eTextbook 978-0133870251 The World

of Psychology Eighth Canadian Edition

(8th Edition)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0133870251-the-world-of-psychology-
eighth-canadian-edition-8th-edition/
 _,;-

---
•

-· - •

--
-
•

Eighth Canadian Edition

 ••
Contents VII

The CT Scan and MRI SO

The PET Scan, The Functional MRI, and Other Imaging Techniques SO

MODULE The Peripheral Nervous System 51

The Somatic Nervous System 51
The Autonomic Nervous System 51

MODULE The Endocrine System 52

The Pituitary Gland 53
The Thyroid Gland 53
The Adrenal Glands 53
The Pancreas 53
The Sex Glands 54
APPLY IT 55
THINKING CRITICALLY 55
SUMMARY & REVIEW 56
CONCEPT MAP 58

CHAPTER 3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 60

MODULE 3A Sensation: The Sensory World 62
The Absolute and Difference Thresholds: To Sense or Not to Sense 62
Signal Detection Theory 63
Transduction and Adaptation: Transforming Sensory Stimuli into Neural Impulses 63

MODULE 31 Vision 65
Light: What We See 65
The Eye: Window to the Visual Sensory World 65
Colour Vision: A Multicoloured World 68

MODULE 3C Hearing 11
Sound: What We Hear 71
The Ear: More to it than Meets the Eye 72
Theories of Hearing: How Hearing Works 73
Hearing Loss: Kinds and Causes 73

MODULE 3D Smell and Taste 74

Smell: Sensing Scents 74
Taste: What the Tongue Can Tell 76

MODULE The Skin Senses: Information from Our Natural

Clothing 11
The Mechanism of Touch: How Touch Works 77
Pain: Physical Hurts 78

MODULE 3F The Spatial Orientation Senses 79

The Kinesthetic Sense: Keeping Track of Our Body Parts 79
The Vestibular Sense: Sensing Up and Down and Changes in Speed 79

MODULE 3G Perception: Ways of Perceiving so

The Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization 80
 •••
VIII Contents

Perceptual Constancy 81
Depth Perception: What's Up Close and What's Far Away 82

MODULE 3H Additional Influences on Perception 89

Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing 89
Perceptual Set 89
Attention 89
APPLY IT 90
THINKING CRITICALLY 91
SUMMARY & REVIEW 91
CONCEPT MAP 94

CHAPTER 4 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 96

MODULE Circadian Rhythms: Our 24-Hour Highs and Lows 98
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Body's Timekeeper 98
Jet Lag: Where Am I and What Time Is It? 99
Shift Work: Working Day and Night 99

MODULE 41 Sleep: That Mysterious One Third of Our Lives 100

NREM and REM Sleep: Watching The Eyes 101
Sleep Cycles: The Nightly Pattern of Sleep 102
Individual Differences in Sleep Patterns: How We Differ 103
REM Sleep: A Part of Sleep That We Should Not do Without 103
Dreaming: Mysterious Mental Activity while We Sleep 104

MODULE 4C Variations in Sleep and Sleep Disorders 101

Variations in Sleep 107
Parasomnias: Unusual Behaviours During Sleep 107
Major Sleep Disorders 108

MODULE 4D Altering Consciousness through

Concentration and Suggestion 110
Meditation: Expanded Consciousness or
Relaxation? 110
Hypnosis: Look into My Eyes 110

MODULE 4E Altered States of Consciousness

and Psychoactive Drugs 112
Drug Dependence: Slave to A Substance 113
Stimulants: Speeding Up the Nervous
System 113
Hallucinogens: Seeing, Hearing, and Feeling What is
NotThere 114
Depressants: Slowing Down the Nervous System 116
How Drugs Affect the Brain 117
APPLY IT 119
THINKING CRITICALLY 119
SUMMARY & REVIEW 120
CONCEPT MAP 122
 •
Contents IX

CHAPTER 5 LEARNING 124

MODULE SA Classical Conditioning 126
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning 126
The Elements and Processes in Classical Conditioning 126
John Watson, Little Albert, and Peter 130
Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning 131
Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning 132
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life 133

MODULE 51 Operant Conditioning 136

Skinner and Operant Conditioning 136
Reinforcement: What's the Payoff? 138
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning 141
Punishment: Less is Best! 142
Escape and Avoidance Learning 143
Learned Helplessness 144

MODULE sc Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning 144

MODULE SD Behaviour Modification: Changing our Act 145

MODULE SE Cognitive Learning 146

Observational Learning: Watching and Learning 146
APPLY IT 149
THINKING CRITICALLY 150
SUMMARY & REVIEW 150
CONCEPT MAP 152

CHAPTER 6 MEMORY 154

Remembering 156
The Three Processes in Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval 156
Information-Processing Approach: The Three Memory Systems 156
Measuring Memory 161

MODULE 61 The Nature of Remembering 163

Memory as a Permanent Record: The Video Recorder Analogy 163
Memory as a Reconstruction: Partly Fact and Partly Fiction 163
Eyewitness Testimony: Is it Accurate? 165
Recovering Repressed Memories: A Controversy 166
Unusual Memory Phenomena 167

MODULE 6C Factors Influencing Retrieval 169

The Serial Position Effect: To Be Remembered, Be First or Last but Not in
the Middle 169
Environmental Context and Memory 169
The State-Dependent Memory Effect 169

MoDuLE . • Biology and Memory 111

Brain Damage: A Clue to Memory Formation 171
Neuronal Changes in Memory: Brain Work 172
Hormones and Memory 173
X Contents

MODULE 6E Forgetting 173

Hermann Ebbinghaus and the First Experimental Studies on Learning and Memory 173
The Causes of Forgetting 174

MODULE 6F Improving Memory 111

Study Habits that Aid Memory 177
APPLY IT 178
THINKING CRITICALLY 179
SUMMARY & REVIEW 180
CONCEPT MAP 182

CHAPTER 7 COGNITION, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE 184

MODULE 7A Cognition 186
Imagery and Concepts: Tools of Thinking 186
Imagery: Picture this-Elephants with Purple Polka Dots 186
Concepts: Our Mental Classification System (Is it a Penguin
a Bird?) 187
Decision Making: Getting an Answer 188
Problem Solving: How do we Begin? 190
Impediments to Problem Solving: Mental Stumbling Blocks 191

MODULE 71 Creativity: Unique and Useful Productions 192

MODULE 7C Language 193

The Structure of Language 193
Language Development 194
Theories of Language Development: How do we Acquire It? 195
Having More than One Language 196
Animal Language 197
Language and Thinking 198

MODULE 7D The Nature of Intelligence 199

The Search for Factors Underlying Intelligence 200
Intelligence: More than One Type? 200

MODULE 7E Measuring Intelligence 202

Alfred Binet and the First Successful Intelligence Test 202
The Intelligence Quotient, or IQ 203
Intelligence Testing in North America 203
Requirements of Good Tests: Reliability, Validity, and Standardization 204

MODULE 7F The Range of Intelligence 2os

MODULE 7G The IQ Controversy: Brainy Dispute 206
The Uses and Abuses of Intelligence Tests 206
The Nature-Nurture Controversy: Battle of the Centuries 207
Intelligence: Is It Fixed or Changeable? 209
 •
Contents XI

MODULE 7H Emotional Intelligence 210

Personal Components of Emotional Intelligence 210
Interpersonal Components of Emotional Intelligence 211
APPLY IT 212
THINKING CRITICALLY 212
SUMMARY & REVIEW 213
CONCEPT MAP 216

CHAPTER 8 DEVELOPMENT 218

MODULE BA Developmental Psychology: Basic Issues and Methodology 220
Controversial Issues in Developmental Psychology 220
Approaches to Studying Developmental Change 220

MODULE BB Heredity and Prenatal Development 221

The Mechanism of Heredity: Genes and Chromosomes 221
The Stages of Prenatal Development: Unfolding According to Plan 222
Negative Influences on Prenatal Development: Sabotaging Nature's Plan 224

MODULE Be Physical Development and Learning 22s

The Neonate 225
Perceptual Development in Infancy 225
Learning in Infancy 226
Physical and Motor Development: Growing, Growing, Grown 226

MODULE BD The Cognitive Stages of Development: Climbing the

Steps to Cognitive Maturity 22a
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 228
An Evaluation of Piaget's Contribution 230
Cognitive Gains in Adolescence 230
Emerging Adulthood 230
Intellectual Capacity During Early, Middle, and Late
Adulthood 231

MODULE BE Socialization and Social Relationships 233

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development 233
The Parents' Role in the Socialization Process 235
Socialization in Adolescence 238
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development 240

MODULE BF Special Concerns in Later Adulthood 242

Terminal Illness and Death 242
APPLY IT 243
THINKING CRITICALLY 244
SUMMARY & REVIEW 244
CONCEPT MAP 246
 ••
XII Contents

CHAPTER 9 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 248

Theories of Motivation 250
Instinct Theories of Motivation 250
Drive-Reduction Theory: Striving to Keep
a Balanced Internal State 250
Arousal Theory: Striving for an Optimal Level of Arousal 251
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Putting our Needs in Order 253

MODULE 98 The Primary Drives: Hunger and Thirst 254

Thirst: We All have Two Kinds 254
The Biological Basis of Hunger: Internal Hunger Cues 255
Other Factors Influencing Hunger: External Eating Cues 256
Understanding Variations in Body Weight: Why We Weigh What We
Weigh 256

MODULE 9C Social Motives 258

The Need for Achievement: The Drive to Excel 258

MoDuLE · • The What and Why of Emotions 261

Motivation and Emotion: What is the Connection? 261
The Components of Emotions: The Physical, the Cognitive,
and the Behavioural 261
Theories of Emotion: Which Comes First, the Thought or the
Feeling? 261

MODULE 9E The Expression of Emotions 263

The Range of Emotion: How Wide Is It? 264
The Development of Facial Expressions in Infants: Smiles and Frowns Come
Naturally 264
Cultural Rules for Displaying Emotion 264
Emotion as a Form of Communication 265

MODULE 9F Experiencing Emotions 267

The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Does the Face Cause the Feeling? 267
Emotion and Rational Thinking 268
Love: The Strongest Emotional Bond 269
APPLY IT 270
THINKING CRITICALLY 271
SUMMARY & REVIEW 272
CONCEPT MAP 274

CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 276

\I
MODULE tOA Social Perception 278 I

Impression Formation: Sizing Up the Other Person 278

Attribution: Our Explanation of Behaviour 279

MODULE 108 Attraction 280

Factors Influencing Attraction 280
Romantic Attraction 281
Mate Selection: The Mating Game 281
 •••
Contents XIII

MODULE 10C Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance 282

Conformity: Going Along with the Group 282
Obedience: Following Orders 283
Compliance: Giving in to Requests 285

MODULE 10D Group Influence 286

The Effects of the Group on Individual Performance 286
The Effects of the Group on Decision Making 287
Social Roles 288

MODULE 10E Attitudes and Attitude Change 289

Attitudes: Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioural Positions 289
Persuasion: Trying to Change Attitudes 290

MODULE 10F Prejudice and Discrimination 292

The Roots of Prejudice and Discrimination 292
Combatting Prejudice and Discrimination 294
Prejudice: Is it Increasing or Decreasing? 295

MODULE 10G Prosocial Behaviour: Behaviour that Benefits Others 296

The Bystander Effect: The Greater the Number of Bystanders, the Less Likely they are to Help 296
People who Help in Emergencies 297

MODULE 10H Aggression: Intentionally Harming Others 298

Biological Versus Social Factors in Aggression 298
Aggression in Response to Frustration: Sometimes, but Not Always 299
Aggression in Response to Aversive Events: Pain, Heat, Noise, and More 299
The Social Learning Theory of Aggression: Learning to be Aggressive 299
APPLY IT 300
THINKING CRITICALLY 301
SUMMARY & REVIEW 301
CONCEPT MAP 304

CHAPTER 11 PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT 306

MODULE 11A Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 308
The Conscious, the Preconscious, and the Unconscious: Levels of Awareness 308
The ID, the EGO, and the SUPEREGO: Warring Components of the Personality 308
Defence Mechanisms: Protecting the Ego 309
The Psychosexual Stages of Development: Centred on the Erogenous Zones 310
Freud's Explanation of Personality 313
Evaluating Freud's Contribution 313

MODULE 111 The Neo-Freudians 314

Carl Gustav Jung: Delving into the Collective Unconscious 314
Alfred Adler: Overcoming Inferiority 315
Karen Horney: Champion of Feminine Psychology 316

MODULE 11C Trait Theories 316

Gordon Allport: Personality Traits in the Brain 317
Raymond Cattell's 16 Personality Factors 317
 •
XIV Contents

Hans Eysenck: Stressing Three Factors 318

The Five-Factor Model of Personality: The Big Five 318
Evaluating the Trait Perspective 319

MODULE 11D Learning Theories and Personality 320

The Behaviourist View of B. F. Skinner 320
The Social-Cognitive Theorists: Expanding the Behaviourist View 320

MODULE 11E Humanistic Personality Theories 322

Abraham Maslow: The Self-Actualizing Person 322
Carl Rogers: The Fully Functioning Person 322
Evaluating The Humanistic Perspective 323

MODULE 11F Personality: Is It In the Genes? 323

The Twin Study Method: Studying Identical and Fraternal Twins 323

MODULE 11G Personality Assessment 324

Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales 324
Personality Inventories: Taking Stock 325
Projective Tests: Projections from the Unconscious 325
APPLY IT 328
THINKING CRITICALLY 329
SUMMARY & REVIEW 329
CONCEPT MAP 332

CHAPTER 12 HEALTH AND STRESS 335

MODULE 12A Theories of Stress 336
Hans Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome 336
Richard Lazarus's Cognitive Theory of Stress 338

MODULE 121 Sources of Stress: The Common and The Extreme 340
Everyday Sources of Stress 340
Catastrophic Events and Chronic Intense Stress 340
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 341

MODULE 12C Coping with Stress 342

Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping 342

MODULE 12D Evaluating Life Stress: Major Life Changes,

Hassles, and Up Iifts 343
Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale: Adding Up the Stress
Scores 343
The Hassles of Life: Little Things Stress a Lot 344

MODULE 12E Health and Disease 346

Cancer: A Dreaded Disease 346
AIDS 347
Stress and the Immune System 347
Personal Factors Reducing the Impact of Stress and
Illness 348
 Contents XV

MODULE 12F Your Lifestyle and Your Health 349

Smoking: Hazardous to Your Health 349
Alcohol: A Problem for Millions 350
Exercise: Keeping Fit is Healthy 350
APPLY IT 352
THINKING CRITICALLY 352
SUMMARY & REVIEW 352
CONCEPT MAP 354

CHAPTER 13 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 356

MODULE 13A What is Abnormal? 358
Perspectives on the Causes and Treatment of Psychological Disorders 358
Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders 359

MODULE 138 Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders: When Anxiety is Extreme 362
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 362
Panic Disorder 362
Phobias: Persistent, Irrational Fears 363
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders 364

MODULE 13C Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders, and Dissociative Disorders 366
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders: Physical Symptoms with Psychological Causes 366
Dissociative Disorders: Mental Escapes 366

MODULE 13D• Schizophrenia 368

The Symptoms of Schizophrenia: Many and Varied 368
Types of Schizophrenia 369
The Causes of Schizophrenia 370
Gender and Schizophrenia 372

MODULE 13E Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 372

Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders: Emotional Highs and Lows 372
Causes of Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders 374

MODULE 13F Other Psychological Disorders 375

Personality Disorders: Troublesome Behaviour Patterns 375
Sexual Dysfunction, Paraphilic Disorders,
and Gender Dysphoria Disorders 376
APPLY IT 377
THINKING CRITICALLY 378
SUMMARY & REVIEW 378
CONCEPT MAP 380

CHAPTER 14 THERAPIES 382

MODULE Insight Therapies 384
Psychodynamic Therapies: Freud Revisited 384
Humanistic Therapy 385
 •
XVI Contents

MODULE Relationship Therapies: Therapies Emphasizing Interaction with Others 386

Couples Therapy: Healing Our Relationships 387
Family Therapy: Home is Where the Help Is 387
Group Therapy: Helping One at a Time, Together 388
Group Help of a Different Sort 388

MODULE 14C Behaviour Therapies: Unlearning the Old, Learning the New 388
Behaviour Modification Techniques Based on Operant Conditioning 389
Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning 390
Therapies Based on Observational Learning: Just Watch This! 392

MODULE Cognitive Therapies: It's the Thought that Counts 393

Rational-Emotive Therapy: Human Misery-The Legacy of False Beliefs 393
Beck's Cognitive Therapy: Overcoming the "Power of Negative Thinking" 394
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Changes in Thought Change Behaviour 395

MODULE Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) 396

MODULE 14F The Biomedical Therapies 397

Drug Therapy: Pills for Psychological Ills 397
Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Controversy Continues 398
Psychosurgery: Cutting to Cure 399

MODULE Therapies and Therapists: Many Choices 4oo

Evaluating the Therapies: Do They Work? 400
Mental Health Professionals: How do they Differ? 401
Therapy and Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 402
APPLY IT 402
THINKING CRITICALLY 403
SUMMARY & REVIEW 404
CONCEPT MAP 406

Glossary 408
References 424
Name Index 468
Subject Index 484
 BOXES

CANADIAN CONNECTIONS REMEMBER IT

Our History Highlights 17 Introduction to Psychology 6
Neuroplasticity 48 Descriptive Research Methods 9
The Effects of Narcissism on the Perception of The Experimental Method 13
Self-produced Actions and Effects 87
Participants in Psychological Research 15
The Dangers of Prescription Drugs 116
The Historical Progression of Psychology 19
Sexual Arousal and Classical Conditioning 135
Psychology Today 23
Children as Eyewitnesses 167
Neurons and Neurotransmitters 35
Dr. Philip C. Abrami 197
The Central Nervous System 38
Risk Taking in Adolescence 239
The Cerebral Hemispheres 43
The Motivation to Exercise: A Matter of
Willpower 259 Specialization of the Cerebral Hemispheres 47
What Factors Affect Homophobic Attitudes? 292 The Brain across the Lifespan 48
Personality Scales for Canadians from Different Discovering the Brain's Mysteries 51
Cultural Groups 326 The Peripheral Nervous System 52
War and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder 341 The Endocrine System 54
The Role of Eye Movements in EMDR 396 Sensation 64
Vision 70
Hearing 74
Smell and Taste 77
The Skin Senses 79
The Spatial Orientation Senses 80
Perception 88
WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY Additional Influences on Perception 90
Circadian Rhythms 100
Avoiding Ageism, Sexism, and Cultural Bias Sleep 106
in Psychological Research 14
Variations in Sleep and Sleep Disorders 109
Facial Expressions for the Basic Emotions:
A Universal Language 265 Altering Consciousness through Concentration and
Suggestion 111
The Art and Science of Lie Detection 268
Altered States of Consciousness and Psychoactive
Gender Stereotyping: Who Wins? Drugs 119
Who Loses? 295
Classical Conditioning 132
Teen Suicide in Canada 373

••
XVII
 •••
XVIII Boxes

REMEMBER IT continued REMEMBER IT continued

Classical Conditioning 135 The Neo-Freudians 316
Operant Conditioning 144 Trait Theories 319
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning 145 Learning Theories and Personality 321
Behaviour Modification 146 Humanistic Personality Theories 323
Cognitive Learning 149 Research Methods 324
Basic Memory Processes and Measures of Personality Assessment 327
Retention 163
Theories of Stress 339
The Nature of Remembering 168
Sources of Stress 342
Factors Influencing Recall 170
Coping with Stress 343
Biology and Memory 173
Evaluating Life Stress 346
Forgetting 176
Health and Disease 349
Ways to Improve Memory 178
Your Lifestyle and Your Health 351
Cognition 192
What Is Abnormal? 362
Creativity: Unique and Useful Productions 193
Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive
Language 199 Disorders 366
The Nature of Intel Iigence 202 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders and
Measuring Intelligence 204 Dissociative Disorders 368
The Range of Intelligence 206 Schizophrenia 371
The IQ Controversy 21 0 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders 374
Emotional Intelligence 211 Other Psychological Disorders 377
Developmental Psychology 211 Insight Therapies 386
Heredity and Prenatal Development 224 Relationship Therapies 388
Physical Development and Learning 228 Behaviour Therapy 392
The Cognitive Stages of Development 233 Cognitive Therapies 395
Socialization and Social Relationships 242 Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
(EMDR) 397
Special Concerns in Later Adulthood 243
Biomedical Therapies 400
Theories of Motivation 254
Therapies and Therapists 402
The Primary Drives: Hunger and Thirst 258
Social Motives 260
The What and Why of Emotions 263
The Expression of Emotions 266
Experiencing Emotions 270 TRY IT
Social Perception 279
Test Your Knowledge of Psychology 4
Attraction 282
The Right Hemisphere's Role in Recognizing
Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance 286 Emotion 45
Grouplnfluence 289 Testing the Hemispheres 45
Attitudes and Attitude Change 291 Sensory Adaptation 64
Prejudice and Discrimination 296 How the Retina Works 66
Prosocial Behaviour 298 Find Your Blind Spot 67
Aggression 300 Testing the Opponent-Process Theory 70
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 314 Taste Test 76
 •
Boxes XIX

TRY I T continued APPLY IT

Testing the Two-Point Threshold 77 Being a Good Consumer of Psychological
Controlling Pain 79 Research 23
Testing Binocular Disparity 83 Handedness: Does It Make a Difference? 55
What's in Your Dreams? 105 How Dangerous Is It to Talk, Text or Use a Cell phone
While Driving? 90
Relaxing through Meditation 11 0
How to Get a Good Night's Sleep 119
Classical Conditioning in Commercials 134
How to Win the Battle against Procrastination 149
Can You Modify Your Own Behaviour? 137
Improving Memory with Mnemonic Devices 178
Reinforcement in Everyday Life 139
Building a Powerful Vocabulary 212
Learning in Everyday Life 147
Choosing a Non-parental Care Arrangement 243
Testing Sensory Memory 158
Eating Disorders: The Tyranny of the Scale 270
Testing Short-Term Memory 159
"Unlearning" Prejudice 300
Chunking 159
Put Your Best Foot Forward 328
Testing the Levels-of-Processing
Model 162 Interpreting Health Information on the Internet 352
Testing Memory Distortion 164 Overcoming the Fear of Public Speaking 377
Penny for Your Thoughts 175 Choosing a Psychologist and a Therapy that Works
for You 402
Organizing Information to Aid Memory 177
Forming Visual Images 186
Testing Problem Solving 190
Working Backward to Solve a Problem 191
Testing Creative Ability 193
Find Your EQ 211
Understanding the Conservation
Concept 230
Test Your Moral Judgment 240
Testing Perceptions of Older Adults 242
Test Your Need for Achievement 260
Identifying Facial Expressions of
Emotion 266
Do Facial Expressions Affect Emotions? 267
Events That Cause Extreme Emotion 268
What Qualities Are You Looking for
in a Mate? 282
Do You Use Stereotypes? 294
Identifying Central Traits 317
Charting a Persona Iity Profile 318
Student Stress Scale 345
Identifying Some Specific
Phobias 364
Using Systematic Desensitization to
Overcome Fear 392
Using Rational-Emotive Therapy 393
This page intentionally left blank
 AN INVITATION TO THE STUDENT
We all learn best when we can apply new concepts to the
world we know. The eighth edition of The World ofPsychol-
ogy allows you to do just that. Highly interactive and active,
clearly written, and thoroughly up to date, this textbook
will encourage you to think for yourself as you learn about,
relate to, and apply the psychological principles that affect
your life.
So that you can make the most of all the material in the
following pages, this textbook package incorporates anum-
ber of helpful features and ancillary items.
A CLEAR, ENGAGING WRITING STYLE
Few texts have received such positive responses from stu-
dents as The World of Psychology, and first and foremost is
praise for its writing style. In fact, class tests of the first edi-
tion got 100 percent positive feedback at a range of schools.
The style is conversational, and the text uses numerous eve-
ryday examples and real-life events to help you grasp even
the most complex concepts. As well, the contents of each
chapter are organized into modules to help chunk the infor-
mation for easier reference.
Each chapter opens with a vignette (a dramatic real-life
story or series of stories) or an activity that draws you into
the topics that will be covered in the chapter and shows how
psychology relates to the world around you. Each vignette
or activity is memorable and directly related to the chapter's
content.
You'll be especially interested in the stories and activi-
ties related to
• How Facebook and other social-networking sites affect
social life.
• How you judge emotions and faces.
• How to control your dreams.
• What happens if a child is raised in the wild.
Canadian Connections introduces interesting historical or
more recent Canadian news events with the goal of dem-
onstrating how these experiences you have heard about fit
within psychology. These interesting stories provide mean-
•
XXI
ingful real-world examples to aid in understanding the ma-
terial presented in the chapters. Some Canadian Connections
boxes highlight cutting-edge contemporary research being
conducted in Canadian universities. This will give you an
opportunity to see what current research is being conducted
in Canada with respect to the topics you are reading about
and an idea of the diverse array of research being conducted
across Canada today.
INTERACT WITH YOUR TEXTBOOK
What better way to learn new material-to make it fresh, in-
teresting, and memorable-than for you to demonstrate the
principles for yourself? The unique Try It feature encourages
you to learn by doing. This highly praised feature provides
simple experiments that you can perform without elaborate
equipment, usually as you read.
Knowing what to study and how to discriminate between
critical points and fine or more peripheral details is a chal-
lenge for any new learner to an area. The Learning Objectives
at the beginning of each module will help orient you to the
key ideas and organize information as you read. These fea-
tures follow from a substantial body of research showing
that memory and comprehension can be improved by organ-
izing information.
In addition, research has shown that checking your pro-
gress at key points as you study will also help you remember
what you have read. One other way you can interact with
your textbook is by taking the Remember It quizzes at the end
of each module.
Finally, you'll have a chance to relate psychological
principles to your own life in the Apply It section at the end
of each chapter. Each Apply It helps you to apply psychology
to your personal life and issues. Topics include
• How dangerous is it to talk on, text, or use a cellphone
while driving?
• What should you consider when choosing a therapist?
• How can you improve your memory using mnemonic
strategies?
 ••
XXII An Invitation to the Student
SQ3R: A FORMULA FOR SUCCESS
This textbook is organized to help you maximize your learn-
ing by following five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite,
and Review. Together, these are known as the SQ3R method.
You will learn and remember more if, instead of simply read-
ing each chapter, you follow these steps. Here's how they
work.
Survey
First, scan the chapter you plan to read. The chapter outline
helps you preview the content and its organization.
Read all the section headings and the learning objectives,
which are designed to focus your attention on key informa-
tion that you should learn and remember.
Glance at the illustrations and tables, including the
Review & Reflect tables. Then read the chapter's Summary
& Review. This survey process gives you an overview of the
chapter.
Question
Before you actually read each section in the chapter, turn
each topic heading into one or more questions. Some topic
headings throughout the book are presented as questions.
Use these questions to test yourself. Also, try creating ques-
tions of your own. For example, one topic in Chapter 1 is
"The Goals of Psychology." The question is "What are the
four goals of psychology?" You might add this question of
your own: "What is meant by 'control' as a goal of psychol-
ogy?" Asking such questions helps to focus your reading as
well as encourages you to process the material more mean-
ingfully.
Read
Read a section. After reading a section, stop. If the section
is very long or if the material seems especially difficult or
complex, you should stop after reading only one or two par-
agraphs.
Recite
After reading part or all of a section, reflect back on the
learning objective for that section. Check to see if you re-
member and understand the material identified through
each learning objective. To better grasp each topic, write a
short summary of the material. If you have trouble summa-
rizing a topic or answering the questions, scan or read the
section once more before trying again.
When you have mastered one section, move on to the
next. Then read and recite, answering your question or writ-
ing a brief summary as before.
Review
At the end of each module you will find a Remember It sec-
tion that consists of a few questions about the preceding
topics. Answer the questions and check your answers. If you
make errors, quickly review the preceding material until you
know the answers.
The Summary & Review section provides condensed
summaries of key information in each module. You can also
revisit the Remember It boxes to assist your review. Then con-
firm your understanding of the material by reviewing any
sections of the text that were challenging. Finally, review the
Key Terms. If you don't know the meaning of a key term, turn
to the page listed to see the term in context; the term will also
be defined in the bottom corner of that page or the opposite
page. These highlighted glossary terms and definitions pro-
vide a ready reference for important key terms that appear in
boldface print in the text. All definitions also appear in the
end-of-text Glossary. Phonetic pronunciations are provided
for more than 60 potentially hard-to-pronounce terms.
Then, look at the three Thinking Critically questions:
Evaluation, Point/ Counterpoint, and Psychology in Your Life.
Answering these questions requires more than simple
memorization. The critical thinking questions give you the
chance to show that you really understand the information
presented in the chapter.
Finally, spend some time reviewing the Concept Maps at
the end of each chapter. The concept maps organize the ma-
terial by module and highlight the critical information in
each section. Use these maps to study and to help you make
sure that you have reviewed all the key points. In addition,
the concept maps show you how to link related information
so that it is easier to see the relationship across the modules
as well as within each module. One suggestion you could
use to help you when studying is to make a template of the
concept map and see how many of the boxes you can fill in.
This strategy is an excellent way to assess your knowledge of
the material.
Student Supplements
MyPsychLab (www.mypsychlab.com)
THE MOMENT YOU KNOW. Educators know it. Students
know it. It's that inspired moment when something that
was difficult to understand suddenly makes perfect sense.
Our MyLab products have been designed and refined with
a single purpose in mind-to help educators create that
moment of understanding with their students. The MyPsy-
chLab Simulations present a suite of data-generating study
demonstrations, self-inventories, and surveys that allow
students to experience firsthand some of the main concepts
covered in their Psychology textbook. Each item in the
MyPsychLab Simulations generates anonymous data from
introductory psychology students around the world that
instructors can download and use in lecture or as home-
work assignments. The MyPsychLab Simulations provide
opportunities for students to actively participate in doing
psychology and for instructors to analyze, interpret, and
discuss the results.
MyPsychLab delivers proven results in helping individ-
ual students succeed. It provides engaging experiences that

personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each student.
And, it comes from a trusted partner with educational exper-
tise and an eye on the future.
MyPsychLab can be used by itself or linked to any
learning management system. To learn more about how
MyPsychLab combines proven learning applications with
powerful assessment, visit www.mypsychlab.com
MyPsychLab-the moment you know.
PEARSON ETEXT Pearson eText gives students access to
the text whenever and wherever they have access to the
Internet. eText pages look exactly like the printed text,
offering powerful new functionality for students and
instructors. Users can create notes, highlight text in differ-
•••
An Invitation to the Student XXIII
ent colours, create bookmarks, zoom, click hyperlinked
words and phrases to view definitions, and view in single-
page or two-page view.
REVELTM Designed for the way today's students read, think,
and learn, REVEL is a ground-breaking immersive learning
experience. It's based on a simple premise: When students are
engaged deeply, they learn more and get better results.
Built in collaboration with educators and students,
REVEL brings course content to life with rich media and
assessments- integrated directly within the authors'
narrative- that provide opportunities for students to read,
learn and practice in one environment. Learn more about
REVEL http:/ /www.pearsonhighered.com/revel
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE
In preparing the eighth edition of this book, our primary
goals were to introduce critical issues in psychology accu-
rately and clearly to students, using a format that is both
interesting and memorable. We present the principles of
psychology using a clear and engaging writing style and a
pedagogically sound learning format that is accessible and
appealing to students.
Having taught thousands of students their first course
in psychology, we are sensitive to the complexities of the
teaching/learning process, and are acutely aware of the tre-
mendous changes that have occurred in the field of psychol-
ogy over the years. With this in mind, we sought to create a
textbook that is sensitive to the changing needs of students
and their professors and that will provide a context in which
readers may learn about psychology's past, present, and
probable future.
THE EIGHTH EDITION
Despite the overwhelming response to our first seven Cana-
dian editions of The World of Psychology, we have incorpo-
rated a number of improvements into the new edition. In
accordance with reviewer suggestions and the goals stated
above, the eighth Canadian edition features the following
elements:
• One of the comments we receive regularly about our
text is that the information is laid out in an attractive
and appealing way. Once again, we have tried to build
on this design strength in the current revision by en-
hancing the visual supports. Images, graphs, drawings,
and other visual supports to learning have been added,
updated, and reconfigured to ensure that key ideas are
accentuated. For example, some salient visual aids have
been enlarged to increase their visibility and to make
accompanying text easier to see.
• The modular structure introduced in our fifth edition
was retained and further refined in this edition. The
modular framework divides each chapter into man-
ageable "chunks" of information that are easier for
instructors to assign and for students to read. Organ-
izing material into meaningful chunks helps improve
students' memory by supporting the organization of
XXV
information, and the smaller units make it easier to
remember by minimizing the demands on working
memory capacity-or memory span. It also allows for
increased flexibility for instructors when assigning
material.
• Learning Objectives appear at the beginning of each
module, and learning objective numbers are presented
with the corresponding material in the text. The goal
of the learning objectives is to provide an organizer for
students at the outset of each module. This will help
students to understand how to read the material in
each chapter by highlighting the critical information
to be learned. This feature will enhance the learning
experience by promoting greater memory and compre-
hension. Learning objectives and the corresponding
summaries at the end of the chapter have been revised
to ensure clear, succinct connections throughout this
text.
• The concise Concept Maps identify the critical informa-
tion in each section. These hierarchically arranged
concept maps visually organize the material by mod-
ule, as well as illustrate the links between topics span-
ning different modules.
• Canadian and international research has been updated
to reflect new trends in psychology and society.
• At least one Canadian Connections box appears in each
chapter. The function of these boxes is to highlight
events past and present that show how Canadians are
or have been involved in the issues being presented
in the text. For example, some Canadian Connections
boxes highlight key Canadian researchers and their
most recent work, while others integrate Canadian his-
torical events with current issues. These boxes integrate
Canadian contributions and events within the broader
field of psychology.
• The opening vignettes share important stories
to draw attention to the practical and real-world
importance of the information in the chapter. New
vignettes invite students to complete activities or
mini-surveys to engage them more directly in the
content that will follow.
 •
XXVI Preface
Canadian Context
Our Canadian colleagues and their students find that many
introductory psychology texts target an American audience.
The issues, research citations, and practical examples in these
texts typically relate to U.S. events and experiences. We be-
lieve that students learn best when materials are relevant to
their lives. The Canadian content in this text includes events
in the media, current research, and historical references to
Canadian facts and contributors. By including information
that is more meaningful to Canadian students, we hope to
enhance their understanding and retention of the material.
Part of the Canadian identity is our recognition of the
diversity in society. To acknowledge this, we have made an
effort to include the influential work of psychologists from
around the world. Also, we have tried to include events and
studies from different regions of Canada. We believe this
added value makes The World ofPsychology, Eighth Canadian
Edition, a balanced, universal text.
A Clear, Understandable, Interesting Writing Style
First and foremost, a textbook is a teaching instrument. A
good psychology text must communicate clearly to a wide
audience of various ages and levels of academic ability. Our
book is appealing to accomplished students, yet accessible
to those whose academic skills are still developing.
We achieved this objective (we hope) by explaining con-
cepts in much the same way as we do in our own psychol-
ogy classes. Throughout the text we sought to ensure flow
and continuity by using a conversational style and avoiding
abrupt shifts in thought. In addition, the text is filled with
everyday examples that are pertinent to students' lives.
A Series of High-Interest Features That Will Appeal
to Today's Students
Every chapter opens with a vignette or activity to capture
student interest and build motivation. We have also includ-
ed special features:
• Apply It sections show the practical applications of the
principles of psychology.
• Canadian Connections discuss Canadian news events
that demonstrate concepts outlined in the text and/ or
highlight contemporary research being conducted in
Canadian universities.
• World ofPsychology boxes in selected chapters explore
special diversity issues.
A TEXTBOOK THAT ENCOURAGES STUDENTS TO
BECOME ACTIVE PARTICIPANTS IN THE LEARN-
ING PROCESS
Reading about psychology is not enough. Students should
be able to practise what they have learned, where appropri-
ate. Many of the principles we teach can be demonstrated,
often without elaborate equipment and sometimes as the
student reads. What better way to teach new material and
make it fresh, interesting, and memorable than to have
students demonstrate principles for themselves using an
important and innovative element of the book: Try It sec-
tions? The response to Try It demonstrations from professors
and students has been so positive that this feature appears
in every chapter. The Try It sections personalize psychology
and make it come alive.
Student involvement is also promoted through the use
of rhetorical questions and by casting the student in the role
of the participant in selected studies and descriptions of
real-life events. Thus, students who use The World ofPsychol-
ogy become active participants in the learning process rather
than simply passive recipients of information.
An Emphasis on Critical Thinking
Thinking critically does not call for being critical of all
viewpoints other than one's own. Rather, critical thinking
is a process of evaluating claims, propositions, or conclu-
sions objectively in order to determine whether they follow
logically from the evidence presented. Critical thinkers are
open-minded, objective, and unbiased, and they maintain
a skeptical attitude that leads them to search for alternative
explanations.
Critical thinking is too important to leave to chance.
In addition to promoting critical thinking throughout the
text, we have developed a systematic method of nurturing it.
A Thinking Critically section at the end of each chapter fea-
tures three types of questions:
1. Evaluation questions teach students to think critically
as they take stock of psychological theories, tech-
niques, approaches, perspectives, and research studies.
2. Point/counterpoint questions require students to
comprehend, analyze, and formulate convincing argu-
ments on both sides of important issues in psychology.
3. Real-life application questions allow students to apply
psychological principles and concepts to their own
lives and the everyday world.
Help for Students to Understand Human Diversity
and More Fully Comprehend the Part Multicultural
Issues Play in Contemporary Psychology
Human diversity issues are integrated throughout the book,
both within the main text presentation and as highlighted
special features. This form of presentation parallels the pres-
ence of diversity in Canada as a mainstream and special-
interest issue. Diversity issues include cultural, gender, and
age concerns in selected topic areas in each chapter. For ex-
ample, in Chapter 1 we focus on the problem of bias. Later,
we discuss the impact of culture on memory, the effect of
personality on perception, the interpretation of emotion,
and preferred forms of therapy. These, along with other seg-
ments, help to promote understanding of human diversity
and how it is an integral part of our perception of the world.

Current Coverage That Preserves the Classic Contri-
butions in Our Field
Advances in knowledge and research are occurring at an ever-
increasing pace, and modern authors must keep abreast. This
edition introduces students to the most up-to-date research
on many topics that feature rapid change, including advanced
technologies, neuropsychology, gender differences, changes
in social norms, violence, aggression and stress, adolescent
drug use, and new therapies.
Yet we do not value newness for its own sake. We in-
clude, as well, studies that have stood the test of time, and
we explore the classic contributions to psychology in depth.
An Appreciation of Psychology's History and an
Understanding That Psychology Is a Living, Growing,
Evolving Science
A portion of Chapter 1 is devoted to psychology's history.
But in our view, the history of psychology is best understood
and appreciated in the context in which the contributions
were made. Consequently, discussions of such topics as
learning, memory, intelligence, emotion, and personality
integrate both historical and recent research contributions
to show how psychology has evolved up to the present day.
An Accurate and Thoroughly Researched Textbook
That Features Original Sources
To accomplish our goal of introducing the world of psychol-
ogy accurately and clearly, we have gone back to original
sources and have read or reread the basic works of the major
figures in psychology and the classic studies in the field. This
has enabled us to write with greater clarity and assurance,
without having to hedge or write tentatively when discuss-
ing what experts in the field have actually said. This book is
one of the most carefully researched, up-to-date, and exten-
sively referenced psychology textbooks available.
A Sound Pedagogical System in the Text and Learn-
ing Package
The pedagogical system in The World ofPsychology consists of
the following components:
• Learning Objectives. Learning objectives orient students
to the critical information to be learned within each
module.
• Remember It. There is a Remember It memory check at
the end of every module. These checks are designed to
encourage students to pause and test comprehension
of material they have just read.
• Review & Reflect Tables. We have expanded our use of
the extremely popular summary tables, called Review &
Reflect, which are useful for reviewing and comparing
various perspectives, theories, and other concepts.
• Text-Embedded Glossary. A text-embedded glossary
provides a ready reference for important key terms that
••
Preface XXVII
appear in boldface in the text. Definitions also appear
in the Glossary at the back of the book. Phonetic pro-
nunciations are provided for more than 60 potentially
hard-to-pronounce terms.
• Summary & Review. These end-of-chapter sections pro-
vide succinct summaries for key concepts. The feature
can be used both as a preview to the chapter and as a
review in preparing for tests.
• Concept Maps. These memory aids serve two functions.
First, the maps summarize the key elements of each
module in an interesting, easy-to-follow visual format.
Second, the maps show the relationships across mod-
ules. These links help to integrate the materials and
make the flow of information more obvious.
A Complete, Coordinated Teaching Package of
the Highest Quality
Instructor supplements are available for download from a
password-protected section of Pearson Education Canada's
online catalogue (http://catalogue.pearsoned.ca). Navigate
to your book's catalogue page to view a list of those supple-
ments that are available. See your local sales representative
for details and access.
• Instructor's Manual: The Instructor's Resource
Manual (IRM) was developed to encourage student in-
volvement and understanding with lecture examples,
demonstrations, in-class activities, critical-thinking
topics, diversity issues, and guides to using other
ancillary materials. Lecture Guides are included for
each chapter-using the chapter outlines to integrate
the suggested lecture discussions, activities, and other
resources directly into the appropriate sections.
• PowerPoint Presentation: This slide presentation pairs
key points covered in the chapter with figures from the
textbook to provoke effective classroom discussion.
• Test Item File: This test bank in Microsoft Word format
includes over 200 questions for each chapter, in multi-
ple choice, true/false, short answer, and essay formats,
each with an answer justification, page reference,
difficulty rating, and type designation. This test bank
is also available in a computerized testing format (see
below).
• Pearson's computerized test banks allow instruc-
tors to filter and select questions to create quizzes,
tests, or homework. Instructors can revise questions
or add their own, and may be able to choose print or
online options. These questions are also available in
Microsoft Word format. The computerized test bank
for The World ofPsychology, Eighth Canadian Edition
includes over 3600 questions in multiple-choice, true/
false, and essay formats.
• Image Library: The image library provides you with
chapter figures and tables.
 •••
XXVIII Preface
MyPsych Lab (www.mypsychlab.com)
THE MOMENT YOU KNOW. Educators know it. Students
know it. It's that inspired moment when something that
was difficult to understand suddenly makes perfect sense.
Our MyLab products have been designed and refined with
a single purpose in mind-to help educators create that mo-
ment of understanding with their students.
MyPsychLab delivers proven results in helping indi-
vidual students succeed. It provides engaging experiences
that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each
student. And, it comes from a trusted partner with educa-
tional expertise and an eye on the future.
MyPsychLab can be used by itself or linked to any learn-
ing management system. To learn more about how MyPsy-
chLab combines proven learning applications with powerful
assessment, visit www.mypsychlab.com
Included in MyPsychLab, the new MyPsychLab Simu-
lations present a suite of data-generating study demonstra-
tions, self-inventories, and surveys that allow students to
experience firsthand some of the main concepts covered in
their Psychology textbook. Each item in the MyPsychLab
Simulations generates anonymous data from introductory
psychology students around the world that instructors can
download and use in lecture or as homework assignments.
The MyPsychLab Simulations provide opportunities for
students to actively participate in doing psychology and
for instructors to analyze, interpret, and discuss the results.
PEARSON ETEXT Pearson eText gives students access to
the text whenever and wherever they have access to the In-
ternet. eText pages look exactly like the printed text, offering
powerful new functionality for students and instructors. Us-
ers can create notes, highlight text in different colours, create
bookmarks, zoom, click hyperlinked words and phrases to
view definitions, and view in single-page or two-page view.
peerScholar Firmly grounded in published research,
peerScholar is a powerful online pedagogical tool that helps
develop your students' critical and creative thinking skills.
peerScholar facilitates this through the process of creation,
evaluation, and reflection. Working in stages, students be-
gin by submitting a written assignment. peerScholar then
circulates their work for others to review, a process that can
be anonymous or not depending on your preference. Stu-
dents receive peer feedback and evaluations immediately,
reinforcing their learning and driving the development of
higher-order thinking skills. Students can then resubmit
revised work, again depending on your preference. Contact
your Pearson Representative to learn more about peerSchol-
ar and the research behind it.
Pearson's Technology Specialists work with faculty
and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson tech-
nology products, assessment tools, and online course ma-
terials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly
qualified team is dedicated to helping schools take full ad-
vantage of a wide range of educational resources, by assist-
ing in the integration of a variety of instructional materi-
als and media formats. Your local Pearson Education sales
representative can provide you with more details on this
•
service program.
REVEL™ Designed for the way today's students read,
think, and learn, REVEL is a ground-breaking immersive
learning experience. It's based on a simple premise: When
students are engaged deeply, they learn more and get better
results.
Built in collaboration with educators and students,
REVEL brings course content to life with rich media and
assessments-integrated directly within the authors'
narrative-that provide opportunities for students to read,
learn and practice in one environment. Learn more about
REVEL http://www. pearsonhighered.com/revel
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank research assistant Emily Christ-
ofides, who provided a great deal of help help during the
review of the book. Also, we are indebted to an incredible
group of people at Pearson Education Canada for their con-
tributions to The World of Psychology. We want to thank
Matthew Christian, acquisitions editor; Martina van de Velde,
developmental editor; Andrea Falkenberg, project man-
ager; and Raghavi Khullar, who provided expert assistance
throughout the writing process.
This page intentionally left blank
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Samuel E. Wood Eileen Wood

Samuel E. Wood (deceased) received his doctorate from the Eileen Wood received her doctorate from Simon Fraser Uni-
University of Florida. He has taught at West Virginia Univer- versity. She is a full professor in the Department of Psychol-
sity and the University of Missouri-St. Louis and was a mem- ogy at Wilfrid Laurier University. She conducts research in
ber of the doctoral faculty at both universities. From 1984 to developmental and educational psychology. Her primary
1996, he served as president of the Higher Education Center, research interests involve studying how people acquire,
a consortium of 14 colleges and universities in the St. Louis maintain, and recall information, especially when tech-
area. He was a co-founder of the Higher Education Cable TV nologies are involved. The impact of instructors, types of
channel (HEC-TV) in St. Louis and served as its president instruction, and instructional environments are also part of
and CEO from its founding in 1987 until1996. her research. Her secondary research interests involve gen-
der role development and dating. Dr. Wood has authored
Ellen R. Green Wood several books, book chapters, and many articles. She was
recently awarded the University Research Professor Award
Ellen Green Wood received her doctorate in educational
to pursue her research on students' use of technology in the
psychology from St. Louis University and was an adjunct
classroom. She has also received several awards for teach-
professor of psychology at St. Louis Community College
ing excellence. Dr. Wood primarily teaches introductory
at Meramec. She has also taught in the clinical experiences
and developmental psychology at the undergraduate level
program in education at Washington University and at the
and developmental psychology at the graduate level. She
University of Missouri-St. Louis. In addition to her teach-
works collaboratively with school boards and participates
ing, Dr. Wood has developed and taught seminars on critical
in administrative boards that work toward enhancing
thinking. She received the Telecourse Pioneer Award from
learning for learners of all ages.
1982 through 1988 for her contributions to the field of dis-
tance learning.
Serge Desmarais
Denise Boyd Serge Desmarais received his Ph.D. in social psychology from
the University of Waterloo. He is a full professor, a former
Denise Boyd received her Ed.D. in educational psychology
Canada Research Chair in applied social psychology, and
from the University of Houston and has been a psychology
the current Associate Vice-President (Academic) at the Uni-
instructor in the Houston Community College System since
versity of Guelph. In this role, he oversees all aspects of the
1988. From 1995 until1998, she chaired the psychology, soci-
undergraduate curriculum at his university. Dr. Desmarais
ology, and anthropology department at Houston Community
started teaching introductory psychology in his first aca-
College-Central. She has co-authored three other Pearson
demic position in 1990, and has taught this course regularly
Allyn and Bacon texts: with Helen Bee, Lifespan Development
since the beginning of his career. He is the recipient of several
(Sixth Edition), The Developing Child (Thirteenth Edition),
University of Guelph teaching awards. Dr. Desmarais is an
and The Growing Child (First Edition); and with Genevieve
active researcher and the author of many articles and book
Stevens, Current Readings in Lifespan Development. A licensed
chapters in the areas of interpersonal relations, work and pay
psychologist, she has presented a number of papers at pro-
expectations, gender issues, and the personal consequences
fessional meetings, reporting research in child, adolescent,
of social media.
and adult development. She has also presented workshops
for teachers whose students range from preschool to college.
This page intentionally left blank
 To Chris, for all the care, love, and support.
-S.D.

In memory of my father, who was my strongest champion,

and my family, who are my inspiration.
-E.W.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN