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Ebook PDF Sterns Introductory Plant Biology 13Th Edition Ebook PDF Version Full Chapter
Ebook PDF Sterns Introductory Plant Biology 13Th Edition Ebook PDF Version Full Chapter
Viruses 315
KEY THEME : molecular Plant Viruses 316 20 Introduction to the Plant
Viroids and Prions 320 Kingdom: Bryophytes 376
SUMMARY 320
REVIEW QUESTIONS 321 Overview 377
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 321 Learning Outcomes 377
ADDITIONAL READING 321 Introduction to the Bryophytes 378
LEARNING ONLINE 321
Phylum Hepaticophyta—Liverworts 379
Phylum Anthocerophyta—Hornworts 383
18 Kingdom Protista 322 Phylum Bryophyta—Mosses 383
KEY THEME : ecology Hibernating Mosses 387
Overview 323 Human and Ecological Relevance of
Learning Outcomes 323 Bryophytes 388
Features of Kingdom Protista 324 SUMMARY 388
Algae 324 REVIEW QUESTIONS 389
Phylum Chlorophyta—the Green DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 389
ADDITIONAL READING 390
Algae 324
LEARNING ONLINE 390
Phylum Chromophyta—the Yellow-Green
Algae, Golden-Brown Algae, Diatoms,
and Brown Algae 331
Phylum Rhodophyta—the Red Algae 336
21 The Seedless Vascular Plants:
Ferns and Their Relatives 391
Phylum Euglenophyta—the Euglenoids 337
Phylum Dinophyta—the Dinoflagellates 338 Overview 392
Phylum Cryptophyta—the Learning Outcomes 392
Cryptomonads 340 Phylum Psilotophyta—the Whisk Ferns 392
Phylum Prymnesiophyta (Haptophyta)—the Phylum Lycophyta—the Ground Pines, Spike
Haptophytes 340 Mosses, and Quillworts 394
Phylum Charophyta—the Stoneworts 340 Phylum Equisetophyta—the Horsetails
Human and Ecological Relevance of the and Scouring Rushes 400
Algae 341 Phylum Polypodiophyta—the Ferns 404
Other Members of Kingdom Protista 344 Fossils 411
Phylum Myxomycota—the Plasmodial KEY THEME : ecology Ferns and Fossil
Slime Molds 345 Fuels 412
SUMMARY 413
Phylum Dictyosteliomycota—the Cellular
REVIEW QUESTIONS 414
Slime Molds 346 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 414
Phylum Oomycota—the Water Molds 346 ADDITIONAL READING 414
SUMMARY 348 LEARNING ONLINE 415
REVIEW QUESTIONS 349
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 350
ADDITIONAL READING 350
LEARNING ONLINE 350
22 Introduction to Seed Plants:
Gymnosperms 416
19 Kingdom Fungi 351
Overview 417
Learning Outcomes 417
Overview 352 Phylum Pinophyta—the Conifers 418
Learning Outcomes 352 KEY THEME : ecology Resilient and Useful
Distinctions Between Kingdoms Protista Gymnosperms 419
and Fungi 352 Other Gymnosperms 422
Kingdom Fungi 353 Human Relevance of Gymnosperms 427
Lichens 371 KEY THEME : evolution A Living Fossil? 432
SUMMARY 373 SUMMARY 433
REVIEW QUESTIONS 374 REVIEW QUESTIONS 434
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 375 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 434
ADDITIONAL READING 375 ADDITIONAL READING 434
LEARNING ONLINE 375 LEARNING ONLINE 434
viii Contents
SUMMARY 503
23 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 435 REVIEW QUESTIONS 504
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 504
Overview 436 ADDITIONAL READING 504
Learning Outcomes 436 LEARNING ONLINE 505
In late 1999/early 2000, Drs. Jim Bidlack and Shelley Jansky joined Kingsley Stern in editing and updating this textbook. They
worked with Dr. Stern on several editions and have since carried his legacy forward to educate and inspire young botanists.
This thirteenth edition reflects the same accuracy, content, and enthusiasm of the Stern writing style, along with revisions and
updates to make it an up-to-date and enjoyable resource and textbook for plant biology.
Plants and algae are essential for life on earth as it exists today. aspects
aspect
ts andd oth
other
ther in
iinformation
f rmatio
fo i n of general interest pertaining to
They provide our world with oxygen and food, contribute an 16 major plant families or groups of families. Chapters 25 and
essential part of water and nutrient cycling in ecosystems, pro- 26 present an overview of the vast topic of ecology, although
vide clothing and shelter, and add beauty to our environment. ecological topics and applied botany are included in the pre-
Some scientists believe that if photosynthetic organisms exist ceding chapters as well. Some of these topics are broached in
on planets beyond our solar system, it would be possible to anecdotes that introduce the chapters, while others are men-
sustain other forms of life that depend upon them to survive. tioned in text boxes as well as the appendices.
Botany today plays a special role in many interests of
both major and nonmajor students. For example, in this
text, topics such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
Learning Aids
acid rain, genetic engineering, organic gardening, Native A chapter outline, review questions, discussion questions, and
American and pioneer uses of plants, pollution and recy- additional reading lists are provided for each chapter. New
cling, house plants, backyard vegetable gardening, natural terms are defined as they are introduced, and those that are
dye plants, poisonous and hallucinogenic plants, nutritional boldfaced are included, with their pronunciation, in a glos-
values of edible plants, and many other topics are discussed. sary. A list of the scientific names of all organisms mentioned
To intelligently pursue such topics, one needs to understand throughout the text is given in Appendix 1. Appendix 2 deals
how plants are constructed, and how they function. To this with biological controls and companion planting. Appendix
end, the text assumes little prior knowledge of the sciences 3 includes wild edible plants, poisonous plants, medicinal
on the part of the student, but covers basic botany, without plants, hallucinogenic plants, spices, tropical fruits, and natu-
excessively resorting to technical terms. The coverage, how- ral dye plants. Appendix 4 gives horticultural information on
ever, includes sufficient depth to prepare students to go fur- house plants, along with brief discussions on how to cultivate
ther in the field, should they choose to do so. vegetables. Nutritional values of the vegetables are included.
The text is arranged so that certain sections can be omit- Appendix 5 covers metric equivalents and conversion tables.
ted in shorter courses. Such sections may include topics
such as soils, molecular genetics, and phylum Bryophyta.
Because botany instructors vary greatly in their opinions
New to this Edition
about the depth of coverage needed for photosynthesis and The thirteenth edition has retained the hallmark style and
respiration in an introductory botany course open to both pedagogy that have made it one of the most enduring and
majors and nonmajors, these topics are presented at three popular introductory plant biology books on the market. At
different levels. Some instructors will find one or two levels the same time, this edition has undergone many changes to
sufficient, whereas others will want to include all three. expand upon, revise, and update topics in plant biology. All
Both majors in botany and nonmajors who may initially chapters now incorporate measurable learning outcomes
be disinterested in the subject matter of a required course fre- and updated additional readings. For those instructors using
quently become engrossed if the material is related repeatedly Connect Botany, all learning outcomes (LOs) are directly
to their popular interests. This is reflected, as intimated above, tied to assessment within the question and test banks. In
in the considerable amount of ecology and ethnobotany addition, most of the chapters include revisions and updates
included with traditional botany throughout the book. as suggested by reviewers. Some of the major changes
include an introduction to the new classification of plants
Organization of the Text and plant-related species, integration of biotechnology into
several chapters, and inclusion of new featured text boxes
A relatively conventional sequence of botanical subjects is addressing key themes of ecology, evolution, and molecular
followed. Chapters 1 and 2 cover introductory and background biology throughout the text. These new text boxes provide
information; Chapters 3 through 11 deal with structure and instructors and students with information that helps them to
function; Chapters 12 and 13 introduce meiosis, genetics, and understand how modern botany affects our everyday lives.
molecular biology. Chapter 14 discusses plant propagation Many new photographs have replaced some of the older pic-
and biotechnology; Chapter 15 introduces evolution; Chapter tures or have been added within individual chapters. Some of
16 deals with classification; Chapters 17 through 23 stress, in the more interesting components that make this 13th Edition
phylogenetic sequence, the diversity of organisms traditionally more accurate and up-to-date with our current understanding
regarded as plants; and Chapter 24 deals with ethnobotanical of plant biology include:
x
Preface xi
Chapter 1 (What is Plant Biology?): New information on “Plant Hormones—Beyond the Classic Five,” has been
climate change, population dynamics, and alternative energy added. Updated information has also been added about auxin-
has been added to many parts of the chapter to make it more tryptophan interactions, the role of ethylene in fruit ripening,
engaging and up-to-date. Text boxes on “Who Needs Plants?” photoreceptor proteins, and the flowering locus T gene.
as well as “Biology and the Internet” have been extensively Chapter 12 (Meiosis and Alternation of Generations):
re-written and several photographs have been replaced. Descriptions of meiotic phases have been revised to be more
Chapter 2 (The Nature of Life): Figures on energy conver- accurate, along with new discussions of chiasma and poly-
sion and enzyme action have been replaced to improve accuracy, ploidy. Two new text boxes on “Why Plants Have a Sex Life”
and a new text box entitled “The Skinny on Fats” has been added. and “FISH and GISH Molecular Techniques” have been added.
Chapter 3 (Cells): Many of the figures have been Chapter 13 (Genetics and Molecular Biology): A new
revised; particularly the cell and its components to more textbox has been added on “Massive DNA Sequencing,”
accurately represent how these are seen under a microscope. along with an improved image of Gregor Mendel.
New, modern photographs of microscopes have been added Chapter 14 (Plant Breeding, Propagation, and
along with a better explanation of confocal electron micros- Biotechnology): Updated images have been incorporated to
copy. Updated text information now includes discussion of provide better explanations of transgenics, plant propaga-
endosymbiotic theory as well as functions of vacuoles. tion, and tissue culture. New text has been added to describe
Chapter 4 (Tissues): The text box on “Chimeras and the development of golden rice.
Variegated Leaves” has been modified to provide more Chapter 15 (Evolution): Several parts of this chapter have
detail. New information has been added on discussion of been revised and updated to include discussions on epigen-
cell wall thickening in collenchyma cells and tracheary ele- esis and polyploidy. A new text box on “Our Daily Bread” has
ments, and an improved depiction of lenticels is now shown been added to describe the domestication of wheat.
in the section on periderm. Chapter 16 (Plant Names and Classification): This chap-
Chapter 5 (Roots and Soils): Improved photographs of ter has been extensively rewritten to describe modern clas-
sweet potatoes, cassava, and a soil profile have been incor- sification techniques. Sections on the International Code of
porated into the chapter. The text has been modified to pro- Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants and the Phylocode have
vide a more accurate description of Casparian strips, lateral been added, along with a newly-proposed classification key.
root formation, and soil horizons. The sections on parasitic Chapter 17 (Domain (Kingdom) Bacteria, Domain
roots and mycorrhizae have been extensively re-written to (Kingdom) Archaea, and Viruses): New, three-dimensional
incorporate new terminology for these topics. depictions of bacteria have been incorporated into the chap-
Chapter 6 (Stems): Artwork showing heartwood and ter along with improved artistic representations of viruses.
softwood has been replaced to show a better representation A discussion of Clostridium difficile, has been added, as well
of the characteristics and location of these parts of woody as a new text box entitled “The Social Life of Prokaryotes.”
stems. The section on wood and its uses has been exten- Chapter 18 (Kingdom Protista): Improved images of
sively modified so that the figures are better organized and red algae, Euglena, and dinoflagellates have been incorpo-
figure legends are easier to read. rated to show more accurate depictions of these specimens.
Chapter 7 (Leaves): Photographs of thorns and prickles, Chapter 19 (Kingdom Fungi): The use of DNA sequence
as well as some modified leaves, have been replaced to show data for classification of fungi is described. New information is
better depiction of these structures. also introduced, including use of fungi in cleaning oil spills and
Chapter 8 (Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds): A photograph of treatment of certain tree species to prevent the spread of disease.
a rare Australian orchid, as well as a more clearly-displayed Chapter 20 (Introduction to the Plant Kingdom:
specimen of Rafflesia have been added to the chapter. A new Bryophytes): New introductory information has been added
text box on “Goober Peas” has been incorporated into text, on the evolutionary origin of plants, along with a summary
along with a more accurate description of germination. of bryophyte classification. Artwork for hornworts has been
Chapter 9 (Water in Plants): A sharper opening pho- improved and new pictures of hairy cap moss and peat moss
tograph for the chapter has been added along with more have been added to the chapter.
refined artwork to show diffusion and the pressure-flow Chapter 21 (The Seedless Vascular Plants: Ferns and
hypothesis. The section on water potential has been exten- Their Relatives): Improved photographs of ferns have been
sively rewritten and a new text box on “Measuring Water incorporated into the text, along with new evolutionary
Potential and Psychrometry” has been added to the chapter. information about the origin of seedless vascular plants. In
Chapter 10 (Plant Metabolism): Artwork has been revised addition, a new text box on “Ferns and Fossil Fuels” has
to show a better summary of photosynthesis and respiration, been added to the chapter.
and more details in the Calvin cycle. A new text box has been Chapter 22 (Introduction to Seed Plants: Gymnosperms):
added on “Photosynthesis, Global Warming, and Tropical Rain A new photograph of the rare Wollemi pine, along with a more
Forests” to show applications of metabolic concepts. modern photograph of a newsprint factory have been added
Chapter 11 (Growth and Development): New figures to the text. The introductory paragraph has been updated with
have been incorporated to show structures of plant hormones new information about molecular analysis of gymnosperms
as well as signal transduction and a new text box entitled, as well as a summary of their current classification. A text box
xii Preface
on “Resilient and Useful Gymnosperms” has been added to text box on “Wild Rice—More than Just Food” has been
show modern uses of pines and related species. added to the chapter.
Chapter 23 (Seed Plants: Angiosperms): Improved Chapter 25 (Ecology): Topics that address the impact of
photographs of snowplant flowers, as well as pollination of humans on the biosphere have been reorganized to follow a
other flowers, have been included in the text. A more exten- more logical approach to headings and sub-headings.
sive explanation of angiosperm origin has also been added Chapter 26 (Biomes): This chapter has been re-
to the introduction. organized and rewritten to incorporate world biomes in
Chapter 24 (Flowering Plants and Civilization): The addition to those found in North America.
photograph of a poppy capsule has been replaced and a new
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xiv Preface
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Supplements
Shaukat M. Siddiqi, Virginia State University McGraw-Hill Connect® Botany is a web-based
Dilbagh Singh, Blackburn College assignment and assessment platform that gives students the
Del William Smith, Modesto Junior College means to better connect with their coursework, with their
James Smith, Boise State University instructors, and with the important concepts that they will
Joanna M. K. Smith need to know for success now and in the future.
Steven Smith, University of Arizona With McGraw-Hill Connect Botany, instructors can
Nancy Smith-Huerta, Miami University deliver interactive assignments, quizzes and tests online.
F. Lee St. John, Ohio State University–Newark Nearly all the questions from the text are presented in an
Preface xv
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xvi Preface
Overview
Learning Outcomes
The Relationship of Humans to Their
Environment
ECOLOGY: Who Needs Plants?
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
Botany as a Science
Hypotheses
Diversification of Plant Study
GENERAL: Plant Biology and the Internet
SUMMARY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
ADDITIONAL READING
LEARNING ONLINE
This chapter introduces you to botany: what it is, how it developed, how it relates to our everyday lives, and what its potential is for the future.
The discussion includes a brief introduction to some common questions about plants and their functions, an examination of the scientific
method, and a brief look at botany after the invention of the microscope. It concludes with a brief survey of the major disciplines within the
field of botany.
Learning Outcomes
1. Explain how humans have impacted their environment, 3. Explain how and why all life is dependent on green
particularly during the past century. organisms.
2. Describe how hypotheses are formulated and used in the 4. List the aspects of botany with which each of the major
scientific method. botanical disciplines is concerned.
2
What Is Plant Biology? 3
is blended with gasoline. Most cars in the United States can run
on fuel containing up to 10% ethanol. Flexible fuel vehicles
have been designed to use fuel blends containing up to
85% ethanol. In 2010, over 200 ethanol plants in the United
States produced 13.2 billion gallons of ethanol, up from
1.6 billion gallons in 2000. The Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007 calls for 39 billion gallons of renew-
able fuel to be used annually in the United States. Currently,
ethanol fuel in the United States is mainly produced from
corn, but there are concerns about losing food crop land to
produce fuel. In addition, the energy and pollution balance
of ethanol production is under debate. Cellulosic ethanol,
which is derived from inedible plant fiber such as wood chips
(a) or switchgrass may overcome some of these concerns.
What about plants and the future? As you read this,
the population of the earth already has exceeded 7 billion
persons, every one of whom needs food, clothing, and shel-
ter in order to survive. To ensure survival, we may need to
learn not only how to cultivate food plants but also how to
use plants to remove pollutants from the water, air, and soil
(Fig. 1.9), to make land productive again, and to renew
urban areas. In addition, we need to minimize the destruc-
tion of plant habitats caused primarily by the huge increase
in the number of earth’s inhabitants. This subject and related
matters are further discussed in Chapter 25.
At present the idea that humanity may not be able to save
itself may seem radical, but there are a few who have sug-
gested that it might become necessary in the future to emi-
grate to other planets. Regardless of humanity’s future, it is
essential that our understanding of plants be used to sustain
(b)
life on this and maybe even other planets. Experiments with
portable oxygen generators have been in progress for many
Figure 1.4 Rice cakes being manufactured. (a) Unprocessed rice is years. Tanks of water teeming with tiny green algae are taken
poured into small ovens, where the kernels are expanded. The kernels are aboard a spacecraft and installed so that they are exposed to
then compressed into cakes, which are conveyed by belt to a packaging area. light for at least part of the time. The algae not only produce
(b) Part of a produce section in a grocery store.
oxygen, which the spacecraft inhabitants can breathe, but
also utilize the waste carbon dioxide produced by respiration.
As the algae multiply, they can be fed to a special kind of
shrimp, which in turn multiply and become food for the space
6 Chapter 1
(a) Figure 1.7 Cotton plants. The white fibers, in which seeds are
embedded, are the source of textiles and fabrics. The seeds are the
source of vegetable oils used in margarine and shortening. After
the oils have been extracted, the remaining “cotton cake” is used for
cattle feed.
Plant Biology
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10 Chapter 1
(Continued)
Jacobs, P. F., and J. Brett. 2004. Guide to information sources Sumner, J. 2004. American household botany: A history of useful
in the botanical sciences. Englewood, CO: Libraries plants, 1620–1900. Portland, OR: Timber Press.
Unlimited. van Wyk, B. 2005. Food plants of the world: An illustrated guide.
Johnson, T. 1998. CRC ethnobotany desk reference. Boca Raton, Portland, OR: Timber Press.
FL: CRC Press.
Minnus, P. E. 2000. Ethnobotany. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press. LEARNING ONLINE
Pollan, M. 2002. The botany of desire. New York: Random House.
Pollan, M. 2007. The omnivore’s dilemma: A natural history of Visit our website at http://www.mhhe.com/stern13e for
four meals. New York: Penguin Group. additional information and learning tools.
C H A P T E R
Overview
Learning Outcomes
Attributes of Living Organisms
Composition and Structure
Growth
Reproduction
Response to Stimuli
Metabolism
Movement
Complexity of Organization
Adaptation to the Environment
Chemical and Physical Bases of Life
The Elements: Units of Matter
Molecules: Combinations of Elements
Valence
Bonds and Ions
Acids, Bases, and Salts
The pH Scale
Energy
Chemical Components of Cells
Monomers and Polymers
MOLECULAR: The Skinny on Fats
SUMMARY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
ADDITIONAL READING
LEARNING ONLINE
This chapter begins with a discussion of the attributes of living organisms. These include growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, metabo-
lism, movement, complexity of organization, and adaptation to the environment. Then it examines the chemical and physical bases of life. A
brief look at the elements and their atoms is followed by a discussion of compounds, molecules, valence, bonds, ions, acids, bases, and salts.
Forms of energy and the chemical components of cells are examined next. The chapter concludes with an introduction to macromolecules:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Learning Outcomes
1. List the attributes of living organisms. 4. Describe the various forms of energy.
2. Define matter and describe its basic state. 5. List the chemical elements found in cells.
3. Describe the features of compounds, acids, bases, and 6. Describe the main properties and functions of carbohydrates,
salts. lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
H Growth
ave you ever dropped a pellet of dry ice (frozen car-
bon dioxide) into a pan of water and watched what
happens? The solid pellet darts randomly on the sur- Some have described growth as simply an increase in mass
face, looking like a highly energetic water bug, as the warm- (a body of matter—the basic “stuff” of the universe), usu-
er water rapidly converts it to a gas. Does all that motion ally accompanied by an increase in volume. Most growth
make the dry ice alive? No, although one of the attributes results from the production of new cells and includes varia-
of living things is the capacity to move. But if living things tions in form—some the result of inheritance, some the result
can move, what about plants? If a tree is not able to crawl of response to the environment. If you plant two varieties of
down the sidewalk, does that mean it isn’t alive? Again the tulips near each other and grow them under identical condi-
answer is no, but these questions do point out some of the tions, they are likely to differ in size, color, and other charac-
difficulties encountered in defining life. In fact, some argue teristics due to differences in genetic makeup. On the other
that there is no such thing as life—only living organisms— hand, if you plant bulbs of the same variety next to each other,
and that life is a concept based on the collective attributes they may also look different from each other, especially if
of living organisms. you treat them differently. That is, they are exposed to differ-
ent environments. If you water one just enough to allow it to
grow, while you water the other one freely and work fertiliz-
ers and conditioners into the soil around it, you might expect
the second one to grow larger and produce more flowers than
Attributes of Living the first. Growth pattern, therefore, is controlled by both a
Organisms plant’s genetic makeup and the environment in which it is
grown. Various aspects of growth are discussed in Chapter 11.
14
The Nature of Life 15
not develop into a pineapple plant. Also, offspring tend to types and directions of motion, particularly in young organs.
resemble their parents more than they do other individuals Movement is not confined to the organism as a whole but
of the same kind. The laws governing these aspects of inher- occurs at the cellular level. For example, the cytoplasm of living
itance are discussed in Chapter 13. cells constantly flows like a river within cells; this streaming
motion is called cyclosis, or cytoplasmic streaming. Cyclosis
usually appears to run clockwise or counterclockwise within
Response to Stimuli the boundaries of each cell, but movement is not limited to a
If you stick a pin into a pillow, you certainly don’t expect any circular pattern.
reaction from the pillow, but if you stick the same pin into a
friend, you know your friend will react immediately, because Complexity of Organization
responding to stimuli is a major characteristic of all living
things. You might argue, however, that when you stuck a pin The cells of living organisms are composed of large numbers
into your house plant, nothing happened, even though you of molecules (the smallest unit of an element or compound
were fairly certain the plant was alive. You might not have been retaining its own identity). Even the most complex nonliving
aware that the house plant did indeed respond, but in a manner object has only a tiny fraction of the types of molecules of the
very different from that of a human. Plant responses to stimuli simplest living organism. Typically there are more than 1 tril-
are generally of a different nature than those of animals. If the lion molecules in a single cell. The molecules are not simply
house plant’s food-conducting tissue was pierced, it probably mixed, like the ingredients of a cake or the concrete in a side-
responded by producing a plugging substance called callose in walk, but are organized into compartments, membranes, and
the affected cells. Some studies have shown that callose may other structures within cells. Furthermore, the arrangements
form within as little as 5 seconds after wounding. Also, an unor- of these molecules in living organisms are highly structured
ganized tissue called callus, which forms much more slowly, and complex. Bacteria, for example, are considered to have
may be produced at the site of the wound. Responses of plants the simplest cells known, yet each cell contains a minimum
to injury and to other stimuli, such as light, temperature, and of 600 different kinds of protein as well as hundreds of other
gravity, are discussed in Chapters 9 through 11. substances, with each component playing an important role
in the function of the cell. When flowering plants and other
larger living objects are examined, the complexity of organi-
Metabolism zation is overwhelming, and the number of molecule types
Metabolism is the collective product of all the biochemical can run into the millions.
reactions taking place within an organism. All living organ-
isms undergo metabolic activities, which include the produc- Adaptation to the Environment
tion of new cytoplasm, the repair of damage, and normal cell
If you move a rock from a cold mountain to a warm desert,
maintenance. The most important activities include respira-
the structure of that rock will not change in response to its
tion, an energy-releasing process that takes place in all liv-
new environment. Living organisms, however, do respond
ing things; photosynthesis, an energy-harnessing process in
to the air, light, water, and soil of their environment, as will
green cells that is, in turn, associated with energy storage;
be explained in later chapters. They are also, after countless
digestion, the conversion of large or insoluble food molecules
generations of natural selection (as discussed in Chapter 15),
to smaller soluble ones; and assimilation, the conversion of
genetically adapted to their environment in many subtle ways.
raw materials into cytoplasm and other cell substances. These
Some weeds (e.g., dandelions) can thrive in a wide variety of
topics are discussed in Chapters 9 through 11.
soils and climates, whereas many species now threatened with
extinction have adaptations to their environment that are so
Movement specific they cannot tolerate even relatively minor changes.
At the beginning of this chapter, we mentioned that plants gen-
erally don’t move from one place to another (although their
reproductive cells may do so). This does not mean, however, Chemical and Physical
that plants do not exhibit movement, a universal characteristic
of living things. The leaves of sensitive plants (Mimosa pudica)
Bases of Life
fold within seconds after being disturbed or subjected to sudden
environmental changes, and the tiny underwater traps of blad- The Elements: Units of Matter
derworts (Utricularia) snap shut in less than one-hundredth
The basic “stuff of the universe,” called matter, occurs in
of a second. But most plant movements, when compared with
three states—solid, liquid, and gas. In simple terms, matter’s
those of animals, are slow and imperceptible and are mostly
characteristics are as follows:
related to growth phenomena. They become obvious only when
demonstrated experimentally or when shown by time-lapse 1. It occupies space.
photography. Time-lapse photography often reveals many 2. It has mass, which we commonly associate with weight.
16 Chapter 2
–
The smallest stable subdivision of an element that can
exist is called an atom. Atoms are so minute that until the mid-
l980s, individual atoms were not directly visible to us with even Figure 2.1 Model of an oxygen atom. The nucleus in the center
the most powerful electron microscopes. Atoms consist of sev- consists of eight electrically neutral neutrons and eight positively
eral kinds of subatomic particles. Each atom has a tiny nucleus charged protons. Eight negatively charged electrons whirl around the
consisting of protons, which are particles with positive electri- nucleus. In a real atom the electrons would not be spaced or confined
cal charges, and other particles called neutrons, which have as shown in this simple diagram. The nucleus is one-millionth of one-
no electrical charges. Both protons and neutrons have a small billionth the diameter of the atom.
amount of mass and are composed of quarks. If the nucleus,
which contains nearly all of the atom’s mass, were enlarged The region occupied by electrons around the nucleus is
so that it was as big as a beach ball, the atom, which is mostly called an orbital. Each orbital has an imaginary axis and is
space, would be larger than a professional football stadium somewhat cloudlike, but it doesn’t have a precise boundary,
(Fig. 2.1). Because each atom is mostly space, solid objects are and so we can’t be certain of an electron’s position within an
not as “solid” as they appear. Objects that hit each other are not orbital at any time. This has led to an orbital being defined
actually contacting solid surfaces. Instead, negative charges on as a volume of space in which a given electron occurs 90%
the objects repel each other. Without these charges, the objects of the time. Electrons actually occupy all space in an orbital
would pass through each other. simultaneously, so they do not circle around the nucleus like
Atoms are extremely long-lived. It is estimated that they planets. In addition, according to the quantum leap theory
survive for about 1035 years. Accordingly, the atoms in every of physics, an electron can move instantaneously from one
living thing were once found in stars. Each tree you see out- orbital to another without visiting the space between them!
side your window probably contains a billion atoms, many of Electrons may be located in one or more energy levels of
which may well have been in the bodies of your ancestors. an atom, and their distance from the nucleus depends on their
Each atom of an element has a specific number of pro- energy level. Each energy level is usually referred to as an elec-
tons in its nucleus, ranging from one in hydrogen, the light- tron shell. The outermost electron shell determines how or if an
est element, to 92 in uranium, the heaviest natural element. atom reacts with another atom. Only two electrons can occupy
This number is referred to as the atomic number. The atomic the first and lowest energy level associated with the innermost
number is often shown as a subscript to the left of the chemi- orbital; this orbital is more or less spherical and is so close to
cal symbol. For example, nitrogen, which has seven pro- the nucleus that it is often not shown on diagrams of atoms.
tons in its nucleus, has its atomic number of seven shown One to several additional orbitals, which are mostly spindle
as 7N. The combined number of protons and neutrons in shaped (like the tips of cotton swabs), generally occupy much
a single atom is referred to as its atomic mass (Table 2.1). more space. Up to eight electrons can be held by the second
The atomic mass number is commonly shown as a super- energy level, and although the third and fourth energy lev-
script to the left of the chemical symbol. For example, the els can hold more than eight electrons each, they can become
atomic mass of nitrogen, which has seven protons and seven unstable if more than eight electrons are present. If an electron
neutrons in its nucleus, is shown as 14N, and when both the in one orbital is provided with more energy, it can jump to an
atomic number and the atomic mass are shown, the chemical orbital farther away from the nucleus. Conversely, if an electron
symbol appears as 147 N. releases energy, it drops to an energy level closer to the nucleus.
Electrons, which are little more than negative electric The electrons of each orbital tend to repel those of other orbit-
charges, whirl around an atom’s nucleus. Electron masses als, so that the axes of all the orbitals of an atom are oriented as
are about 1,840 times lighter than those of both protons far apart from each other as possible; the outer parts of the orbit-
and neutrons and are so minute that they are generally dis- als, however, actually overlap more than shown in diagrams of
regarded. Since opposite electric charges attract each other, them. Orbitals usually have diameters thousands of times more
the positive electric charges of protons attract the negative extensive than that of an atomic nucleus (Fig. 2.2).
electric charges of electrons and determine the paths of the Because each atom usually has as many electrons as it
electrons whirling around the nucleus. does protons, the negative electric charges of the electrons
The Nature of Life 17
Table 2.1 Atomic Numbers, Masses, and Functions of Some Elements Found in Plants
Valence
The combining capacity of an atom or ion based on electron
number is called valence. For example, atoms of the element
calcium, an important element in cell walls and in transmit-
hydrogen (H2) ting chemical “messages” in plant cells, have a valence of
two, while those of the element chlorine have a valence of
one. In order for the atoms of these two elements to combine,
Figure 2.4 Models of oxygen, water, and hydrogen molecules. there must be a balance between electrons lost or gained (i.e.,
A water molecule is 0.6 nanometer in diameter. Each sphere represents the valences must balance); it takes two chlorine atoms, for
the electron cloud of the outer orbital. example, to combine with one calcium atom. The compound
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.