Apeksha Project Report

“Applications of Luminescence in Radiation
Dosimetry”
1. ABSTRACT
In the paper, after a brief description of historical development, the theory of

thermoluminescence (TL) is presented. Three methods of thermally (TSL), optically
(OSL) and radio (RPL) stimulated luminescence are discussed and compared. A wide
range of applications of TL detectors in individual and enviromnental dosimetry with
an attention put on ultra-high dose measurements is presented and described. As
particularly important in clinical dosimetry for eye-tumor radiotherapy the surface 2D
detectors were developed. The participation of the Institute of Nuclear Physics (IFJ)
group in the Cosmos experiment MATROSHKA is described. Also the new TL
materials and measurement methods are presented.
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Basic Definition Property
The termoluminescence is a quantum process consisting on emission of

electromagnetic radiation by certain materials, called thermoluminescent (TL). It is
due to the accumulation of energy by ionising radiation and its release in form of light
quanta by heating. TL is one of the examples of material luminescence obtained
through external stimuli.
The term “luminescence” itself was first introduced in 1888 by Eilhard Wiedemann to
describe the emission of light by processes that do not involve heat, as opposite to the
case of light emission by materials heated to elevated temperatures. But, in fact, the
thermoluminescence observations date from much earlier.
2.2 Application
Medical Dosimetry
Medical dosimetry is the calculation of absorbed dose and optimization of dose

delivery in radiation therapy. It is often performed by a professional health physicist
Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

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Dosimetry”
with specialized training in that field. In order to plan the delivery of radiation
therapy, the radiation produced by the sources is usually characterized
with percentage depth dose curves and dose profiles measured by a medical physicist.
In radiation therapy, three-dimensional dose distributions are often evaluated using a

technique known as gel dosimetry.
Environmental Dosimetry
Environmental Dosimetry is used where it is likely that the environment will generate
a significant radiation dose. An example of this is radon monitoring. Radon is a
radioactive gas generated by the decay of uranium, which is present in varying
amounts in the earth's crust. Certain geographic areas, due to the underlying geology,
continually generate radon which permeates its way to the earth's surface. In some
cases the dose can be significant in buildings where the gas can accumulate. A
number of specialised dosimetry techniques are used to evaluate the dose that a
building's occupants may receive.
Other Applications:
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light via electro-luminescence.
 Phosphors, materials that emit light when irradiated by higher-energy

electromagnetic radiation or particle radiation
 Laser, and lamp industry
 Phosphor thermometry, measuring temperature using phosphorescence
 Thermoluminescence dating
 Thermoluminescent dosimeter

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Dosimetry”
 Non-disruptive observation of processes within a cell.
Luminescence occurs in some minerals when they are exposed to low-powered

sources of ultraviolet or infrared electromagnetic radiation (for example, portable UV
lamps), at atmospheric pressure and atmospheric temperatures. This property of these
minerals can be used during the process of mineral identification at rock outcrops in
the field, or in the laboratory.
2.3 Types
Clinical dosimetry
The proton radiotherapy is one of the methods of treating eye-ball cancer. In this type
of therapy, a suitably formed proton beam is applied to irradiate the tumour. It is a
distinctive technique for the proton radiotherapy. Thanks to the so-called Bragg peak,
a suitable irradiation dose is precisely delivered to the treated tumour and at the same
time the irradiation of healthy tissues is minimal, what reduces side effects of the
treatment. Proton radiotherapy enables an effective destruction of tumours saving
critical organs such as optic nerve, yellow spot (macula) or lens. Therefore, the
patients can save their vision in the treated eye.
A part of IFJ is the Bronowice Cyclotron Centre, engaged in the application of proton
beam for scientific research and eye-tumor radiotherapy. The activities are based on
operation of two cyclotrons and two gantry devices. In medical applications the
requirements for the dose measurement accuracy are very high. Even small changes
of TLD sensitivity should be taken into account, so for dose mapping the prototype of
two – dimensional (2D) TL dosimetry systems were developed and realized. Some
examples of them are shown in Fig. 5.
Large-area (of a few cm2 ) TL detectors were developed using different techniques.
For example they are obtained by: attaching a thermoluminescent (LiF:Mg, Ti or
LiF:Mg, Cu, P) powder to 0.3 mm Al foil, or by pressing the powder and sintering.
Currently, the planar TL system is being applied to visualize the sub-millimeter. The

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Dosimetry”
flexible detector was wrapped around examined object (for instance an eyeball
phantom made of tissue-equivalent plastic) and inserted in the concave Ru-106
ophthalmic applicator. After exposure the detector was unwrapped and flattened out
for readout. The planar (2D) thermoluminescence reader, developed at IFJ, with a
sensitive CCD (Charge Couple Device) camera (instead the conventional
photomultiplier) was used to read the detector. This set-up allows for determination of
light intensity due to the TL emission with spatial resolution of 0.1 mm. The
registered the radiation dose distribution is an iso-dose picture: every colour represent
one level of damage (Fig. 5(d)).
FIGURE 5
Planar 2D TL detectors (a-c) and examples of the registered radiation dose

distributions (d).

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Dosimetry”
TLD detectors in Cosmos exploration
The cosmic radiation was discovered by Victor Franz Hess on 7-th August 1912 year
(Nobel Prize in 1936) and exactly 100 years later on 7-th August 2012 the rover
Curiosity has made the first measurement of radiation on Mars. Now the space
shuttles are able to penetrate up to 300 km from Earth.
The cosmic radiation is composed of three components:
• The gallactic component is coming from outside the solar system. It is a very
high energy (1020 eV), highly penetrating, difficult to shield, stimulating
secondary radiation. Its source are mainly nuclei of atoms ( 1H to 238
U) of high
ionisation density, giving strong biological effects
• The solar component exhibits a cyclic activity. It is a kind of solar wind with a
low energy, caused by solar explosions. It infects the galactic component.
• The radiation belts - Van Allen’s belts are the outer belts, consisting mainly of
electrons and inner belts of protons
Exposure of astronauts to cosmic radiation is a significant problem in long term

missions on Earth orbit and in interplanetary missions. In order to estimate radiation
risk to astronauts, the European Space Agency prepared an experiment called
“Matroshka”. Within this experiment a special humanoid phantom was exposed in the
open (extravehiculary) space outside the International Space Station for the period of
one year. A few thousand measuring points were located inside the phantom in order
to determine the organ doses. For such measurements within the human phantom the
best suited are thermoluminescent detectors (TLD), with a volume of a few mm 3,
which do not require any power supply and integrate in time the radiation-induced
signal. Most of the detectors used in this experiment were prepared at the Institute of
Nuclear Physics, Kraków, Poland. By combining various types of detectors, it was
possible to separate different components of the radiation field and to estimate their
ionization densities.

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Dosimetry”
The TLDs were successfully optimized for the space dosimetry. Their properties were
studied with ion beams at various accelerators (HIMAC in Japan, Brookhaven and
Loma Linda in USA).
The total duration of experiments was of 4705 days. The measurements were
performed inside and outside the space station. The MATRO-
SHKA model of the human body, designed to determine the spatial distribution of
radiation dose and exposure assessment of radiation astronauts, was equipped with a
set of active and passive radiation detectors. The Phantom was composed of 33 layers
in regular 2.5 cm lattice containing 1631 measurement sites with 5373 TLD detectors
(3140 from IFJ PAN) and 7 active detectors.
The experiment was provided in four stages:
MATROSHKA1 - 2004/05 – 616 days (539 outside) resulting
MATROSHKA2A - 2006 – 337 days
MATROSHKA2B - 2007/2009 - 518 days
MATROSHKA - 2 KIBO
The three first of them measured the equivalent doses equal to: 0.695 mSv/d, 0.529
mSv/d and 0.569 mSv/d respectively. The personal dosimeters of the astronauts
showed respectively: 2.330 mSv/d, 0.620 mSv/d and 0.644 mSV/d, what means that
these dosimeters overestimated the radiation exposure by a factor of 3 outwards of
ISS and 13 – 18% inside the International Space Station (ISS).

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Dosimetry”
Emergency dosimetry
The rapid assessment of the radiation dose after unexpected exposure is a task of
accidental dosimetry. In case of a radiological accident glasses originating from
mobile phone screens, placed usually near the human body could be used as
emergency thermoluminescent personal dosimeters.
The time between irradiation and TL readout is crucial and therefore preparation of
the mobile phone screen and their readout conditions should be optimized.
This preparation rest on removing the screen from the phone, removing foil, etching
in acid or a mixture of acids and cutting into sample 3×3mm 2. Then after a choice of a
filter the signal spectrum is possible to be read.
The glasses extracted from different brands of mobile phones have different
dosimetric properties but all of them give a luminescence signal, which may be used
to determine the absorbed radiation dose.
Another example with use of every day object, where TL signal is applied, is a
security system for banknotes. New banknotes that have entered into circulation in
Poland in the spring of 2014 have a high, own signal, so are less suited for
falsification.
Micro-imaging of the radiation dose distribution
The new activites, such as the micro imaging dose distribution, diagnostics of ion
beams, radiography (with resolution less than 1 µm) and observation of the single
traces of charged particles need LiF monocrystal detectors. Two techniques of
monocrystal groving: the Micro Pulling Down, and the Czochralski method are under
use and testing.
The application of optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) for dosimetry has been
reviewed previously [1]. Landauer has developed the application of aluminium oxide

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Dosimetry”
doped with carbon (Al2O3:C) as an OSL detector material for its external personal
radiation dosimetry services. It is currently Landauer’s preferred method because of a
number of key operational and technical features:
• high sensitivity, improving low dose precision and enabling thin layer
dosemeters;
• elimination of heating permits more possibilities for the design of

dosemeters, including: powder coatings on clear film bases; simpler and more
reliable analysis instrumentation; and better control over the amount of
luminescence emitted;
* Presenting author, e-mail: cperks@landauer-fr.com
• re-analysis of dosemeters is possible as less than 0.25% of the stored charge is

consumed in each analysis.
Landauer have recently developed a new system, called InLight ®, based on modified
Panasonic dosemeters and readers. In addition, we have developed a small, manual
reader, called microStar™, able to read-out small dots of our OSL detector material.
This extends our range of application into medical and other fields where single point
measurements are required.
This paper describes the microStar system, outlines the principal characteristics of the
system and some trials of the system.
The microStar system
The microStar system comprises dosemeters, which may take the form of
conventional personal monitoring dosemeters or individual dots, and a purpose
designed reader, as described below.

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Dosimetry”
Dosemeters
As its detectors, Landauer use aluminium oxide doped with carbon (Al 2O3:C). The
aluminium oxide, Al2O3:C, used in our dosemeters is produced at the Landauer
Crystal Growth Facility in Stillwater, USA. Al 2O3:C (corundum or sapphire) is used
primarily because of its high sensitivity to radiation (40 – 60 times that of LiF (TLD-
100)). It has a principal emission peak at 410 – 420 nm (blue). It also has excellent
properties for radiation dosimetry, including linear response up to 300 cGy. Al 2O3:C
powder is obtained by grinding crystals and sifting the powder to the desired size
range. This powder is mixed with a polyester binder and coated onto a roll of
polystyrene film. The aluminium oxide layer is approximately 0.2 mm thick
sandwiched between polyester foils 0.03 mm thick (top) and 0.1 mm thick (bottom).
The film roll is subsequently cut to the desired shape and size (for InLight dosemeters
and dots this is discs approximately 5 mm diameter). In commercial applications
these discs are either inserted into Panasonic type dosemeters or small holders for
individual dots.
Figure 1: OSL strip and dosemeters.
Reader
A number of methods have been developed for analysis of the OSL from Al 2O3:C
detectors, including the pulsed optically stimulated luminescence method adopted for
Landauer’s Luxel badges. However, in the InLight system, Light Emitting Diodes

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Dosimetry”
(LED) emitting light at a wavelength of 532 nm (green) are used as the light source.
These offer several important advantages over traditional thermal stimulation systems
(TLDs). In particular, they are inexpensive, robust and compact, enabling the readers
to be much more reliable (by eliminating high temperatures, combustion, external gas
supplies, etc). The LED based readers can therefore achieve much higher precision
and repeatability. The InLight system utilises an array of 36 LEDs; all 36 (strong
beam) are illuminated for low dose exposures and only 6 LEDs (weak beam) are
illuminated for high dose exposures. A pre-test under the dosemeter’s open window
determines the LED strength required.
A number of readers are available, including fully automatic readers for reading up to
500 dosimetry badges in a single process.
The microStar reader is a small, portable reader, capable of reading out personal
monitoring dosemeters or dot detectors. This was designed for a variety of
applications, including medical dosimetry. The microStar measures approximately 30
x 20 x 10 cm and weighs approximately 15 kg. It uses a conventional electrical
power source (110 – 240 V, 1.5 amp, 50 – 60 Hz) and no other connections. It is
therefore a ‘plug-in and operate’ piece of equipment.
To control and monitor the operation, microStar has a dial and two indicator lights.
The reader connects via a USB cable to an external computer that controls the setup,
analysis and data recording. Quality control (QC) procedures to ensure accurate dose
results include: the measurement of a low intensity light photon source calibration
standard; dark current and LED intensity; the ability to calibrate to any set of
reference conditions; and the use of quality control dosimeters for periodic QC
testing. The frequency of quality control procedures is user defined and depends upon
the desired accuracy. For normal measurements (bias < 5%), calibration is needed
once a month or after transport.

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Dosimetry”
Figure 2: The microStar reader
Characteristics of the system
In medical dosimetry, there are a wide range of clinical conditions (e.g. technique,
energy, angle, dose rate, etc.) which require the user to have a very thorough
understanding of their dosimetry system and how it performs in these various
environments. This translates into a series of correction factors which are typically
applied by hand after the measurement has been made. So, while electronic devices
such as diodes and MOSFETs provide instantaneous output, it is entirely possible that
an accurate measurement may require minutes or hours of post-measurement analysis,
or a knowledge of the exposure conditions that is not practical (e.g., irradiation angle
during an IMRT treatment).
Landauer’s microStar system provides two different solutions to this problem. On

one hand, the reader is flexible and can be calibrated to any set of reference
conditions. These calibrations can be individually stored and recalled at a later time
as necessary. At the same time, the dosimeter itself is virtually invariant with energy,
angle, dose rate, etc. in the radiotherapy environment. This eliminates the need for
post-measurement correction factors and allows a medical technician rather than a
medical physicist to perform the measurement.
These advantages will be described in further detail using data from published sources
as necessary.

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Dosimetry”
Energy response
In this section we describe the energy dependence, dose-response, and accuracy of

measurements made with OSL dot detectors read out using the microStar reader.
Radiotherapy fields
For radiotherapy the energy range of interest is for 60Co (mean energy 1.250 MeV)
upward to 20 MeV using both photons and electrons. The on-phantom response at
these energies is about 3 times less that the response at 48 keV. Figure 3 gives the
energy response for the dots over the radiotherapy range. It can be seen that the
energy response typically varies by less than 4 % over this range. If one further
considers only the output from a linear accelerator (ignoring Co-60), this variation is
reduced to 2% or less. This allows a technician to use a single calibration for all
clinical conditions. In the event that the user does not record the exposure energy, the
readings are still valid. For those cases where even greater precision is desired, the
microStar is flexible enough to be individually calibrated to each particular field.
Figure 3: Energy response in the radiotherapy range.
1.04
Relative response
1.02
1 Viamonte
0.98
(photons)
0.96
Jursinic
0.94
(photons)
0.92
0 5 10 15 20
Jursinic (electrons)
Schrembi (photons)

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Dosimetry”
Schrembi (electrons)
Energy /MV
Shembri and Heijmen noticed a difference of 3.7 % in the response between the
photon and electron beams. There is also a significant difference for 18 MV photons
between the results for Viamonte et al [9] and Schembri and Heijman. The reasons for
these variations are not yet understood and indicate the need for a careful
understanding of the measurement protocol used before comparing the results.
Mammography, diagnostic and CT fields
With an effective Z of ~10, the Al 2O3:C detector material will over-respond to the x-
rays typically found in diagnostic applications. The expected energy range for these
exposures is from 20 kVp (mammography) to 120 kVp (Computed Tomography
(CT)). The energy response of the OSL dot detectors has been determined [10] both
for exposures on phantom (30 x 30 x 15 cm PMMA) and free in air for energies in
this range and is shown in Figure 4. To minimize the measurement bias of this effect,
Landauer supplies a set of calibrated dot dosemeters. These calibrates are created
using an 80 kVp Philips Industrial x-ray generator with a 2.5 mm filter of Al (2.9 mm
Al HVL) with the dosemeters exposed on a PMMA phantom. The energy response
given in Figure 4 is normalized to this exposure condition.
Figure 4: Energy response of dot detectors in mammography, diagnostic and CT

fields

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Dosimetry”
1.2
Relative response
1 On Phantom
Free air
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Energy /keV
Using this set of reference conditions, a minimal correction factor (Table 1) can be
applied to measurements made for mammography, fluoroscopy, and CT. These
correction factors can be directly entered into the microStar, effectively creating a
separate calibration which can then be applied as necessary.
Table 1: Correction factors for mammography, fluoroscopy and CT.
Calibration Mammography Fluoroscopy Computed

Set (~32 kVp) (~80 kVp)
Tomography

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Dosimetry”
(~120 kVp)
80 kVp* 1.39 1.00 1.12
* 80 kVp Philips Industrial x-ray generator with a 2.5 mm filter of Al (2.9 mm Al

HVL)
Again, the flexibility of the microStar allows the user to calibrate the device to
virtually any environment and achieve accurate results.
Angular response
Radiotherapy fields
At radiotherapy energies the angular response of the OSL dose detector is uniform
from 0 – 360o incident angles (Figure 5). This allows the technician to make a
measurement without knowing the exposure angle. This is important for a variety of
treatments in which the gantry angle is changed throughout the procedure.
Figure 5: The angular response of the OSL dot detectors

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Dosimetry”
Mammography, diagnostic and CT fields
At lower energies (relevant to mammography (~ 32 kVp), diagnostic (~80 kVp) and

CT (~120 kVp) fields) the variation (relative to 1 at normal incidence) is within 10%
up to incidence angles of 60o. (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Angular response in the mammography, diagnostic and CT
Dose response

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Dosimetry”
The dose response has been determined by a number of authors for a number of
photon energies and irradiation conditions for example Figure 7.
Figure 7: Dose linearity for dots irradiated with 60Co

Counts
They find a linear response up to 600 cGy with a slight concavity at higher doses.
Similar results have been found by Jursinic, Viamonte et al and Schembri and
Heijman. The slight non-linear response above about 600 cGy is reproducible and
several authors have fitted the curve either with two linear equations covering
different regions or by a simple linear-quadratic equation.
Schembri and Heijmen also examined the dose rate response up to 6 Gy per minute
finding that all the results were within 1 %.
Jursinc found that the deviation from linearity became measureable at 300 cGy. This
response is predictable and the microStar provides its users with the ability to fit a
second-order polynomial to address this non-linear response. Additionally, a user
could simply calibrate the device over a more narrow range tailored to their clinical
conditions (e.g. 100-300 cGy for 200 cGy dose fractions).
Trials undertaken

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Dosimetry”
A number of trials have been undertaken with the OSL dot system, some of which
have been reported, and others are at various stages of completion. We have
restricted the comments in this paper to those trails which have been reported. These
include with Erasmus MC, West Michigan Cancer Center [8] and IAEA.
Comparison with other methodologies
Other existing methods used in radiotherapy and medical applications include the use
of ion chambers TLD, diodes and MOSFETs. A number of the trials undertaken with
the OSL dots have compared the properties of these devices and commented on the
relative advantages and disadvantages. Viamomonte et al note that the use of TLDs is
often considered as a complex read-out process involving heating and annealing
which precludes instantaneous or near instantaneous readout. Diodes, which are
commonly used for in vivo dosimetry, give an instantaneous readout, but their
calibration factor is dependent upon energy, angle, temperature, and dose-rate.
MOSFETs dosemeters are largely free of these drawbacks, but their life-time is
limited. Both diodes and MOSFETs and active devices and their wiring need to be
considered.
Energy dependence
As noted above (Figure 3), the energy response for the OSL dot detectors is relatively
independent of energy in radiotherapy fields. In contrast diodes have a reduction ion
response as a function of energy up to about 10 % in this energy range (see for
example Jursinic figure 9).
Angular dependence
The angular dependence of the OSL dot detectors for radiotherapy applications is
similarly independent of angle.
Dose response

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Dosimetry”
Schembri and Heijmen [7] noted that, in contrast to GafChromic and radiographic
films, the response of the OSL dots is linear in the clinically relevant dose range of 1
– 200cGy.
Stability of the signal
Jursinic made some detailed measurements of the stability of the signal as a function
of time after irradiation. He found that (with 6 MV there is an initial drop in the
signal relative to that measured one minute after irradiation of about 30 %, but that
after 8 minutes the signal becomes very stable with a 2% decay from 10 to 3600
minutes.
Re-readability
Jursinic have noted that one particular advantage of the OSL dot dosemeters is that
they can be rtead repeatedly with very little loss in signal (0.05% per reading).
Combined with the very small long term fading of the signal, this gives the possibility
of reading the dosemeter and retaining it for future analysis or indeed as a permanent
record of the measured dose (for example attached to patient records).
In addition, the re-analysis capability allows for the dosimeter to be repeatedly

analyzed, thereby reducing the measurement uncertainty (~1/√n) while eliminating
the need for multiple dosimeters in a single measurement (e.g TLD’s).
New developments
To better accommodate the emerging needs of the medical community, Landauer has
recently released a new dosemeter, called the ‘nanoDot’. A picture of this device is
shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: The new ‘nanoDot’ and adaptor for readout in the microStar reader.

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Dosimetry”
The new dosemeter has the same detector material as previous dots and dosemeters,
but in a form factor 50% of the standard Dot measuring 10 mm x 10 mm x 2 mm.
This allows it to be placed in more restricted spaces such as the eyelid. As with the
previous dots an adaptor (also shown in figure 8) has been developed to allow it to be
easily read-out with the standard reader and all operations (exposure, readout and
storage) can be undertaken in ambient light conditions.
Future developments will be driven by our increasing understanding of the

applications for which the system is being used. In particular these include the use of
the Al2O3 material in stereotactic measurements where the detector’s extremely high
sensitivity allows for very small detectors (< 1mm diameter).
Concluding remarks
The OSL microStar system developed for medical applications could be an ideal tool
for radiotherapy applications. In comparison to TLD, the detectors are identified with
individual serial numbers the can be repeatedly read out enabling them to be archived
with the patient record as a permanent record of dose and can be readout within
minutes of exposure. In comparison with electronic detectors (Diodes and
MOSFETs), they require no cabling and are relatively cheap. For radiotherapy
applications the variation in response at different energies and angles is negligible and
a number of authors have noted their suitability for this application, particularly
entrance dose. The important corollary of these features is that the system doesn’t

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Dosimetry”
require a medical physicist to operate it thereby allowing the staff to make more
measurements, ultimately improving the quality of care to the patient. In addition,
with the application of small correction factors for the calibration factors, the system
is capable of use in the mammography, diagnostic and CT fields. Such applications
include patient dosimetry and quality control of x-ray beams. Further work is in hand
both internally, within Landauer, and by external trials to more fully validate the
system in medical fields and to extend its range of application.
The following are other types of luminescence:
 Chemiluminescence, the emission of light as a result of a chemical reaction
 Bioluminescence, a result of biochemical reactions in a living organism
 Electrochemiluminescence, a result of an electrochemical reaction
 Lyoluminescence, a result of dissolving a solid (usually heavily irradiated) in a

liquid solvent
 Candoluminescence, is light emitted by certain materials at elevated

temperatures, which differs from the blackbody emission expected at the
temperature in question.
 Crystalloluminescence, produced during crystallization
 Electroluminescence, a result of an electric current passed through a substance
 Cathodoluminescence, a result of a luminescent material being struck by

electrons
 Mechanoluminescence, a result of a mechanical action on a solid

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Dosimetry”
 Triboluminescence, generated when bonds in a material are broken when that
material is scratched, crushed, or rubbed
 Fractoluminescence, generated when bonds in certain crystals are broken by

fractures
 Piezoluminescence, produced by the action of pressure on certain solids
 Sonoluminescence, a result of imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by

sound
 Photoluminescence, a result of absorption of photons
 Fluorescence, photoluminescence as a result of singlet–singlet electronic

relaxation (typical lifetime: nanoseconds)
 Phosphorescence, photoluminescence either as a result of triplet–triplet

electronic relaxation or of persistent luminescence (typical lifetime:
microseconds to hours)
 Radioluminescence, a result of bombardment by ionizing radiation
 Thermoluminescence, the re-emission of absorbed energy when a substance is

heated
 Cryoluminescence, the emission of light when an object is cooled (an example

of this is wulfenite)
2.4 Limitations
Owing to their excellent dosimetric properties, luminescence detectors of ionizing

radiation are now extensively applied in individual dosimetry services. The most
frequently used personal dosemeters are based on Optically Stimulated Luminescence

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Dosimetry”
(OSL), radiophotoluminescence (RPL) or thermoluminescence (TL). Luminescence
detectors have also found several applications in clinical dosimetry, especially around
new radiation modalities in radiotherapy, such as Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy
(IMRT) or ion beam radiotherapy. Requirements of luminescence detectors applied in
individual and clinical dosimetry and some recent developments in luminescence of
detectors and techniques leading to significant improvements of the functionality and
accuracy of dosimetry systems are reviewed and discussed.

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Dosimetry”
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 History
The first observation of thermoluminescence is credited to the Italian alchimiste from

Bologna Vincenzo Cascariolo. In 1603 he observed the visible light emission from
heated barat nodules.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) in 1668 has described a light emission from the diamond
heated to the human body temperature.
Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836 – 1907) in 1864 and 1873 observed a bright
green colour light emitted from the inner parts of two respective Geminid meteors.
In 1905 Maria Skłodowska Curie (1867 – 1934) has noticed and described the
thermoluminescent emission from the natural calcium fluoride (CaF 2) exposed to
226
Ra radiaton. She remarked that the natural calcium fluoride glows after heating and
that the emitted light intensity depends on the time of exposition. It was the first,
observed, connection of the thermoluminescence with the ionizing radiation.
An important step towards a comprehension of thermoluminescence and its practical

applications in dosimetry was made owing to the model proposed by John Turton
Randall (1905 – 1984) and Maurice Hugh Wilkins (1915 – 2004) in 1945.
The Institute of Nuclear Physics (IFJ) was involved in the thermoluminescence

research since 60s of the previous centuries by Tadeusz Niewiadomski (1920-1996)
who developed LiF: Mg, Ti (MTS-N) detectors and received license from Studsvik
for their production [5]. In subsequent years, the IFJ group, directed by Niewiadomski
elaborated thin detectors CaSO4: Dy for radon radiation measurement, as well as high
sensitivity materials: LiF: Mg, Cu, P (called MCP) and thin film MCP detectors. The
2005 year was a double success of the group: LiF: Mg, Ti (called MTT) detectors
manufactured in IFJ as they were used in cosmic radiation measurements. Also, that
year the surface 2D detectors for clinical measurements were developed. In 2006 a

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Dosimetry”
high temperature emission by LiF: Mg, Cu, P detectors was observed and described. It
gave the possibility of measuring doses ranging from 1 kGy to 1 MGy, where Gy is
the Gray absorbed radiation unit. Recently first mono crystals LiF were received in
IFJ by the Micro Pulling Down method.
Owing to the many years of investigations and the obtained achievements we review
in this paper primarily the research performed in IFJ on TL materials and their
application in the dosimetry.
3.2 Some Drawbacks
 Sensitivity to light
 Non-tissue equivalent – energy dependence
 Only 1 material currently available (only 1 provider)
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 High Sensitivity
 High Precision
 Size
 Convenience
 Readout Flexibility
 Fat, non-destructive readout
 Narrow stimulating beans may could allow dose mapping

25
Dosimetry”
 No significant fading – dose storage
 No need for annealing
 It can be bleached and resued if needed
Disadvantages
 Sensitivity to light
 Non-tissue equivalent – energy dependence
 Only 1 material currently available (only 1 provider)

26
Dosimetry”
4. SUGGESTION ISSUES FOR INVESTIGATION
X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of all doped samples were collected in order
to determine the crystal structure and purity and were compared to the XRD patterns
of the undoped samples previously reported. Table 2 and Figure 2 show the Rietveld
refinement results and the XRD patterns (bars/columns under data represent the
simulated XRD of undoped orthorhombic InVO4 and monoclinic InNbO4 and
InTaO4), respectively. All diffraction peaks correspond to the orthorhombic
InVO4 and wolframite InNbO4 and InTaO4 crystal structures. The host lattice was
barely affected by the small concentration of the dopants used. Similar results have
been also observed using other doping elements. In these structures, In3+ has 6-fold
octahedral coordination in all the samples, with an ionic radius of 0.8 Å. Considering
the same valence and coordination, Tb3+ and Yb3+ have ionic radii of 0.923 and 0.868
Å, respectively. Therefore, RE ions can be assumed to occupy the In 3+ sites in the
InVO4, InNbO4, and InTaO4 host lattices. Results from XRD and RS are consistent
with this hypothesis. Only some residual material from precursors have been observed
in the case of InTaO4 doped with Yb3+ (see Table 2). Even though RE ions possess
bigger ionic radii than In3+, it is observed that there is a small diminution of the lattice
parameters leading to a reduction of the unit cell volume less than 1%, contrary to
what would be expected (see Table 2). These variations of the lattice parameters could
be ascribed to a distortion of the octahedral units when a foreign RE element is
introduced into the crystal structure, which reduces the unit cell volume to
accommodate the RE ions. As we will see later, these modifications will be reflected
in the self-activated PL properties of the materials.

27
Dosimetry”
Figure 2
Figure 2. XRD patterns of InVO4, InNbO4, and InTaO4 doped samples with Tb3+ or
Yb3+. Bars/columns data represent the standard ICSD charts of the undoped
orthorhombic InVO4 (ICSD-237482) and the undoped monoclinic InNbO4 (ICSD-
257869) and InTaO4 (ICSD-72569), respectively. The height of the bars is
proportional to the theoretical intensity of the peaks. Tables indicating the index,
positions, and intensities of all reflections are included in the Supporting Information.
Table 2. Unit Cell Parameters and Goodness of the Rietveld Refinement for InVO4,
InNbO4, and InTaO4 Compounds and the Corresponding Doped Samples with Tb3+
or Yb3+ from our XRD Experiments and the Contribution of the R esidual Precursor
Materials Found on the InTaO4:Yb Sample

28
Dosimetry”
lattice parameters goodness of the fit
sample a (Å) b (Å) c (Å) β (°) ΔV (% Rp Rwp Rexp
)
InVO4 5.758 8.530 6.587 3.82 8.84 5.93
InVO4:Tb 5.747 8.506 6.563 –0.8 7.03 12.88 5.55
InVO4:Yb 5.744 8.501 6.565 –0.9 6.66 11.62 5.51
InNbO4 4.836 5.771 5.144 91.13 5.8 9.54 5.8
InNbO4:T 4.830 5.758 5.129 91.19 –0.6 4.93 8.1 4.32
b
InNbO4:Y 4.832 5.760 5.129 91.17 –0.6 4.8 6.47 5.86
b
InTaO4 4.826 5.775 5.155 91.37 2.92 5.93 2.89
InTaO4:T 4.821 5.767 5.148 91.37 –0.4 4.01 5.82 5.18
b
InTaO4:Y 4.823 5.767 5.149 91.35 –0.3 4.75 6.26 4.68
b
InTaO4:Yb In2O3 Ta2O5 InTaO4
contribution (%) 7.4 6.2 86.4
Raman measurements also support XRD observations. As can be seen in Figure 3, the
Raman signal of the doped samples is similar to that of the previously reported
undoped samples. (9,11,12) Although the dopants slightly modify the unit cell, no
appreciable shifts or broadenings of the peaks were observed on the results. This is
due to a small local disorder introduced in the crystalline network. Notice that if the
dopants were located at interstitial sites, that is, not substituting indium, more
important changes (likely with the appearance of new Raman modes) could have been
found in the Raman spectrum. Therefore, Raman measurements support the claim that
the RE atoms substitute In. Regarding the small changes in Raman frequencies, this
can be related to the small unit cell volume change associated with doping. The
reduction of the unit cell volume due to dopants can be seen as the effect of an
external applied pressure to the material equivalent to 0.64, 1.14, and 0.7 GPa for
InVO4, InNbO4 and InTaO4, respectively. (9−12) These pressures would shift the
Raman modes about 3–5 cm–1; however, we have observed all the shifts to be lower
than 2 cm–1, that is, within the instrumental resolution.

29
Dosimetry”
5. METHODOLOGY
The model describing the thermoluminescence is based on the quantum band structure
of solids. The energy of electron states in the crystal may be considered as being
derived from states which exist in the individual atoms or ions composing the crystal.
The narrow energy levels, which exist in ions in free space, are broadened in the
lattice into bands by the electric field created by the surrounding ions. In a perfect
crystal two bands allowed stands out (cf. Fig. 1):
• the valence band (baseband) – energy range completely fulfilled with

electrons of energy associated with the atomic nucleus
• the conduction band – energy range of electrons with energies of valence

electrons released from the atom which are free carriers in the solid state; this
band is empty, but quantum mechanics laws permit their filling.
The lower limit of the conduction band is located above the upper limit of the valence
band. The energy difference between these bands is called the band gap or energy
gap. By convention the crystals with a width of energy gap of more than 3 eV are
counted to dielectrics, and those with width of energy gap of less than 3 eV are
counted to semiconductors. If the width of the energy gap is equal zero, or the valence
band overlaps the conduction band the crystal is called metal.
The thermoluminescence phenomenon can not occur in a perfect dielectric crystal

because of the wide energy gap. In reality the dielectric structure is never perfect due
to the presence of a number of lattice defects. Defects (called also traps) introduce
additional energy levels to the band gap. The type and the concentration of defects in
the crystal can be controlled by the doping with foreign ions. Due to the crystal lattice
defects in the energy gap

30
Dosimetry”
FIGURE 1
Quantum model of changes in electrons and holes configuration in a dielectric

material leading to a TL effect. (a) – ionisation causing a location of electrons and
holes in the centers created around the dopants. (b) – recombination of electrons
caused by heating and light emission.
range arise local levels called electron traps if they are close to the conduction band
and piercing traps (or simply holes) if they are close to the valence band. Electrons
raised by radiation from valence band into conduction band are captured by the
electron traps. Piercing traps, being recombination centers, during heating capture
electrons released from electron traps, which during this process give rise to a delayed
luminescence light emission.
The thermoluminescence phenomenon is thus a two stage process, wherein the

exposure and read can be spaced from each other in time. The time distant among the
exposure and the readout may be equal to hundreds of thousands or even millions of
years. The first stage is an excitation of the thermoluminescent material by radiation
or by light. In that step an ionization of the material occurs, what means that electrons
from the valence band or from bands placed deeper are transferred to the conduction
band. Some of these electrons from the conduction band can go to electron traps, and
the holes left by the electrons migrate to the valence band, passing, partly, into
piercing traps. Depending on the role they play different trap levels are defined as
active traps, deep traps and so-called recombination centers. So at the end of the first

31
Dosimetry”
stage of TL phenomenon we have a certain number of filled electron traps and
piercing traps which is in some range proportional to the absorbed energy.
In the second stage of the TL process due to heating the electrons from traps are
transferred to the conduction band, from which they recombine to the recombination
centers containing trapped carriers of opposite sign (trap / centers piercing). In the
process of recombination, the electrons release energy in the form of light, so that the
substance returns to its ground state (equilibrium). The energy needed to release
trapped carriers is at least equal to the difference between the level of the trap and
conduction band (if the “active carriers” are electrons). For typical thermoluminescent
materials (used in TL dosimetry), the difference between these layers should be
greater than the energy of thermal radiation at room temperature and lower than the
energy of thermal radiation at a temperature of several hundred degrees. Typical
emission spectra at different temperatures observed for LiF:MCP and LiF:MCP are
shown in Figs 2(a) and 2(b), respectively. As expected, an increase of the TL intensity
with increasing temperature is observed.
In TL materials also occur processes competing to the recombination process what

leads to efficiency degradation of TL phenomenon. These processes include for
example recombination of the electron with a hole without any light emission or re-
bonding electron into electron trap as well as a large number of electrons participating
in the waveform resulting in a dissipation of the initially absorbed energy in the form
of thermal energy. The measured radiation absorption dose D is given by
D = ITLCcalib (1)

32
Dosimetry”
FIGURE 2
The shapes of TL glow curves for LiF:MCP (a) and LiF:MT (b) detectors, obtained
by linear heating with rate 20C/s. Dose 1.5 mGy.
where ITL is the TL signal intensity and Ccalib is the calibration coefficient
taking account of the detector sensitivity and experiment geometry.
As ITL the glow curve TL integrated over a selected temperature range is used. This
relationship can be used only in a limited range of doses and types of radiation
energy. In fact, in order to determine the absorbed dose it is necessary to use a number
of correction factors that take into account, inter alia, the non-linearity dose
characteristics, an amendment of the energy and a decrease of the signal over time
(fading).
3. TYPES OF TL DETECTORS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
The most commonly used TL material is the lithium fluoride LiF. There are several
detectors on its basis, especially such as: LiF:Mg,Ti (called MTS) and LiF: Mg,Cu,P
(called MCP) [9- 12]. For the production of TL detectors the natural lithium,
containing 92.5% of 7Li and 7.5% of 6Li is used, as well as lithium enriched or
depleted in the isotope 6Li. Thereby for each type of MCP three sub-types: MCP-N,
MCP-6 and MCP-7 are obtained. Some of the detectors developed at IFJ are shown in
Fig. 3.
MTS detectors based on LiF: Mg, Ti were discovered in the 40-s of the last century.
In 60-ties T. Niewiadomski with a team from IFJ has developed a technology for
production of LiF:Mg,Ti (12 ppm Ti, 200 ppm Mg) detectors in form of sintered
tablets having the diameter of 4.4 mm and the thickness of 0.4 to 0.9 mm. These
detectors are perfectly tested and became standard TL dosimetry measurers of
ionizing radiation. Signals of detectors MTS-N exhibit linear dependence on dose up

33
Dosimetry”
to about 1 Gy. The decrease of the signal over time, at room temperature (fading), is
only several percent per year.
FIGURE 3
Different forms TL detectors developed and manufactured in IFJ. (a) MTS-N (LiF:
Mg,Ti) produced in form of solid pellets, chips or powder are environmental used
world –wide in radiation protection, environmental monitoring and clinical
dosimetry ,(b), EYE-DTM allows for precise measurements of radiation doses eye lens,
also in case when protective glasses are used, (c) ring holders enabling dose
measurement during operations with radiation, (d) TLD aluminium dosimetric cards,
with TL pellets or chips sealed in fluoropolymer (eg.PTFE), can be evaluated in all
compatible hot-gas readers. One to four detectors in arbitrary configurations and
sealed in fluoropolymer foil are mounted into the card. Different shape, thickness and
isotopic composition of detectors (7Li, 6Li, natural Li ) different colors and card
numbers are available on request.
MTT detectors were elaborated in IFJ by changing the concentration of admixtures.

They contain about 3 times less of Mg and 10 times more of Ti than the standard
detector MTS. As a result, they show a larger efficiency with the highly ionizing

34
Dosimetry”
radiation. However their sensitivity is about 2.5 times lower than that of the MTS
detectors, making difficult to measure doses below 1 mGy.
The first MCP detector was developed by Nakajiama in 1978. In 1985 T.

Niewiadomski has elaborated MCP-N detector exhibiting the sensitivity range about
30 times larger and the own background about 3 times lower than the ordinary MCP
one. MCNP-N detector is known to be useful in dosimetry for measuring the doses
from 1 µGy to maximum 1 kGy, when applying the dosimetric peak at a temperature
of about 210 C (cf. Fig. 4).
The very important finding in MCP investigations was the appearance of a peak in the
high temperature emission of LiF: Mg,Cu,P detectors, heated to about
FIGURE 4
Changes of the glow-curve shape of MCP-N detectors exposed to ultra high doses: (a)
exposure below 50 kGy deconvoluted on 8 peaks, (b) exposures to doses above
50kGy: a new peak appears.
6000C after exposition ranging from 1kGy to 1 MGy [15-16]. With the increasing
dose its position shifts toward higher temperatures (cf. Fig. 4). The peak has
application for ultra-high-dose measurements. The new method in combination with
the traditional method of determining the dose based on the main dosimetric peak
makes the LiF: Mg,Cu,P detector unique capable of measuring doses ranging of 12
orders of magnitude from microgrey to megagrey.

35
Dosimetry”
From the point of view of applications in dosimetry the TL detectors should exhibit
the following properties:
• sensitivity, defined as the integrated intensity of the signal emitted by the

detector per unit of the absorbed dose.
• linearity of the dose characteristics. For most of TL detectors the response

signal as a function of the dose is linear up to about a few Gy’s, when it becomes
to be either underlinear or supralinear up to the saturation.
• fading - a decrease of the signal over time
• tissue similarity as described by the Furetta’s formula.
• relative efficiency; which is the ratio of TL detector signal for examined

137
radiation to a signal of this detector for reference radiation for instance Cs or
60
Co.
• own background. This is the signal measured by an unexposed detector,

expressed in units of dose. For the detectors MCP-N it is equal to about a few
hundreds of Gy.
The TLD method is the most often used technique in individual and environmental
dosimetry. Due to the small size, low price, good energy characteristic, a wide range
of measured doses, insensitivity to environmental factors TL detectors are readily
used in virtually all areas of dosimetry. But new materials and new TLD measurement
methods are permanently developed.
4. OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE (OSL) AND

RADIOPHOTO-LUMINESCENCE (RPL)
In addition to the thermally simulated TL detectors the optically (by light) stimulated
(OSL) ones are also developed. Similarly, the radio-photo-detectors, controlled by the
36
Dosimetry”
ionizing radiation and light exist too. In OSL detectors electrons are excited to the
conduction band by light. They migrate to the vicinity of hole centers and recombine
giving the light emission. OSL detectors are vulnerable to light so, in consequence,
they have to be stored in dark.
The radio photoluminescence technique (RPL) consists on ionisation and trapping of

charge carriers. The RPL signal is the result of an electron transition from the excited
state to the ground state within a given defect. The energy of emitted light is lower
than that of the stimulating. As effect the wavelength of the emitted light is always
larger than that of the stimulating photons. The RPL signal is accompanied by a
strong photoluminescence (not resulting from exposure to radiation) so the technique
gives a high background.
Comparing the measurement techniques TL and OSL, we see that they are based on
the same physical mechanism and differ only by the stimulating factors (light or heat).
The other, RPL and OSL techniques, differ by the physical mechanism and are similar
by the stimulating factor (light).
The available dosimetric materials for TL technique are: LiF:Mg,Ti,
LiF:Mg,Cu,P, CaSO4:Dy, CaF2:Tm, Li2B4O7:Cu, Mg2SiO4 and others. For OSL one
uses Al2O3:C and BeO. For RPL the phosphate glasses as well as LiF for high doses
are applied.
5. APLICATION OF THE THERMOLUMINESCENT

DOSIMETERS
More than 1 million of TL detectors from IFJ is actually used in nuclear power plants
as well as in dosimetry service clinics and laboratories in more than 40 countries.
In the individual dosimetry we usually have to deal with doses ranging from 0.1 mSv
to 1 Sv, evoked by radiation energies of 15 keV to 3 MeV during the exposure times
from 1 to 3 months. Here Sv is the Sievert radiation dose unit. The most common

37
Dosimetry”
types of thermoluminescent detectors, based on MTS-N or MCP-N shaped in pellets,
are made by the sintering technique. Depending on the application targets, they are
located in special cassettes or in ring shape containers. Construction of the cassette
enables dosimetric dose measurement “at the depth in the tissue” ranging from 1000
mg/ cm2 to 7 mg/cm2. Neutron dosimeters are covered with a special sheath 10B. Eye-
D TLD lens dosimeters are used in a special holder.
The detectors used in the environmental dosimetry are highly sensitive. They detect
doses within a 3 orders of magnitude range, from 0.03 mSv to 1 Sv and are used for
monitoring the natural environment as well as the working environments.
The recently developed LiF: Mg,Cu,P detectors for measuring the ultra-high doses
were applied for testing various radiation fields at devices operating at Grand
Collisionneur de Hadrons (LHC), located in CERN (Organisation Européenne pour la
Recherche Nucléaire), Geneve, Suisse. More than one hundred TL dosimeters were
mounted in the infrastructure of the LHCb experiment. The dosimetry installed at the
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor in Cadarache, France, where
streams of fast neutrons are generated, was a particularly ambitious challenge.

38
Dosimetry”
6. FUTURE SCOPE
A comprehensive list of dosimeters used in FLASH studies and other high dose-rate
modalities is given in Table 1. The different columns represent some of the major
issues identified in section Dosimetric Aspects of FLASH That Need to be
Considered. The values are based on typical values and usage encountered in
literature. Exception to these values do exist; for example, radiochromic film is
categorized as a passive detector, but attempts are real-time dosimetry with film has
been made in the past. The “Measurement Type” column has bold entries in it, which
indicate the way those dosimeters were employed in FLASH studies. The time
resolution values are based on the underlying physics of the dosimeters, as explained
previously. This does not take in to account the available bandwidth of the read-out
method. Of course, the dead-time of the read-out electronics should be considered
while dealing with such dose-rates. While some of these issues are not necessarily
unique to FLASH, they nonetheless contribute to the overall dosimetric uncertainty.
In this paper we reviewed the research on TL materials and their application in

dosimetry. Another important field, not discussed here, in which the
thermoluminescence finds application is dating of minerals and other materials,
particularly in Geology, Archeology and Hydrology.
The thermally stimulated luminescence is the most commonly used technique from all
measurement methods use in the passive dosimetry of ionizing radiation
Currently, the development of the dosimetry techniques turns toward the optical
stimulation as the light stimulation does not require a heating of the sample, or the use
of protective atmosphere. OSL detectors have a wide range of possibilities for tuning
of the stimulating and measurement wavelength and the possibility of multiple
readout once the irradiated samples. They may find as well, application in emergent
imaging and in micro-imaging of ion beams.

39
Dosimetry”
7. REFERENCES
[1] free Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/
[2] R. Boyle, Register of the Royal Society, 213(1663).
[3] M. Skłodowska-Curie, , Discovery of Radium, Century Magazine,

461-466(1904).
[4] J.T. Randall & M.H. Wilkins,1945, Phosphorescence and Electron

Traps.I.and II, The Study of Trap Distributions, Proc.R.Soc.A., 184,366-
389(1945), ibidem 390407(1945).
[5] T. Niewiadomski, , 25 years of thermoluminescence dosimetry at IFJ,

Rad. Prot. Dosim. 85,269-272(1994).
[6] Encyklopedia fizyki 1972, Praca zbiorowa, Państwowe Wydawnictwo

Naukowe (in Polish)
[7] A. F. McKinlay, , Thermoluminescence dosimetry , Medical Physics

Handbook 5,Adam Hilger Ltd. 1981
[8] A. Z Hrynkiewicz,. et al., , Człowiek i promieniowanie jonizujące,

Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 70-128 (in Polish).
[9] T. Niewiadomski, 1991, Dozymetria termoluminescencyjna w

praktyce, Raport IFJ nr 1550/D (in Polish).
[10] P. Bilski, Lithium Fluoride: From LiF:MgTi to LiF:Mg,Cu,P, Radiat.

Prot. Dosim.,100,199206(2002).
[11] Y.S.. Horowitz, LiF:Mg,Ti versus LiF:Mg Cu,P: the competition heats
up, Radiat. Prot. Dosim, 47,135-141(1993).

40
Dosimetry”
[12] S. W. S. McKeever, M. Moscovitch, P.D Townsend,
Thermoluminescence dosimetry materials: properties and uses, Nuclear
Technology Publishing, 1995.
[13] P. Bilski, M.Budzanowski, P.Olko, E. Mandowska, LiF:MgTi (MTT)

detectors optimalised for High –LET dosimetry, Radiat. Meas., 38, 427-
430(2004).
[14] T. Nakajiama, Y. Murayama, T. Matsuzawa, A. Koyano, Development

of Highly Sensitive LiF Thermoluminescence Dosimeter and its Applications,
Nucl. Instr. Meth., 157, 155162(1978).
[15] B. Obryk, P Bilski, M. Budzanowski, M Fuerstner, C.Ilgner, F.

Jacquenod, P. Olko, M. Puchalska, H. Vincke, The response of different types
of TL lithium fluoride detectors to high-energy mixed radiation fields., Radiat.
Meas., 43, 1144-1148(2008).
[16] P. Bilski, B. Obryk, P. Olko, E. Mandowska, A. Mandowski, J. L.

Kim, Characteristics of LiF: Mg, Cu, P thermoluminescence at ultra-high dose
range, Radiat. Meas,43(2), 315318(2008).
[17] P. Bilski, J. Blomgren, F. d’Enrrico, A. Esposito, G. Fehrenbacher, F.

Fernandez, A. Fuchs, N. Golnik, V. Lacoste, A. Leuschner, S. Sandri, M.
Silari, F. Spurny, B. Wiegel, P. Wright, The problems associated with the
monitoring of complex workplace radiation fields at European high-energy
accelerations and thermonuclear fusion facilities, Radiat. Prot. Dosim., 126491-
496(2007).
[18] C. Furetta, P. Weng, Operational Thermoluminescence Dosimetry

World Scientific Publisihing, Co.Pte.Ltd., Singapur, 1998
[19] J.A. Perry, RPL Dosimetry. Radioluminescence in Health Physics,

Medical Science Series, IOP Publishing Ltd, Bristol & Boston, 1987.

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Dosimetry”
[20] M. Sialri, Passive Dosimeters in LHC, 5th LHC Radiation Workshop,
2005; http://indico. cern.chconferenceDisplay.py?confld=a056455
[21] H. Vincke, I. Brunner, I. Floret, D. Forkel-Wirth, M. Fuestner, S.

Mayer, C. Thesis, , , Response of Alanine and Radio-Photo-Luminescence
dosemeters to mixed high-energy radiation fields, Radiat. Prot. Dosim.,125(1-
4), 340-344(2007).
[22] M. Sądel, P. Bilski, J. Swakoń, M. Ptaszkiewicz, M. Boberek, P. Olko,

Relative thermoluminescent efficiency of LiF detectors for proton radiation:
batch variability and energy dependence, Radiat.Meas., 56, 205-208(2013).
[23] M. Ptaszkiewicz, P. Bilski, High Accuracy TL Dosimetry in

Measurements of Organ Doses due to Space Radiation - Matroshka
Experiment, Conference “Fizyka i Inżynieria we Współczesnej Medycynie i
Ochronie Zdrowia” & 13 Zjazd PTFM, Warszawa, 29-30 September 2005, K.
Zaremba et al (Ed.), PolskieTowarzystwo Fizyki Medycznej (PTFM),
96(2005).
[24] P. Olko, P. Bilski, Ł. Czopyk, Application of TLD Detectors for

Measurements of Radiation Doses in Space, Conference “Fizyka i Inżynieria
we Współczesnej Medycynie i Ochronie Zdrowia” i 13 Zjazd PTFM,
Warszawa, 29-30 września 2005, K. Zaremba et al.
(Ed.), PTFM, 79(2005).
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Chem., 104, 88-92(2014).
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dimensional thermoluminescence method for checking LiF crystals
homogeneity, Journal of Crystal Growth, 8, 5(2016).

42
Dosimetry”
[27] Luminescence applications in biological, chemical, environmental, and
hydrological sciences, Marvin C. Goldberg (Ed.), American Chemical Society.
Symposium Series, vol. 383, 1989; DOI: 10.1021/bk-1989-0383
[28] M. J. Aitken, Thermoluminescence dating, Academic Press,

London1985.

43

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“Applications of Luminescence in Radiation

In the paper, after a brief description of historical development, the theory of

2.1 Basic Definition Property

The termoluminescence is a quantum process consisting on emission of

Medical dosimetry is the calculation of absorbed dose and optimization of dose

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

In radiation therapy, three-dimensional dose distributions are often evaluated using a

 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light via electro-luminescence.

 Phosphors, materials that emit light when irradiated by higher-energy

 Laser, and lamp industry

 Phosphor thermometry, measuring temperature using phosphorescence

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Luminescence occurs in some minerals when they are exposed to low-powered

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Planar 2D TL detectors (a-c) and examples of the registered radiation dose

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The cosmic radiation is composed of three components:

Exposure of astronauts to cosmic radiation is a significant problem in long term

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The experiment was provided in four stages:

MATROSHKA1 - 2004/05 – 616 days (539 outside) resulting

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MATROSHKA2B - 2007/2009 - 518 days

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Micro-imaging of the radiation dose distribution

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

• elimination of heating permits more possibilities for the design of

* Presenting author, e-mail: cperks@landauer-fr.com

• re-analysis of dosemeters is possible as less than 0.25% of the stored charge is

The microStar system

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Figure 1: OSL strip and dosemeters.

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Characteristics of the system

Landauer’s microStar system provides two different solutions to this problem. On

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

In this section we describe the energy dependence, dose-response, and accuracy of

Figure 3: Energy response in the radiotherapy range.

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Mammography, diagnostic and CT fields

Figure 4: Energy response of dot detectors in mammography, diagnostic and CT

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Table 1: Correction factors for mammography, fluoroscopy and CT.

Calibration Mammography Fluoroscopy Computed

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

80 kVp* 1.39 1.00 1.12

* 80 kVp Philips Industrial x-ray generator with a 2.5 mm filter of Al (2.9 mm Al

Figure 5: The angular response of the OSL dot detectors

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Mammography, diagnostic and CT fields

At lower energies (relevant to mammography (~ 32 kVp), diagnostic (~80 kVp) and

Figure 6: Angular response in the mammography, diagnostic and CT

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Figure 7: Dose linearity for dots irradiated with 60Co

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Comparison with other methodologies

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Stability of the signal

In addition, the re-analysis capability allows for the dosimeter to be repeatedly

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)

Future developments will be driven by our increasing understanding of the

Mungsaji Maharaj Mahavidhyalaya, Darwha (2021-2022)