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Caie Igcse Geography 0460 Theory v2
Caie Igcse Geography 0460 Theory v2
Caie Igcse Geography 0460 Theory v2
ORG
CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY
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Country of Destination
Advantages Disadvantages
Overcomes labour shortage. Competition for jobs
More pressure on healthcare, Implication of Dependents:
Dirty unskilled jobs done.
education and public services Too few Too Many
Brings expertise to the Taxes for public
Traffic congestion
country. Closure of child- schools from the
Young
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for related services; fewer government and more
dependents:
innovations. immigrants jobs. child-related services
Cultural diversity and Discrimination and racial are needed.
enrichment problems Fewer consumers and
More people in the
Will work long hours for a low taxpayers in the future
Increased pollution working population in
salary. and fewer people to
future hence
take over the working
Boosts local economy. unemployment.
population.
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\n \n
1.4. Population Density & Distribution
Keywords:
Population density: number of people per unit of area
(typically per kilometre square)
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
density An isolated, Buildings are
Densely populated: an area with high population building or a group strung along a line Buildings are
density of two or three of communication, grouped, initially for
Factors influencing: buildings, for example, a main defence or a
separated from the road, a river valley, common resource.
Sparse Population Dense Population next by 2 or 3 km. or a canal
Harsh areas;
Physical Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement
mountainous or Flat relief
Factors is located – the actual piece of land
uneven relief
Extreme/harsh Situation: describes settlement about other settlements
Favourable climates and physical features around it – this determines whether
climates and bad
and good weather the situation will grow into a large city or remain a small
weather
town or village
Availability of natural
Factors influencing settlements:
High risk of flooding resources for industry
Wet point site: this has a good water supply
and manufacturing.
Drypoint site: this has less risk of flooding
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops
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Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay, etc. areas usually is agriculture & low-order services.
Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with This is because rural areas have fewer people,
steep-sided and commanding views poorer transport, poorer communication, less
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking technology, & the land is better used for other
Food supplies: land suitable for farming purposes.
Nodal points: where routes converge Urban Areas: tend to have many more functions
Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge ranging from shopping to educational, transport,
Aspect: settlements often on the sunny side of a valley administrative, and residential functions; and more
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain middle and high-order services.
Climate: A good climate attracts more people. Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban
Fertile land: brings in more farmers. area into the rural-urban fringe; provides mainly
Location: access to trades and raw materials. middle–order services
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Factories were built: Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space Poor transport/comms.
Next to canals and railways to transport materials
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
Urban Wedges: urban growth is allowed to take place in
disposal
wedges, ensuring some green areas are protected
Next to land where lots of workers could live
throughout the city
Urban Growth in Urban Areas Housing density: increasing housing density means less
land will be destroyed
Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation due to building
in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation Squatter Settlement
Problems of urban growth in urban areas: A squatter settlement is a rural residential area which has
For People For Environment developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Overcrowded Loss of vegetation the land.
Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats It has:
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers Extremely high home density
Extremely high population density
Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species
Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
Traffic congestion Pollution of groundwater No electricity
Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution No running water or sewage
Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up Diseases spread easily
Poor quality of life The pungent smell of human waste
No infrastructure or privacy
Food shortage
Rural-Urban Migration
Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare
Agricultural products have
Good transport/comms
low prices
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment Feature Characteristics
Better quality & quantity of Lava Magma that reaches the surface
Poor housing quality Clouds of mixed poisonous gases and
houses Pyroclastic flow
Drought/famine pace and excitement ash
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Feature Characteristics
Snow and ice melt and combine with
Lahars
the ash, creating lahars.
Main vent Central tube through the volcano
Eruptions from other vents lead to the
Secondary cones formation of secondary cones on the
sides.
Bowl bowl-shaped basin at the top of
Crater
the volcano Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
Magma chamber A large underground pool of magma basaltic lava
Low in height, gently sloping High in height, steep-sided
How do volcanoes form? sides with a broad base volcanic cones
Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers
Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
long distances) short distance)
Pressure and tension are released → Plate movement
Frequent eruptions but low in Rare eruptions but in high
Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption
magnitude magnitude
Lava cools and forms a new crust
Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on top, High temperature Low temperature
forming a volcano. Low gas content High gas content
There is little build-up
Impacts of Volcanic Eruption: Enormous build-up pressure
pressure.
Environmental Human
Pyroclastic flow Loss of life and injury Causes of eruptions:
lava flow collapse and destruction of buildings At constructive margin, plates move away from each
volcanic bombs transport network damaged other; magma rises to fill the gap;
At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from
Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses
friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed
earthquakes Loss of crops
magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface
ashfall Power and water supply damaged
landslides Distribution of Volcanoes:
Tsunami
acid rain
ash fallout
Opportunities of Volcanos:
The cooled lava contains minerals,
Fertile soils
leading to a high yield of crops.
Many people want to visit the area and
Tourism
study it.
Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work
precious stones and income.
Geothermal the magma gives out heat, which can be
energy used to generate geothermal energy.
Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new
areas fertile land.
Earthquakes
Stages of Volcanoes:
Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt Earthquakes
again. An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground followed
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future by a series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust.
Extinct: no evidence to erupt again.
How earthquakes happen:
Types of Volcanoes:
Tectonic plates move; they strike.
Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to
move.
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Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension are Earthquake-proof buildings:
released inside the crust as energy.
The energy passes through the earth’s crust as waves,
an earthquake.
Features of earthquake:
Tectonic Plates
Features of earthquakes
Focus: point of earthquake
Epicentre: point directly above the focus, on the ground
Seismic waves
Shaking ground
Subduction zone: occurs at a destructive margin; one plate
goes under the other
Magnitude: the amount of energy released.
Effects of earthquakes
A large number of deaths Types of Plate Boundaries:
Fires breaking out Diagram Description
Water pipes burst
Water contamination, diseases
Collision: occurs when two
Corpses: human & animal
continental plates move
Accessibility difficult
towards each other.
Building damaged/destroyed
Tsunami can follow
Reconstruction costs Example: Indo-Australian and
the Eurasian Plate
Reduce impacts of earthquakes:
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Conservative/transform:
occurs when two plates slide
past each other.
The hydraulic cycle is where water is constantly recycled
Example: North American through the system.
Plate and the Pacific Plate Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.
Destructive/subduction/conve
rgent: occurs when a
continental plate subducts an
oceanic plate.
Inputs: precipitation
Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
throughflow & groundwater flow
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage
Crust
2.2. Rivers
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Types of Erosion
Transportation
River Profiles
Long profile:
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Interlocking Spurs
Cross Profile
Meanders
River Landforms and their Formation
V-shaped valley:
Oxbow Lake
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2.3. Coasts
The sea forms coasts and winds working together in 3
Floods essential tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
Components of a wave:
Causes of flooding: Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
No vegetation Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Deforestation
Urbanization Types of Waves
Poor drainage
Steep slopes Constructive Destructive
Rock type (impermeable rocks do not absorb water) Low wave height High wave height
Wet soil (over saturation) The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep
Impacts Opportunities Spill forward gently Plunge forward
Water supply (drinking, Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
People can be killed.
washing) Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
Homes destroyed. Fishing industry material strong backwash
Spread of waterborne Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Transportation for trading
diseases Deposits material
Shortage of clean water and Builds up beaches
Tourism
food
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil Erosion:
Businesses destroyed. Powerplants (dams) Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind
Sports/recreation against the riverbed
Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Flood Management Techniques Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other while
moving in the flow, making them rounder and smaller
Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in
cliffs
Transportation:
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Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats Rocks and Absorbs wave Visual pollution,
stones put energy, susceptible to
Sports/recreation Hurricanes Rip-raps
against the protects cliffs being moved
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms base of the cliff behind by the sea
Habitat for fish Tsunamis Effective, Visual pollution
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides Breakwaters Near coasts breaks easily
Tourism Flooding incoming water destroyed
Job opportunities Coastal erosion Prevents storm
Tidal
Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
Coastal Management effective
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Spits:
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Coral Reefs:
Mangrove Swamps:
2.4. Weather
Weather:
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
It can vary from day to day and from place to place
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Burns a timeline
Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focuses the light
This burns a line onto the card
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Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate Wind Vane: Records wind direction
the humidity of the air
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Distribution: They are close to the equator, so they have very similar
climates all year around
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up
Hot air rises, causing low pressure.
Adaptations:
Plants Animals
Drip tips - plants have leaves
The sloth uses camouflage
with pointy tips. This allows
and moves very slowly,
water to run off the leaves
making it difficult for
quickly without damaging or
predators to spot.
Structure: breaking them.
Drip tips - plants have leaves
with pointy tips. This allows The spider monkey has long,
water to run off the leaves strong limbs to help it to climb
quickly without damaging or through the rainforest trees.
breaking them.
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Majority tertiary.
Few in the secondary sector primary.
Primary is larger than secondary.
Sectors of the Industry:
An MEDC, e.g.
Comparing Nations:
UK
Globalisation
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Improvements in transportation
Freedom of trade
Improvements of communications
Labour availability and skills
Impacts of globalisation:
Positive Negative
Economic growth Economic Inequality
Job Displacement and Labor
Job Creation and Employment
Exploitation
Access to Goods and Services Environmental Degradation
Cultural Exchange and
Cultural Homogenization
Diversity
Exploitation of Developing
Technological Advancements
Countries
Access to Information and Social Disruption and
Communication Inequality
Environmental Awareness
Public Health Risks
and Sustainability
Advantages Disadvantages
Job opportunities Labour drain.
Improvement in skills and Damage to the environment -
communication. factories create air pollution.
Good education, healthcare Cultural dilution or loss of
and good quality of life. cultural identity.
Social mobility is limited to
Invest in infrastructure.
urban areas.
Cheaper products Profits going overseas.
Natural resources are being
Greater choice of goods
over-exploited.
Movement of people,
High level of income from transport ownership and loss Food Shortages & Famine
tourism, exports, imports of biodiversity increases
globally. When demand for food exceeds the supply of food,
leading to undernourishment
Access to vast levels of skills
Daily living costs increased. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
and resources.
health and eventually lead to starvation
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Effects:
Hunger and rising food prices.
Susceptible to infectious diseases.
Impair physical and mental development.
Reduce labour productivity,
Undernutrition and malnutrition.
Wasting.
Soil erosion and desertification.
Migration.
Solutions:
3.3. Industry
Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs.
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Managing Tourism
Factors that Change Tourist Patterns The demand for energy across the globe is rising.
Population growth and development are the two leading
Transport & accessibility. causes of the increase in energy demand.
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski trip
Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure
facilities & sites offered.
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Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
source
- Not reliable only
works when the wind is
strong enough but not
too strong. \n - Visual
- No greenhouse gas pollution. \n - Noise
emissions. \n - No air pollution \n - Many
pollution. \n - Can be turbines are needed to
Wind
small or large scale. \n produce the same
- Cheap to run. \n - Can energy as an average
be on land or offshore. coal-fired power
station. \n - May affect
bird migration patterns
Renewable Energy is energy which comes from natural
or kill birds who fly into
resources:
the moving blades.
Solar energy: energy derived from the sun through
solar radiation. - No greenhouse gas
Wind energy: conversion of wind energy into a useful emissions \n - No air
form of energy. pollution \n - Can be - Expensive to install \n
Hydro energy: the power derived from the force or small or large-scale \n - Not reliable; only
energy of moving water. - Can be used in most works when it is sunny
Geothermal energy: energy obtained by tapping the Solar locations \n - Can be \n - Large numbers
heat of the earth itself. incorporated into needed to produce
Biomass: is a renewable energy source, biological building design \n - energy \n - Uses large
material from living. Technology is areas of land
improving and
Energy reducing cost
Advantages Disadvantages
source - No CO gases. \n - Lots - Expensive. \n - Emits
- Large areas of land of potential sites. \n - sulfuric gases. \n -
are flooded behind the Geothermal Reliable. \n - Can High temperatures
dam. \n - Dam traps produce large cause maintenance
sediment, which can amounts of energy. issues.
- No greenhouse gas affect ecosystems - Uses waste or
emissions. \n - Control - Air pollution. \n -
downstream. \n - biofuels which regrow.
flooding downstream. Visual pollution. \n - Biomass Produces greenhouse
Hydroelectric \n - Available in most
\n - Provide water Can prevent fish gases. \n - Expensive.
locations.
storage for irrigation movement upstream.
and domestic use \n - People and
Non-Renewable energy: Fossil fuels are formed from
settlements may have
living organisms' remains (plants/animals). These are
to be relocated. \n - non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed
Expensive to build and which keeps up with consumption.
maintain. Coal
- No greenhouse gas Oil
- Expensive to build
emissions. \n - No air Gas
and maintain. \n - Can
pollution. \n - Has the
Wave/ Tidal affect marine
potential to produce Advantages Disadvantages
ecosystems. \n - Few
large amounts of The cost of production
suitable sites.
energy. \n - Reliable. is high, produces a lot of
It lasts 300yrs, now
GH gases, is dangerous,
Coal become more efficient,
open cast = visual
needed to make coke
pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain
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Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light When infrared radiation passes through the
Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die atmosphere, & some is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by greenhouse gas molecules
Solutions to Water Shortages This warms the surface & lower atmosphere
Effects:
Desalination: governments should invest more in
Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms
desalination plants
Change in the distribution of precipitation
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
policies regarding disposal and reuse of wastewater
Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
Conservation:
More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases
Half-flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Greenhouse gases are:
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
Collecting rainwater to use in the garden
Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste
Using appropriate plants for the climate
CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations
Water Charities:
Air pollution:
Building wells to access groundwater
Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
containing substances causes oxygen starvation
Teaching appropriate farming techniques
Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes
Low-cost schemes to filter and clean water
respiratory problems and acid rain
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute
Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to
water & water the land
heat (furnace/engine); same effect as sulphur dioxide
Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol damages nervous
3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic system
Development Water Pollution:
Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
Oil spilling into the sea
Acid rain destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Health hazards for humans
Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Noise Pollution:
Vehicles
Machinery in industries and farms
Noisy humans
Visual Pollution:
All man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
nature
Desertification:
Overgrazing
Soil erosion
Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less
rain
Deforestation - fewer roots of trees to hold the soil
together
Sustainable Development: Economic development without
destroying natural resources
Management:
Population policies
Soil Erosion: Sustainable tourism
Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is Use of renewable energy
washed away by rain because there are no tree roots Afforestation
to retain it Resource Conservation: Meeting needs of the present
In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers without affecting needs for the future
& pollutes drinking water Ways of Conservation:
Global Warming: 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases Renewable energy
Greenhouse Effect: Use energy-efficient products
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Restrict the use of resource The government can raise tax on petrol prices
Use more public transport
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CAIE IGCSE
Geography