DEFI

NITI
ONOFAPARTHEI
D
Apar
thei
dwasani
deol
ogi
cal
phi
l
osophywhi
chwascr
eat
edbyAf
ri
kanernat
ional
i
stsi
n
t
he1930sandenshr
inedi
ntheSout
hAf
ri
canconst
it
uti
oni
n1948byt
heNat
ional
Par
ty
l
edbyDr
.D.
K.Mal
an.Thi
saf
terMal
an’
sNat
ional
par
tywont
heel
ect
ionsof1948i
nthe
uni
onofSout
hAf
ri
ca.

Apar
thei
disanAf
ri
kanert
erm meani
ng“
bei
ngapar
torsegr
egat
eorsepar
ated”
.Ital
so
meantsepar
ati
onofr
acesorr
aci
alsegr
egat
ion.

TheSout
hAf
ri
canGov
ernmental
socal
l
edapar
thei
dasSepar
atedev
elopment
.
Apar
thei
dhadi
tsownr
oot
sint
her
aci
alsupr
emacywhi
chwashel
ddearbyt
heBoer
s.

Thechi
efar
chi
tectofapar
thei
disDr
.Hendr
ikVer
woer
dwhobecamet
henat
iveaf
fai
rs
secr
etar
yin1950,
whot
houghtt
hesepar
ati
onofr
acesmaycompl
eteby2000wi
tht
he
Boer
semer
gingdomi
nant
.

Apar
thei
dwasr
aci
alsegr
egat
ionofr
acesi
npol
i
tics,
educat
ion,
empl
oyment
,resi
dent
ial
ar
eas,
transpor
t,mar
ri
ageandcul
tur
al.

Apar
thei
dwasal
soai
medatguar
ant
eei
ngper
manentwhi
tecont
rol
anddomi
nat
ion
ov
erbl
acksi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca.

Thewhi
teal
sodesi
redt
oli
mitAf
ri
canoppor
tuni
tyi
nlandowner
shi
p,pol
i
tical
r
epr
esent
ati
on,
educat
ionandempl
oyment
.

CONSOLI
DATI
ONOFAPARTHEI
D
Theper
iodbet
ween1910and1948sawt
hewhi
tecommuni
tyofSout
h
Af
ri
caconsol
i
dat
ingi
tspowerov
ert
henon-
whi
tei
nal
laspect
.TheSout
h
Af
ri
cangov
ernmentpassedaser
iesAct
sini
tsquestt
odomi
nat
eand
expl
oitnon-
whi
tes.Ul
ti
mat
ely
,theAct
sti
l
tedt
hebal
anceofpoweri
nfav
our
oft
hemi
nor
it
ywhi
tes.TheActofUni
onSout
hAf
ri
cai
n1910i
ntr
oduced

1
r
aci
stpol
i
cieswhi
chai
medatel
i
minat
ingAf
ri
canpar
ti
ci
pat
ioni
nSout
h
Af
ri
canpol
i
tics.
EARLYACTSAI
MEDATRACI
ALSEGREGATI
ON
1.1911Mi
nesandwor
ker
sAct
-pr
event
edAf
ri
cansf
rom per
for
ming
ski
l
ledandsemi
-ski
l
ledj
obst
hroughsegr
egat
ion.I
tal
soout
lawed
st
ri
kesbyAf
ri
cans.
2.1912Def
enseAct
-pr
event
edt
heAf
ri
canf
rom j
oini
ngt
hesout
h
Af
ri
candef
ensef
orcest
oensur
eeasycont
rol
ofAf
ri
cans
3.1913Nat
iveLandAct
-ensur
edsepar
ati
onofr
acesgeogr
aphi
cal
l
y
wi
thAf
ri
cansconf
inedt
oNat
iver
eser
veswhi
chbecomesi
mpl
e
l
abourr
eser
vesf
orwhi
tef
armer
sandmi
ner
s
4.1920Nat
iveAf
fai
rsAct
-waspassedt
osegr
egat
einpol
i
tics
5.1924I
ndust
ri
alConci
li
ator
yAct
-deni
edAf
ri
canscol
l
ect
ive
bar
gai
ningatpl
acesofwor
k.
Themosti
ntensi
veef
for
tst
oint
roducesegr
egat
ioni
nSout
hAf
ri
ca
wasbet
ween1910and1924dur
ingBot
haandSmut
s.I
trel
axed
dur
ingt
hewarduet
otheneedt
owi
nthewarbyal
l
iedpower
sin
Eur
ope.Af
ter1948ani
ntensi
veshi
ftt
osegr
egat
ionasapar
thei
d
pol
i
cy.
I
MPLEMENTATI
ONOFAPARTHEI
D
ACTSTHATI
NTENSI
FIEDAPARTHEI
DINSOUTHAFRI
CAAFTER
1948
I
n1948t
heNat
ional
par
tyunderDr
.Mal
anwonel
ect
ionsi
nSout
h
Af
ri
caandi
ntensi
fi
edr
aci
alsegr
egat
ioni
nfor
m ofapar
thei
d.
Bet
ween1948and1988,
ter
ri
bler
est
ri
cti
onsandhar
dshi
pswer
e
ex
per
iencedbynon-
whi
tes.About231apar
thei
dlawswer
epassedby

2
 par
li
amenti
nor
dert
oimpl
ementapar
thei
dasapol
i
cy.Thesel
aws
af
fect
edt
heempl
oyment
,resi
denceandmov
ementofnon-
whi
tes.
I
NTENSI
FICATI
ONOFSOCI
ALCONTROL
1.ThePr
ohi
bit
ionofMi
xedMar
ragesActof1949banned
i
mar
ri
agesbet
weenwhi
tesandnon-
whi
tes,
soast
oensur
ethe
pr
eser
vat
ionoft
hewhi
ter
aces.

2.TheI
mmor
ali
tyActof1950madesexual
cont
actbet
weenbl
ack
andwhi
tei
l
legal
.

3.TheGr
oupAr
easActof1950bywhi
cheachr
acewasmadet
o
l
i
vei
nit
sowndesi
gnat
edar
ea.

4.TheAbol
it
ionofPassesActsi
mpl
yst
rengt
henedt
hepassl
aws.
Bl
ackshadt
ocar
rydi
ff
erentpasseswhi
chwer
econsol
i
dat
edi
nto
ar
efer
encebook.Ev
enwomenwer
emadet
ocar
ryr
efer
ence
bookswhent
rav
ell
i
ngout
sidet
her
eser
ves.

5.Popul
ati
onr
egi
str
ati
onactof1950-

6.TheSepar
ateAmeni
ti
esActof1953di
vi
dedpubl
i
cser
vicessuch
asbuses,
trai
ns,
postof
fi
ces,
beaches,
par
ksbet
weenEur
opeans
onl
yandnon-
Eur
opeansonl
y.

I
ntensi
fi
cat
ionofEconomi
cCont
rol
1.ThePr
event
ionofI
ll
egalSquat
ter
sActof1951.I
tgav
e
gov
ernmentpower
stor
emov
eAf
ri
cansf
rom whi
tear
easor
whi
tel
ands.

2.TheNat
iveLabourofSet
tl
ementofDi
sput
eAct1953.Madei
t

3
 i
l
legal
forAf
ri
canst
ofor
m orj
oint
radeuni
ons.

3.TheI
ndust
ri
alConci
li
ator
yActwasamendedi
n1956t
ohav
ethe
r
aci
all
ymi
xeduni
onst
obesegr
egat
e.TheMi
nist
erofl
abourwas
empower
edt
osaf
eguar
djobr
eser
vat
ionf
orwhi
tes.

4.TheBant
uLabourAct1964bannedst
ri
keact
ion,
breaki
ngof
cont
ract
sandAf
ri
canswer
enotal
l
owedt
obar
gai
n.
Ef
fect
sofapar
thei
dlawsonnon-
whi
tes
 Thousandsofcol
our
edsuf
fer
edmostbecausepopul
ati
on
r
egi
str
ati
onact
,mostoft
hem f
ail
edt
oqual
i
fyaswhi
tes.
 Cl
assi
fi
edf
ami
l
iesl
ostt
hei
rhomesandpr
oper
ty.
 Af
ri
canwer
eputi
nunpr
oduct
ivear
eas
 Af
ri
canwer
egi
vensub-
standar
dsoci
alser
vices.E.
g.educat
ion
 NoAf
ri
canwasf
reef
rom pol
i
ceduet
opassl
aws
 Af
ri
canwer
eal
sodepr
ivedofr
ightt
oli
veandwor
kinur
ban
ar
eas
 Bl
ackhomel
andsbecomeov
ercr
owdedandi
mpov
eri
shed
 Mar
ri
edcoupl
eswer
efor
cedt
odi
vor
cet
oraci
alcl
assi
fi
cat
ion
l
aws.
 Af
ri
canswer
efor
cedt
oleav
eur
banar
eas.

Apar
thei
dandt
heBant
ust
anPol
icy
The Toml
i
nson Commi
ssi
on of I
nqui
ry of 1955 consi
der
ed t
he
dev
elopmentofBant
ust
answi
thi
ntheUni
onofSout
hAf
ri
ca.Thef
indi
ngs
oft
hecommi
ssi
onl
edt
otheenact heBant
mentoft uSel
f-
Gov
ernmentAct
of1959,whi
chal
sol
edt
othecr
eat
ionoft
heBant
ust
ansort
hesocal
l
ed

4
sel
f-
gov
erni
ngAf
ri
canhomel
andsort
ri
ball
ands

Accor
dingt
othePr
omot
ionoft
heBant
uSel
f-
Gov
ernmentActal
lAf
ri
can
soci
eti
esbel
ongedt
otheBant
ust
ans.

Theywer
enol
ongerSout
hAf
ri
canci
ti
zens.

Af
ri
canswer
efor
cibl
yremov
edf
rom t
hesocal
l
edwhi
tear
easandpushed
i
ntoBant
ust
answhi
chwer
eimpov
eri
shed.

 Thepl
acef
oranAf
ri
canwast
heBant
ust
an.Onl
yAf
ri
cans,
neededf
or
empl
oyment
,wer
eal
l
owedi
ntowhi
teci
ti
es.

•
TheSout
hAf
ri
canCommonweal
thofAf
ri
canswasadmi
nist
eredby
t
heSout
hAf
ri
cangov
ernment
.

 Tr
adi
ti
onalr
uler
sbecameheadsoft
heBant
ust
anst
atesandwer
e
assi
stedbyi
ndunasandcounci
l
ors.

•
Thet
ri
balaut
hor
it
ieswer
esuper
visedbyawhi
teMi
nist
erofBant
u
admi
nist
rat
ion,
dev
elopmentandBant
ueducat
ion.

•
Themi
nist
erwasadv
isedbyaBant
uAf
fai
rsCommi
ssi
onappoi
nted
byPr
etor
ia.

•
Afr
icanswer
enotf
reet
orul
ethemsel
ves.

ACommi
• ssi
onerGener
al(
whi
te)r
epr
esent
edt
hegov
ernmenti
neach
Bant
ust
an.

•
The r
epr
esent
ati
on of Af
ri
cans i
n par
li
ament by whi
tes was
abol
i
shedsi
ncet
heAf
ri
canswer
enol
ongerci
ti
zensofSout
hAf
ri
ca.

5
 TheBant
ust
angov
ernmentcont
rol
l
ededucat
ion,
agr
icul
tur
e,f
orest
ry,
r
oadsandwor
ks,
homeaf
fai
rs,
judi
ci
aryandf
inances.

 TheSout
hAf
ri
cangov
ernmentwr
oteandamendedt
heBant
ust
an
const
it
uti
on,gav
e subsi
dies,cont
rol
l
ed f
orei
gn af
fai
rs,def
ence
mat
ter
s,i
nter
nalsecur
it
y,post
alser
vices,r
ail
way
,immi
grat
ion,
cur
rency
,banki
ng,cust
oms and exer
cise,heal
th and i
nfor
mat
ion
sect
or.

 Mosti
mpor
tantar
easwer
econt
rol
l
edbyBr
it
ain.

 Engl
i
shandAf
ri
kaanswer
etheof
fi
ci
all
anguagesr
ecogni
zedbyt
he
gov
ernment
.

 TheBant
ust
answer
eof
fi
cial
l
ycr
eat
edaf
ter1970al
thoughl
egi
sl
ati
on
cameouti
n1959.
 Theywer
econst
it
utedonet
hni
cli
nes.Ther
ati
onalwast
oemphasi
ze
et
hni
cbor
der
sandt
odi
vi
deandr
uleAf
ri
cansmuchmor
eeasi
l
y.

 Ther
ati
onalwast
oemphasi
zeet
hni
cbor
der
sandt
odi
vi
deandr
ule
Af
ri
cansmuchmor
eeasi
l
y.

 TheBant
ust
answer
easf
oll
ows:Tr
anskei(
Xhosa)
,Ci
skei(
Xhosa)
,
Kwazul
u(Zul
u),
Lebowa(
Sot
ho,
Ndebel
e,Pedi
),Venda(
Venda)
,Gaza-
Nkul
u(Shangani
,Tsonga)
,Bophut
hat
swana(
Tswana)
.
 Bant
ust
answer
ecr
eat
edi
nmount
ainous,
hil
l
yar
eas.

 Thet
err
ainwasr
uggedandpunct
uat
edbydeepv
all
eys.

 Mostoft
hear
easwer
euncul
ti
vabl
e.

6
  Agr
icul
tur
ewasi
napoorst
ateduet
oinf
ert
il
it
yoft
hesoi
l
,sev
ere
dr
ought
s,ov
erpopul
ati
one.
g.500peopl
epersquar
eki
l
omet
er.

 Ov
ergr
azi
ng,i
nadequat
ear
abl
eland,soi
ler
osi
on,l
ackofcapi
taland
mar
ketet
c.

 Muchoft
hei
nfr
ast
ruct
urewasunder
dev
eloped,poorhousi
ng,poor
t
ranspor
tnet
wor
k,i
nfer
ioreducat
ion,
lackofr
ecr
eat
ionf
aci
l
iti
es
Thi
ssepar
atedev
elopmentasenv
isi
onedbyDrHendr
ickVer
woer
d,t
he
t
henPr
imeMi
nist
erwant
edAf
ri
canst
ofi
ghtf
ort
hei
rri
ght
swi
thi
nthe
Bant
ust
ans.

 Thi
swoul
densur
eper
manentsepar
ati
onofr
acesi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca.

 Suf
fi
ce t
o sayt
he Sout
h Af
ri
can r
egi
me cr
eat
ed t
he Bant
ust
ans
si
mpl
ytocr
eat
eacheapl
abourr
eser
voi
rforwhi
teownedi
ndust
ri
es
i
n Sout
h Af
ri
ca and t
o pr
e-empt
ythe ev
err
isi
ng t
ide ofAf
ri
can
nat
ional
i
sm.

I
tcan al
so be ar
gued t
hatt
he Bant
ust
ans st
rengt
hened Af
ri
can
r
esi
stancet
otheapar
thei
dregi
measAf
ri
cansf
ear
edt
oloset
hei
r
Sout
hAf
ri
canr
oot
s.

Pr
otestMov
ement
soft
he1940s
Massact
ionont
her
andi
nthe1940smetwi
thsomei
nit
ial
measur
eof
successandsett
hescenef
ort
hedecadet
ocome.

TheAl
exandr
abusboy
cot
tsof1940-
46pr
event
edt
hebuscompanyf
rom
r
aisi
ngbusf
ares.

7
Bl
acksdemonst
rat
edt
hei
reconomi
cpowerast
housandschoset
owal
k
t
he20ki
l
omet
erst
oandf
rom wor
kinJohannesbur
grat
hert
hanpayt
he
i
ncr
easedbusf
ares.
Thesel
f-
hel
psquat
termov
ementof1944-
47gotev
ent
ual
recogni
ti
onof
t
hei
runof
fi
cial
squat
tert
ownshi
psout
h-westofJohannesbur
g.

Massact
ionamongmi
newor
ker
s,howev
er,
metwi
tht
ougheropposi
ti
on.
Thewagesofbl
ackmi
newor
ker
shadr
emai
nedst
ati
cdur
ingt
hewar
despi
tet
her
isei
npr
ices.

I
n1946,
theAf
ri
canMi
newor
ker
sUni
onl
edast
ri
keof70000mi
ner
sin
suppor
tofdemandsf
orami
nimum wageandf
ami
l
yhousi
ng.

Butpol
i
cesav
agel
ysuppr
essedt
hest
ri
ke,
arr
est
ingl
eader
s,ki
l
li
ng12and
woundi
ng1200

TheANC:‘
Yout
hWi
ngandPr
ogr
ammeofAct
ion’
TheNat
ional
Execut
iveoft
heANChadf
ail
edt
otakeanyact
ivel
eadi
nthe
massmov
ement
soft
he1940s.Thi
sfai
l
urest
imul
atedt
hegr
owt
hofan
i
mpor
tantnewmov
ementwi
thi
ntheANC;

TheYout
hLeague,
foundedi
n1944byAnt
onLembede

Thedr
ivi
ngf
orcesoft
heLeaguewer
eanumberofy
oungr
adi
cal
sexpel
l
ed
f
rom For
tHar
eCol
l
ege,
amongt
hem t
woJohannesbur
glawy
ers,
Nel
son
Mandel
aandOl
iv
erTambo.
Unl
i
ket
heol
dANCl
eader
shi
p,t
heYout
hLeaguer
swer
enotaf
rai
dofmass
act
ion.

By1949t
heYout
hLeaguer
shadbeenel
ect
edt
otheANCNat
ional

8
Execut
ive,
incl
udi
ngMandel
a,TamboandWal
terSi
sul
u,anact
ive
Johannesbur
gtr
adeuni
oni
st.

Twoot
heri
nfl
uent
ial
member
soft
heexecut
ivewer
ethepr
omi
nentbl
ack
communi
stt
rade-
uni
oni
sts,
J.B.Mar
ksandMosesKot
ane.

Dr
.JamesSebeMor
okar
epl
acedDrA.
B.SumacasPr
esi
dentofANCand
Si
sul
ubebecameSecr
etar
y-Gener
al.

Wi
thi
tsnewexecut
ive,
theANCqui
ckl
yre-
emer
gedatt
hef
ore-
fr
ontof
Af
ri
canpol
i
ticsandr
esi
stance.
A‘
Progr
ammeofAct
ion’
wasdr
awnup,
whi
chwascommi
tt
edt
ost
ri
kes,
boy
cot
tsandci
vi
ldi
sobedi
encei
nst
eadofbar
gai
ningwi
tht
hegov
ernment
.

Theai
m wasnat
ionalf
reedom,
pol
it
icali
ndependence,
ther
eject
ionof
whi
tel
eader
shi
pandt
heabol
it
ionofal
lsegr
egat
ioni
stl
aws

Thi
swast
obeachi
evedt
hroughmassact
ionofboy
cot
ts,
str
ikesand
passi
ver
esi
stance
I
nDecember
,1945t
heANCy
out
hleaguef
ormal
l
yandpubl
i
clydemanded
f
orone–manone–v
ote,
resi
dence,
landowner
shi
pandf
reedom of
mov
ement
.
I
n1949t
hey
out
hleagueel
ect
edamor
emi
l
itar
ypr
esi
dentofANC,
Dr.
JamesMor
oka.
I
N1952underDr
.Mor
oka,
Afr
icansandI
ndi
ansj
oinedi
ntheact
ionsofci
vi
l
di
sobedi
encehopi
ngt
oremov
ethepassl
awsandgr
oupAr
easact
.8000
pr
otest
orswer
ear
rest
ed.
I
n1952,
Alber
tJohnLi
thul
iat
eacherandachi
efofasmal
lZul
utr
ibewas
el
ect
edpr
esi
dentofANCr
epl
aci
ngDr
.Mor
oka.Hewasamanofpeace.

9
Hi
sweaponwasboy
cot
tandst
ri
kes.
TheDef
ianceCampai
gn,
1952-
1953
Anumberofonedayst
ri
kesanddemonst
rat
ionsdur
ing1950-
51l
edupt
o
t
heANCsponsor
ed‘
Def
ianceCampai
gn’
whi
chbegani
nJune1952.

Al
lov
ert
hecount
ryspeci
alv
olunt
eer
sdel
i
ber
atel
ydef
iedpet
tyapar
thei
d
r
est
ri
cti
ons.

Theycour
tedar
restbysi
tt
ingon‘
whi
teonl
y’benchesusi
ng‘
whi
te’
ent
rancest
ost
ati
ons,
post
-of
fi
cesandshops,
crowdi
ngi
nto‘
whi
te-
onl
y’
f
ir
stcl
assr
ail
waycar
ri
agesandr
efusi
ngt
ocar
rypasses.
Butt
her
ewasst
il
lrel
uct
anceamongt
hel
eader
shi
ptoexpl
oitf
ull
yther
eal
st
rengt
hsofl
arge-
scal
emassact
ion.

Thenumber
smaki
ngt
hei
rdef
iantdemonst
rat
ionswer
esmal
l
,ut
mosta
f
ewhundr
edatat
ime,
whi
l
ethousandsl
ookedon.

Ther
ewer
ethosewi
thi
nthemov
ementwhof
eltt
hatt
heDef
iance
Campai
gnhadnotgonef
arenough.

Whol
esal
edef
iancebyt
housandswoul
dhav
echockedt
hecour
tsand
pr
isonsandbr
oughtt
hesy
stem t
oit
sknees.

Asi
twasbyJanuar
y1953ei
ghtt
housandhadbeenar
rest
ed,
leader
swer
e
det
ainedorbannedandt
hecampai
gngr
oundt
ohal
t.

PeasantResi
stanceMov
ement
Peasantr
esi
stancei
ntensi
fi
edi
nreser
vesbet
ween1950sand1960s.

Peasantr
esi
stancest
art
edf
rom peacef
ulboy
cot
tsofgov
ernment
schemest
opol
i
tical
conf
ront
ati
onwi
thsecur
it
yfor
ces.

10
Themi
ddl
epeasant
srej
ect
edcat
tl
evacci
nat
ion,
Cat
tl
eDeepi
ngand
f
enci
ngbecauset
hiswasv
eryexpensi
veandi
nter
fer
edwi
tht
radi
ti
onal
ani
mal
husbandr
ypr
act
ices.

Thepeasant
sal
sor
eject
edot
herpeasantschemesoff
orest
ati
onandsoi
l
conser
vat
ionbecauseoft
hecoer
civ
enat
ureoft
hepol
i
cies

Thepeasant
ssmashedt
hef
ences,
Deepi
ngt
anks,
picket
ingt
heDeepi
ng
t
anksandbecamehost
il
etot
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
rul
erswhosuppor
tedt
he
schemes.

Af
ri
canshat
edt
hei
mposi
ti heBant
onoft uAmendmentActbet
ween1956-
1965.

Thepeasant
sat
tackedt
hecol
l
abor
ati
ngt
radi
ti
onal
rul
ersandt
hei
r
headmen.

Howev
er,
peasantr
esi
stancewasf
uti
l
e.I
tonl
ydel
ayedt
heexecut
ionof
r
aci
alpol
i
ciesoft
hegov
ernment
.

WomenResi
stanceMov
ementagai
nstapar
thei
d
 Womenbegant
otakeact
iver
olesi
nresi
stanceal
ongsi
demen,
and
t
hef
eder
ati
onofSout
hAf
ri
canWomen(
FSAW)wasf
oundedi
n1954
byRaySi
mons,
Hel
enJoseph,
Lil
l
ianNgoy
i,andAmi
naCachal
i
a.
 TheFSAW qui
ckl
ybecameanact
ivemul
ti
raci
alant
i-
apar
thei
dfor
ce
i
nal
l
iancewi
thot
hergr
oups.I
nconj
unct
ionwi
tht
heANC,
thi
s
woman'
sgr
oupdi
rect
edcampai
gnsagai
nstpassl
awsandqui
ckl
y
f
ell
undergov
ernmenti
nti
midat
ion.
 Theseor
gani
zedandst
agedpubl
i
cdemonst
rat
ionsandact
ual
l
y

11
 par
ti
cipat
edi
nthemai
nst
ream chal
l
engesagai
nstt
heapar
thei
d
gov
ernment
.

 Womenpr
otest
orsbl
ockeddeep-
tanks,
beerhal
l
sandschool
s.

 Theyboy
cot
tedschool
s,buses,
shopsi
nur
banandr
ural
areas.

 Thewomenbecameact
ivepar
ti
cipant
sinpr
otest
sduet
oabsenceof
menact
ivi
ti
es
 Womenst
ageddemonst
rat
ionsagai
nstpassl
awsi
n1955t
hat
r
equi
redt
hem t
ocar
rypassesandr
egi
str
ati
onbook.

 Thewomenwhost
onedgov
ernmentof
fi
ci
alswer
esentt
odi
str
ibut
e
t
her
efer
encebooksandt
heybur
ntt
her
efer
encebooks.

ackSashOr
 TheBl gani
sat
ionwasf
ormedbywhi
tewomeni
n1955t
o
f
ightNat
ional
Par
tyr
emov
alofcol
our
edv
oti
ngr
ight
s(t
hesewer
e
t
hei
rchi
l
dren)
.
 Theor
gani
zat
iongav
efr
eel
egal
adv
icet
oAf
ri
cans.

I
n1956,
theFeder
ati
onofSout
hAf
ri
canWomenor
gani
sed20,
000
f
emal
epr
otest
ersagai
nstapar
thei
dinPr
etor
ia.

 Thepr
otestwasl
edbyLi
l
li
anNgoy
i(Af
ri
canPr
esi
dent
)andHel
en
Joseph(
whi
teSecr
etar
y).

 Thet
wowomenwer
ear
rest
edandj
ail
ed.

I
n1959gov
ernmentat
tempt
edt
oer
adi
cat
eil
l
ici
tli
quort
radei
n
Dur
banandcompel
l
edt
hef
emal
ebr
ewer
stor
etal
i
ate.

 Thewomenwer
einv
olv
edi
ndest
roy
ingequi
pmenti
nbeerhal
l
s.They
al
socl
ashedwi
tht
hepol
i
ce.

12
13