Contents

Introduction 3

THE BASIS OF LIFE

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
1.1 The characteristics of life 12
1.2 What do biologists do? 14

CHAPTER 2 THE CHEMICALS OF LIFE

2.1 Atoms and elements 16
2.2 Molecules and compounds 18
2.3 The unique properties of water 20
2.4 The biological importance of water 22
2.5 The pH of solutions 24
2.6 Carbohydrates: simple sugars 26
2.7 Carbohydrates: polysaccharides 28
2.8 Lipids 30
2.9 Introduction to proteins 32
2.10 Protein structure and function 34
2.11 Nucleotides and nucleic acids 36
Exam Questions 38

CHAPTER 3 METABOLIC REACTIONS

3.1 Energy and metabolism 40
3.2 How enzymes work 42
3.3 Factors affecting enzymes (1) 44
3.4 Factors affecting enzymes (2) 46
3.5 Classification of enzymes 48
3.6 Enzyme technology 50
3.7 Applications of enzyme technology 52
Exam Questions 54

CHAPTER 4 CELLS
4.1 Cell theory 56
4.2 Microscopes 58
4.3 The ultrastructure of animal cells 60
4.4 The ultrastructure of plant and bacterial cells 62
4.5 Revealing the ultrastructure of cells 64
4.6 Cell membranes 66
4.7 Diffusion 68
4.8 Active transport 70
4.9 Osmosis 72
4.10 Introduction to cell division 74
4.11 Mitosis 76
4.12 Meiosis 78
4.13 Cells, tissues, and organs 80
Exam Questions 82

ANIMALS AND PLANTS

CHAPTER 5 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
5.1 Photosynthesis: an overview 86
5.2 Photosynthetic pigments 88
5.3 The light-dependent stage 90
5.4 The light-independent stage 92
5.5 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis 94
5.6 Photosynthesis in different climates 96
Exam Questions 98

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 CHAPTER 6 RESPIRATION
6.1 Cellular respiration: an overview 100
6.2 Glycolysis and fermentation 102
6.3 The Krebs cycle 104
6.4 The electron transport system 106
6.5 Measuring respiration 108
Exam Questions 110

CHAPTER 7 GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS

7.1 Gaseous exchange systems 112
7.2 Ventilation 114
7.3 Gaseous exchange in the alveoli 116
7.4 The cardiovascular system 118
7.5 Structure of the heart 120
7.6 The cardiac cycle 122
7.7 The control of the heart 124
7.8 Blood 126
7.9 Haemoglobin 128
7.10 The effects of exercise 130
7.11 Tissue fluid and lymph 132
Exam Questions 134

CHAPTER 8 HOMEOSTASIS
8.1 Homeostatic control systems 136
8.2 Control of blood glucose concentration 138
8.3 Diabetes mellitus 140
8.4 The liver 142
8.5 Structure and functions of the kidneys 144
8.6 The proximal convoluted tubule 146
8.7 The loop of Henlé 148
8.8 The distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts 150
8.9 Temperature regulation in animals 152
8.10 Controlling body temperature in humans 154
8.11 Temperature regulation and the skin 156
Exam Questions 158

CHAPTER 9 HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

9.1 Heterotrophs 160
9.2 Holozoic nutrition in mammals 162
9.3 Biting, chewing, and swallowing 164
9.4 The stomach 166
9.5 The intestines 168
9.6 Energy from food 170
9.7 The components of a balanced diet 172
9.8 Minerals and vitamins 174
9.9 Carnivores 176
9.10 Herbivorous mammals 178
Exam Questions 180

CHAPTER 10 NERVOUS AND HORMONAL COORDINATION

10.1 Nerves and hormones 182
10.2 The mammalian endocrine system 184
10.3 Hormonal mechanisms 186
10.4 Setting up a nerve impulse 188
10.5 Transmission of a nerve impulse 190
10.6 Synapses 192

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 10.7 The mammalian nervous system 194
10.8 Animal senses 196
10.9 Structure of the human car 198
10.10 Mechanoreceptors in the human ear 200
10.11 Structure of the human eye 202
10.12 The retina and vision 204
10.13 The human brain 206
10.14 The hypothalamus, pituitary, and thyroid gland 208
Exam Questions 210

CHAPTER 11 LOCOMOTION AND BEHAVIOUR

11.1 Types of animal skeleton 212
11.2 Vertebrate endoskeletons 214
11.3 Muscles and joints 216
11.4 Skeletal muscle 218
11.5 How muscle fibres contract 220
11.6 Swimming and flying 222
11.7 Walking and running 224
11.8 Behaviour: simple responses 226
11.9 Learning: habituation and imprinting 228
11.10 Conditioning and latent learning 230
11.11 Imitation, insight, and memory 232
11.12 Social behaviour in insects 234
11.13 Courtship, territoriality, and dominance hierarchies 236
11.14 Behavioural rhythms and biological clocks 238
11.15 Bird migration 240
Exam Questions 242

CHAPTER 12 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

12.1 Reproduction 244
12.2 The mammalian reproductive system 246
12.3 Gametogenesis: the production of gametes 248
12.4 Mammalian reproductive cycles 250
12.5 Mating and fertilisation in mammals 252
12.6 Birth control 254
12.7 Implantation and embryonic development 256
12.8 Pregnancy and the placenta 258
12.9 Birth 260
12.10 Parental care 262
12.11 Growth and development 264
Exam Questions 266

CHAPTER 13 STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

13.1 The leaf 268
13.2 The stem 270
13.3 The root 272
13.4 Transport: xylem and phloem 274
13.5 Water transport 276
13.6 Water uptake 278
13.7 Stomata 280
13.8 Uptake of mineral ions by roots 282
13.9 Translocation of organic substances 284
13.10 Mass flow and pressure flow 286
Exam Questions 288

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 CHAPTER 14 REPRODUCTION AND COORDINATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
14.1 Flower structure 290
14.2 Gametogenesis in flowering plants 292
14.3 Pollination 294
14.4 Fertilisation and seed and fruit development 296
14.5 Seed dormancy and dispersal 298
14.6 Seed germination 300
14.7 Vegetative propagation 302
14.8 Commercial applications of vegetative propagation 304
14.9 Plant growth 306
14.10 Plant growth substances 308
14.11 Plant movements 310
14.12 Photoperiodism 312
Exam Questions 314

HEALTH AND DISEASE

CHAPTER 15 INFECTIOUS DISEASES
15.1 Human health and disease 318
15.2 Smallpox and AIDS 320
15.3 Bacterial diseases 322
15.4 Malaria and sleeping sickness 324
15.5 The immune system 326
15.6 Antibodies 328
15.7 Immunity and vaccinations 330
15.8 Transplants and transfusions 332
15.9 Antibiotics 334
15.10 Emerging infectious diseases 336
Exam Questions 338

CHAPTER 16 NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES

16.1 Inherited diseases 340
16.2 Allergies 342
16.3 Ageing and Alzheimer’s disease 344
16.4 Osteoporosis and osteoarthritis 346
16.5 Cancer 348
16.6 Smoking and disease 350
16.7 Cardiovascular diseases 352
16.8 Controlling risk factors for CHD 354
16.9 Eating disorders 356
16.10 Deficiency diseases 358
16.11 Drugs 360
Exam Questions 362

CHAPTER 17 MICROORGANISMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

17.1 Viruses 364
17.2 Bacteria 366
17.3 E. coli and food poisoning 368
17.4 Studying bacteria 370
17.5 Moulds: Rhizopus, Mucor, and non-fungal moulds 372
17.6 Moulds: Penicillium and Saccharomyces 374
17.7 Fermentation 376
17.8 Metal extraction, cheese, and yoghurt 378
17.9 Single cell protein and mycoprotein 380
17.10 Bread, beer, and wine 382
17.11 Biofuels 384
Exam Questions 386

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 GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
CHAPTER 18 MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE
18.1 DNA structure 390
18.2 Chromosomes 392
18.3 DNA replication 394
18.4 The chemical nature of genes 396
18.5 The one gene – one polypeptide hypothesis 398
18.6 The genetic code 400
18.7 Protein synthesis: transcription 402
18.8 Protein synthesis: translation 404
18.9 Genetic engineering techniques 406
18.10 Cloning 408
18.11 DNA profiling 410
Exam Questions 412

CHAPTER 19 INHERITANCE
19.1 Variation 414
19.2 Mendelian inheritance 416
19.3 Monohybiid inheritance 418
19.4 Codominance, multiple alleles, and lethal alleles 420
19.5 Dihybrid inheritance 422
19.6 Linkage and crossing over 424
19.7 Sex determination 426
19.8 Sex linkage 428
19.9 Down’s syndrome, genetic screening,
and diagnostic testing 430
19.10 Cystic fibrosis and gene therapy 432
Exam Questions 434

CHAPTER 20 EVOLUTION
20.1 Theories of evolution 436
20.2 Evidence for evolution (1) 438
20.3 Evidence for evolution (2) 440
20.4 Natural selection 442
20.5 Evolution in action 444
20.6 Natural selection and allele frequency 446
20.7 Artificial selection 448
20.8 Speciation (1) 450
20.9 Speciation (2) 452
20.10 Human evolution: primate ancestors 454
20.11 Apes and other hominoids 456
20.12 Hominids 458
20.13 Major trends in hominid evolution 460
Exam Questions 462

CHAPTER 21 THE VARIETY OF LIVING THINGS

21.1 Classification 464
21.2 Prokaryotes 466
21.3 Protoctists: general features 468
21.4 Protoctists: Amoeba and Euglena 470
21.5 Fungi and plants 472
21.6 Bryophytes and ferns 474

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 21.7 Conifers and flowering plants 476
21 8 Animals 478
21.9 Cnidarians 480
21.10 Platyhelminths: general features 482
21.11 Platyhelminths: parasitic flatworms 484
21.12 Annelids 486
21.13 Arthropods 488
21.14 Insects: locomotion 490
21.15 Insects: gaseous exchange and life cycles 492
21.16 Nematodes, molluscs, and echinoderms 494
21.17 Chordates: fish 496
21.18 Chordates: adaptations to life on land 498
Exam Questions 500

ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

CHAPTER 22 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY
22.1 Biosphere and biomes 504
22.2 Ecosystems 506
22.3 Energy flow (1) 508
22.4 Energy flow (2) 510
22.5 Ecological niche 512
22.6 Population growth 514
22.7 Growth of the human population 516
22.8 Interspecific relationships 518
22.9 Predation 520
22.10 Ecological succession 522
22.11 Species diversity 524
22.12 Nutrient cycles (1): nitrogen and phosphorus 526
22.13 Nutrient cycles (2): carbon 528
22.14 Adaptations to environments (1) 530
22.15 Adaptations to environments (2) 532
22.16 Adaptations to environments (3) 534
Exam Questions 536

CHAPTER 23 APPLIED ECOLOGY

23.1 Agriculture (1): soils and their management 538
23.2 Agriculture (2): pest control 540
23.3 Agriculture (3): crop and animal production 542
23.4 Fisheries 544
23.5 Deforestation 546
23.6 Air pollution and global climate change 548
23.7 Freshwater pollution 550
23.8 Marine pollution 552
23.9 Indicator species 554
23.10 Biological conservation 556
23.11 Conservation methods 558
Exam Questions 560

Appendix 562
Answers to questions 578
Index 614
Acknowledgements 632

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