝑤𝑝
𝑑𝑡 m 𝑑𝑡 𝜀
where the second term on the RHS represents the
influence of entrainment, which essentially dilutes the
buoyancy of the parcel. The z-coordinate version of this
equation is:
𝑑 1 2 1 𝑑m
𝑤𝑝 = 𝐵 − 𝑤𝑝2 = 𝐵 − Λ𝑤𝑝2
𝑑𝑧 2 m 𝑑𝑧 𝜀
Where Λ is the fractional rate of entrainment, which has
been found empirically to vary from about 0.1 to 2.0 km-1.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Parcel Theory
Entrainment Effects

Larger amounts of
entrainment lead to
greater buoyancy
dilution, lower EL,
smaller CAPE and
weaker updrafts.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Parcel Theory
Ensemble of Parcels within a Convective Cloud

Houze: Cloud Dynamics

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Hodographs

Meteorologists are all familiar with the traditional vertical wind profile from a
radiosonde that uses barbed lines to indicate wind direction and speed at
various levels. The hodograph communicates the same information. However,
since its primary purpose is to reveal vertical wind shear, the hodograph is based
on wind vectors. Unlike the wind barb, a vector indicates speed by its length
rather than a combination of barbs.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
Hodographs
For a hodograph, wind vectors are plotted
on a polar coordinate chart. The axes of the
chart represent the four compass
directions. All the wind vectors extend from
the origin and point in the direction of the
wind's movement. Since the vector length
indicates speed, concentric circles drawn
around the origin represent constant wind
speeds. For example, this hodograph shows
that both the 4- and 5-km winds are 25
m/s, although their wind directions are
from the west and west-northwest,
respectively.
Typically, the actual wind vectors are not
drawn on the hodograph, but are indicated
only by their endpoints on the polar
coordinate chart. The hodograph is plotted
by connecting the endpoints of each of the
wind vectors.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
Hodographs
Vertical wind shear is a description of how
the velocity of the horizontal wind changes
with height. Velocity is a vector quantity; in
other words, it possesses both speed and
direction. Therefore, we determine the
vertical wind shear by taking the vector
difference between the horizontal wind at
two levels.

The hodograph is ideally suited for

displaying vertical wind shear. Using a polar
coordinate chart, shear is revealed by
drawing shear vectors from the ends of
each wind vector in sequence of increasing
height. You can see that the line segments
of the typical hodograph actually represent
the vertical wind shear for each layer.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Hodographs

It is also important to study how the wind

shear is distributed over the depth of the
hodograph. A hodograph with strong low-
level shear has very different implications
for storm structure than does a hodograph
with equal total shear, but little shear at
low levels.

Another important quality of the storm

environment that is easier to perceive on a
hodograph than through other data is the
mean wind shear vector. You can determine
Upshear the direction of the mean wind shear vector
(but not the magnitude) simply by drawing
Downshear
a line from the point that plots the surface
wind to the point plotting the 6-km.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Hodographs

In addition to the magnitude of the shear, the hodograph shape is also

important in anticipating the structure and evolution of convective storms.
We are most concerned with whether the hodograph is relatively straight or
curved, and when it does curve, the level through which it curves and
whether it curves clockwise or counterclockwise with height. These
variations all have implications for storm structure.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
Hodographs
We know that vertical wind shear is created both by
changes in wind speed with height (speed shear) and
changes in wind direction with height (directional
shear). The type of shear, however, tells us little about
the shape of the hodograph since it refers to the
speed and direction of the wind and not the wind
shear vector. It is true that speed shear alone results
in a straight hodograph, and that directional shear
alone results in a curved hodograph, but combinations
of the two can create any kind of pattern.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Hodographs

Ground-Relative vs Storm-Relative Winds:

Since convective storms move through their

environment, the winds they experience
are often very different from the ground-
relative winds measured with a stationary
sounding.

To determine storm-relative winds, the

reference frame is repositioned so that the
storm motion becomes zero. Then, the
environment winds can be recalculated
from this point. This is the same as
subtracting the ground-relative storm
motion vector from the ground-relative
wind vector at each level.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Hodographs
Estimating Storm Motion
In the early stages of most convective storms, motion
can be closely approximated by the mean wind
through the depth of the storm.
When the hodograph is relatively straight, the rule-
of-thumb for estimating mean wind and storm
motion is simple. It falls approximately at the
midpoint on the 0-6 km AGL hodograph. Finding the
storm-relative winds for each level is then just a
matter of re-orienting the axes (xs-ys) such that storm
motion becomes zero. The storm-relative wind at a
given level is determined by drawing a vector from
this new origin to the winds at that level.
When the hodograph curves, the estimation
becomes more complicated. Generally, the mean
wind will exist on the concave side of the curved
hodograph. To calculate the mean wind, the u and v
components of the wind at all levels are averaged
separately, which produces a mean wind vector.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Height Wind Speed Wind Direction
(m AGL) (m/s) (deg from)
0 7.2 185.0
250 10.1 177.1
500 11.2 181.0
750 10.4 186.6 0.5
1000 9.8 191.0 0.25 0.75
1250 9.8 195.0 1
1500 11.0 203.3 0 2
1750 10.6 211.5
2000 9.2 222.8 3
2250 8.4 239.1
2500 8.6 249.5
2750 7.3 243.6 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
3000 6.1 236.9 m/s 4
3250 5.5 251.5
3500 5.7 269.3
3750 5.8 280.2 5
4000 6.2 290.2 6
4250 5.7 304.1
4500 5.6 319.0
4750 6.6 323.8
5000 8.4 322.5
5250 10.2 321.3
5500 12.2 320.3
5750 13.3 320.0
6000 13.4 321.2

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

Idealized Horizontal Flow Regimes

Divergence
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 Shearing
+ Deformation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Stretching
Deformation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Vorticity 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 +
− 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Vorticity Equation
Vorticity (𝛚) is a three-dimensional vector quantity defined as:
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛚=𝛁×𝐯=
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝒖 𝒗 𝒘

𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝛚=𝛁×𝐯= − 𝐢+ − 𝐣+ − 𝐤
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
= 𝜉𝐢 + 𝜂𝐣 + 𝜁𝐤

Vorticity vector is parallel to the axis of rotation:

𝜁 ≡ vertical vorticity, rotation in x-y plane, axis of rotation is 𝐤 (vertical)
𝜉 ≡ horizontal vorticity, rotation in y-z plane, axis of rotation is 𝐢
𝜂 ≡ horizontal vorticity, rotation in x-z plane, axis of rotation is 𝐣

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Vorticity Equation
Vorticity (𝛚) is a three-dimensional vector quantity defined as:

𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖
𝛚=𝛁×𝐯= − 𝐢+ − 𝐣+ − 𝐤
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
= 𝜉𝐢 + 𝜂𝐣 + 𝜁𝐤
The absolute vorticity (𝛚𝒂 ) adds the
vertical component of planetary 𝛚𝒂 = 𝜉𝐢 + 𝜂𝐣 + 𝜁 + 𝑓 𝐤
vorticity (𝑓) to the vertical component 𝛚𝒂 = 𝛚 + 𝑓𝐤
of vorticity from the wind (𝜁):
The prognostic equation for vorticity using Boussinesq
assumptions and neglecting friction can be expressed as:
𝝏𝝎𝒂 𝝏𝝎
= = −𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝝎𝒂 + 𝝎𝒂 ∙ 𝛁𝐯 + 𝛁 × 𝐵𝐤
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
Advection Stretching Baroclinic Generation
& Tilting
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Vorticity Equation
The component forms of the vorticity equation are more
straightforward to interpret

𝝏𝝃 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝑩
𝐢: = −𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝝃 + 𝝃 +𝜼 + 𝜻+𝒇 +
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝜼 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝑩
𝐣: = −𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝜼 + 𝜼 +𝝃 + 𝜻+𝒇 −
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙

𝝏(𝜻 + 𝒇) 𝝏𝜻 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘
𝐤: = = −𝐯 ∙ 𝛁(𝜻 + 𝒇) + (𝜻 + 𝒇) +𝝃 +𝜼
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Baroclinic
Advection Stretching Tilting
Generation
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Vorticity Equation
Advection Stretching
𝜁
Y Z Negative
𝜁𝑚𝑎𝑥 Neglect
𝑢 𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥
Coriolis
Negative Positive Vorticity Positive

𝝏𝜻 𝝏𝜻 𝝏𝜻 𝝏𝒘
= −𝒖 =𝜻
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛
X X
Tilting Baroclinic
𝜂
Y Negative Z

𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥

Positive Negative Positive

𝝏𝜻 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝜼 𝝏𝑩
=𝜼 =−
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙
X X
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Perturbation Pressure

Perturbation pressure (𝑝′ ) can be partitioned

𝑝′ = 𝑝h′ + 𝑝nh
′
into hydrostatic (𝑝h′ ) and nonhydrostatic (𝑝nh
′
)
components:

The hydrostatic component results 𝜕𝑝h′

from density perturbations: = −𝜌′ 𝑔
𝜕𝑧

The perturbation form of the vertical equation of motion

can then be expressed by:

d𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝′ 𝜌′ 1 𝜕𝑝h′ 1 𝜕𝑝nh

′
𝜌′ ′
1 𝜕𝑝nh
=− − 𝑔=− − − 𝑔=−
d𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

Thus, only nonhydrostatic pressure perturbations create

vertical accelerations.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Perturbation Pressure
Perturbation pressure can also be partitioned into
𝑝′ = 𝑝b′ + 𝑝d′
buoyancy (𝑝b′ ) and dynamic (𝑝d′ ) components:

These components can be derived by taking the

divergence of the 3D Boussinesq momentum equation:
𝜕𝐯
𝛁∙ + 𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯 = −𝛼0 𝛁𝑝′ + 𝐵𝐤 − 𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯
𝜕𝑡
which yields:
𝜕(𝛁 ∙ 𝐯) 2 ′
𝜕𝐵
+ 𝛁 ∙ (𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯) = −𝛼0 𝛁 𝑝 + − 𝛁 ∙ (𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
Assuming incompressibility (𝛁 ∙ 𝐯 = 0):
𝜕𝐵
𝛼0 𝛁 2 𝑝′ = −𝛁 ∙ (𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯) + − 𝛁 ∙ (𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯)
𝜕𝑧

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Perturbation Pressure
After expanding −𝛁 ∙ (𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯) and −𝛁 ∙ (𝑓𝐤 × 𝐯), the equation becomes:
2 2 2
2 ′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝛼0 𝛁 𝑝 = − + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑓
−2 + + + + 𝑓𝜁 − 𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑓
The 𝑢 term is smaller than all the others, regardless of scale.
𝑑𝑦
On the synoptic scale, the 𝑓𝜁 term dominates all the other terms,
which leads to the following: 𝛼0 𝛁 2 𝑝′ ≅ 𝑓𝜁

If 𝑝′ is assumed to vary in a wavelike manner (e.g., sinusoidally),

then 𝛁 2 𝑝′ ∝ −𝑝′ in regions away from boundaries (e.g., the surface):
Anticyclonic flow (𝜁 < 0) → 𝑝′ > 0
𝑝′ ∝ −𝑓𝜁
Cyclonic flow (𝜁 > 0) → 𝑝′ < 0
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Perturbation Pressure
On meso-𝛾 scales and smaller the Coriolis terms can be neglected,
allowing the diagnostic pressure equation to be expressed as:
2 2 2
2 ′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝐵
𝛼0 𝛁 𝑝 = − + + −2 + + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝐵
𝛼0 𝛁2 𝑝′ =− + + − 𝐃2− 𝛚 2 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧
2 ′ 𝟐 1 2
𝜕𝐵
𝛼0 𝛁 𝑝 = −𝒆𝒊𝒋 + 𝛚 +
2 𝜕𝑧
where:
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Deformation vector 𝐃= + 𝐢+ + 𝐣+ + 𝐤
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Vorticity vector 𝛚= − 𝐢+ − 𝐣+ − 𝐤
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
3 3 2
𝟐 1 𝜕𝑢𝑖 𝜕𝑢𝑗
Rate of strain tensor 𝒆𝒊𝒋 = ෍ ෍ +
4 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑗=1

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Perturbation Pressure
Away from boundaries on these smaller scales, the approximation
𝛁2 𝑝′ ∝ −𝑝′ can also be employed:
1 𝜕𝐵
𝑝′ ∝ 𝒆𝟐𝒊𝒋 − 𝛚 2 −
2 𝜕𝑧
splat term spin term
buoyancy pressure
dynamic pressure perturbation (𝑝b′ )
perturbation (𝑝d′ )
• Splat term (divergence and/or deformation of either sign) is
associated with positive perturbation pressure (𝑝d′ )
• Spin term (vorticity of either sign) is associated with negative
perturbation pressure (𝑝d′ )
• Negative (positive) perturbation pressure is found below (above)
the level of maximum buoyancy (𝑝b′ )
′
𝑝nh = 𝑝d′ + part of 𝑝b′
𝑝′ = 𝑝b′ + 𝑝d′ = 𝑝h′ + 𝑝nh
′
𝑝h′ = remainder of 𝑝b′
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools
 Perturbation Pressure
Contour interval 25 Pa

H Idealized numerical simulation

of positively buoyant bubble
L

𝑝′ = 𝑝b′ + 𝑝d′ = 𝑝h′ + 𝑝nh

′
Contour interval 50 Pa Contour interval 50 Pa

𝜕𝐵
𝑝b′ ∝ −
𝜕𝑧
L
H 1
𝑝d′ ∝ 𝒆𝟐𝒊𝒋 − 𝛚 2
2
Contour interval 25 Pa
Contour interval 25 Pa
𝜕 ′
H 𝑝 ∝𝐵
H
𝜕𝑧 h
L L

L H

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools

 Perturbation Pressure
Idealized numerical simulations
of positively buoyant bubbles
with different widths
H
H
Positive 𝑝’ exists above bubble
L L
to push air out of the way.
L

Negative 𝑝’ exists below bubble

to draw air in.
As the bubble increases in
width, more air must be pushed
out or drawn in and vertical
accelerations are smaller.
In the limit of an infinitely wide
bubble the vertical perturbation
pressure gradient completely
offsets buoyancy (i.e., no
vertical acceleration). This is
the hydrostatic limit where:
𝑝h′ = 𝑝b′
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Basic Equations and Tools