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 Be Knowledgeable about Different
Communication Codes 50
Be Flexible and Respectful When
Interacting with Others 53
For Review 56
Key Terms 56
Notes 56
CHAPTER 3 Perceiving Ourselves
and Others 59
HOW WE PERCEIVE OTHERS 60
Perception Is a Process 60
We Commonly Misperceive Others’
Communication Behaviors 64
HOW WE EXPLAIN OUR PERCEPTIONS 69
We Explain Behavior through
Attributions 69
Avoiding Two Common Attribution
Errors 70
HOW WE PERCEIVE OURSELVES 72
Self-Concept Defined 72
Awareness and Management
of the Self-Concept 74
Valuing the Self: Self-Esteem 76
MANAGING OUR IMAGE 77
Communication and Image
Management 77
Communication and Face Needs 80
For Review 82
Key Terms 83
Notes 83
CHAPTER 4 How We Use Language 87
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 88
Language Is Symbolic 88
Language Is Usually Arbitrary 89
Language Is Governed by Rules 89
Language Has Layers of Meaning 90
Language Varies in Clarity 92
Language Is Bound by Context and
Culture 93
APPRECIATING THE POWER OF WORDS 94
Language Expresses Who We Are 94
Language Connects Us to Others 97
Language Separates Us from Others 98
Language Motivates Action 101
WAYS WE USE AND ABUSE LANGUAGE 102
Humor: What’s So Funny? 102
Euphemisms: Sugar Coating 103
Slang: The Language of Co-Cultures 103
Defamation: Harmful Words 104
Profanity: Offensive Language 104
Hate Speech: Profanity with
a Hurtful Purpose 105
IMPROVING YOUR USE OF LANGUAGE 106
Separate Opinions from Factual
Claims 106
Use Clearly Understandable Language 108
Own Your Thoughts and Feelings 108
For Review 109
Key Terms 109
Notes 110
CHAPTER 5 Communicating
Nonverbally 113
THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 114
What Is Nonverbal Communication? 114
Six Characteristics of Nonverbal
Communication 115
TEN CHANNELS OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION 119
Facial Displays 119
Eye Behaviors 121
Movement and Gestures 122
Touch Behaviors 124
Vocal Behaviors 125
The Use of Smell 127
The Use of Space 127
Physical Appearance 128
The Use of Time 129
The Use of Artifacts 130
CONTENTS • vii
CULTURE, SEX, AND NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION 130
Culture Influences Nonverbal
Communication 131
Sex Influences Nonverbal
Communication 132
IMPROVING YOUR NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS 134
Interpreting Nonverbal
Communication 134
Expressing Nonverbal
Messages 135
For Review 137
Key Terms 137
Notes 137
CHAPTER 6 Listening Effectively 141
WHAT IT MEANS TO LISTEN 142
What Is Listening? 142
The Importance of Listening
Effectively 143
Misconceptions About Listening 145
How Culture Affects Listening
Behavior 146
WAYS OF LISTENING 147
Stages of Effective Listening 147
Types of Listening 150
COMMON BARRIERS TO
EFFECTIVE LISTENING 151
Noise 152
Pseudolistening and Selective
Attention 152
Information Overload 153
Glazing Over 153
Rebuttal Tendency 154
Closed-Mindedness 155
Competitive Interrupting 155
HONING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS 157
Become a Better Informational
Listener 157
Become a Better Critical Listener 160
Become a Better Empathic Listener 163
viii • CONTENTS
For Review 165
Key Terms 165
Notes 165
PART TWO
Communication in Context 169
CHAPTER 7 Communicating in Social
and Professional Relationships 169
WHY SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS MATTER 170
We Form Relationships Because We
Need to Belong 170
Social Relationships Bring Rewards 172
Social Relationships Carry Costs
as Well as Benefits 174
FORMING AND MAINTAINING SOCIAL
BONDS 174
Why We Form Relationships:
Attraction Theory 174
Why We Form Relationships: Uncertainty
Reduction Theory 178
Why We Maintain Relationships: Social
Exchange and Equity Theories 179
How We Maintain Relationships: Relational
Maintenance Behaviors Theory 181
REVEALING OURSELVES IN
RELATIONSHIPS 182
Characteristics of Self-Disclosure 182
Benefits of Self-Disclosure 185
Risks of Self-Disclosure 186
CHARACTERISTICS OF FRIENDSHIPS 187
Friendships Are Voluntary 187
Friendships Usually Develop between
Peers 187
Friendships Are Governed by Rules 188
Friendships Differ by Sex 188
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE
WORKPLACE 190
Social Relationships with Coworkers 191
Social Relationships between Superiors
and Subordinates 192
Social Relationships between Clients and
Professionals 194
For Review 195
Key Terms 195
Notes 195
CHAPTER 8 Communicating in Intimate
Relationships 201
THE NATURE OF INTIMATE
RELATIONSHIPS 202
Intimate Relationships Require
Deep Commitment 202
Intimate Relationships Foster
Interdependence 203
Intimate Relationships Require
Continuous Investment 204
Intimate Relationships Spark
Dialectical Tensions 204
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMANTIC
RELATIONSHIPS 205
Romantic Relationships and
Exclusivity 206
Romantic Relationships and
Voluntariness 206
Romantic Relationships and Love 206
Romantic Relationships and
Sexuality 207
Romantic Relationships around the
World 207
FORMING AND COMMUNICATING
IN ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 208
Getting In: Stages of Relationship
Development 208
Communicating in Romantic
Relationships 211
Getting Out: Ending Romantic
Relationships 214
COMMUNICATING IN FAMILIES 215
What Makes a Family? 215
Types of Families 216
Communication Issues in Families 218
IMPROVING COMMUNICATION
IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS 221
Go for Fun: Emphasize Excitement 221
Stay Positive: Use Confirming
Messages 221
Deal with the Dark Side: Handle
Conflict Constructively 222
Get Real: Have Realistic
Expectations 224
Push and Pull: Manage Dialectical
Tensions 225
For Review 227
Key Terms 227
Notes 228
CHAPTER 9 Communicating in Small
Groups 233
WHAT IS A SMALL GROUP? 234
Small Groups Are Distinguished
by Their Size 235
Small Groups Are Interdependent 235
Small Groups Are Cohesive 236
Small Groups Enforce Rules and
Norms 237
Small Groups Include Individual
Roles 238
Small Groups Have Their Own
Identities 239
Small Groups Have Distinctive
Communication Practices 239
Small Groups Often Interact
Online 240
FUNCTIONS OF SMALL GROUPS 241
Some Small Groups Focus on Discrete
Tasks 241
Some Small Groups Evaluate and
Advice 242
Some Small Groups Create Art and
Ideas 243
Some Small Groups Provide Service
and Support 244
Some Small Groups Promote
Social Networking 244
Some Small Groups Compete 245
Some Small Groups Help Us to Learn 245
JOINING SMALL GROUPS 246
We Join Small Groups for Many
Reasons 246
We Are Socialized into Small Groups 248
CONTENTS • ix
ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION 250
PART THREE
Communicating in Small Groups Communication in the Public
Has Advantages 250 Sphere 289
Communicating in Small Groups
Poses Challenges 251 CHAPTER 11 Choosing, Developing, and
Researching a Topic 289
BECOMING A BETTER SMALL
GROUP COMMUNICATOR 253 KNOW WHY YOU’RE SPEAKING 290
Socialize New Members We Speak to Inform 291
Constructively 253 We Speak to Persuade 291
Maintain Positive Group We Speak to Entertain 291
Relationships 255
We Speak to Introduce 292
For Review 257
We Speak to Give Honor 292
Key Terms 257
Notes 258
CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE TOPIC 294
Brainstorm to Identify Potential
CHAPTER 10 Decision Making and Topics 295
Leadership in Groups 261
Identify Topics That Are Right for You 297
GENERATING IDEAS AND Identify Topics That Are Right for Your
MAKING DECISIONS 262 Audience 298
Groups Generate Ideas through Identify Topics That Are Right for the
Various Methods 262 Occasion 298
Groups Make Decisions in Many
Ways 265 ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE 299
Cultural Context Affects Decision Consider Who Your Listeners Are 299
Making 268
Consider the Speaking Context 304

BEING A LEADER 269

KNOW WHERE TO FIND INFORMATION 306
Leaders Often Share Specific Traits 269
Websites 306
Leaders Enact Distinct Styles 271
Books 307
Periodicals and Nonprint Materials 309
EXERCISING POWER 273
Leaders Exercise Many Forms of Databases 309
Power 273 Personal Observations 310
Power Resides in Relationships, Not in Surveys 311
People 276
For Review 312
Key Terms 313
LEADERSHIP AND DECISION-MAKING
SKILLS 277 Notes 313
Manage Conflict Constructively 277
Avoid Groupthink 279
CHAPTER 12 Organizing and Finding
Support for Your Speech 315
Listen Carefully 282
For Review 285 STATE YOUR PURPOSE AND THESIS 316
Key Terms 285 Draft a Purpose Statement 316
Notes 285 Draft a Thesis Statement 318

x • CONTENTS
ORGANIZE YOUR SPEECH 320
The Introduction Tells
the Story of Your Speech 320
The Body Expresses Your Main Points 322
Transitions Help Your
Speech Flow Smoothly 326
The Conclusion Summarizes Your
Message 328
CREATE AN EFFECTIVE OUTLINE 329
Know the Three Rules of Outlining 329
Create a Working Outline 331
Convert Your Working Outline
into Speaking Notes 334
FIND SUPPORT FOR YOUR SPEECH 335
Identify Places Where You Need
Research Support 336
Determine the Type of Support You
Require 336
Know How to Evaluate Supporting
Material 337
Don’t Commit Intellectual Theft 339
For Review 342
Key Terms 343
Notes 343
CHAPTER 13 Presenting a Speech
Confidently and Competently 345
STYLES OF DELIVERING A SPEECH 346
Some Speeches Are Impromptu 346
Some Speeches Are
Extemporaneous 347
Some Speeches Are Scripted 347
Some Speeches Are Memorized 348
MANAGING PUBLIC SPEAKING ANXIETY 349
Public Speaking Anxiety
Is a Common Form of Stress 349
Public Speaking Anxiety Can Be
Debilitating 354
Making Public Speaking Anxiety
an Advantage 354
PRACTICING EFFECTIVE DELIVERY 357
Visual Elements Affect Delivery 357
Vocal Elements Affect Delivery 359
Cultural Norms Affect
Preferred Delivery Styles 362
USING PRESENTATION AIDS 362
Presentation Aids Can Enhance Your
Speech 363
Low-Tech Presentation Aids 363
Multimedia Presentation Aids 364
Choosing and Using Presentation
Aids 366
For Review 369
Key Terms 369
Notes 369
CHAPTER 14 Speaking
Informatively 373
CHOOSING A METHOD OF INFORMING 374
Informative Speeches Can Define 374
Informative Speeches Can Describe 375
Informative Speeches Can Explain 376
Informative Speeches Can Demonstrate 377
SELECTING AND FRAMING THE TOPIC 379
Select a Captivating Topic 379
Relate Yourself to Your Topic 381
Relate Your Topic to Your Audience 382
HONING YOUR INFORMATIVE-
SPEAKING SKILLS 382
Create Information Hunger 382
Be Organized 384
Make It Easy to Listen 384
Involve the Audience 385
Be Ethical 386
A SAMPLE INFORMATIVE SPEECH 388
For Review 393
Key Terms 393
Notes 393
CHAPTER 15 Speaking
Persuasively 395
THE MEANING AND ART OF PERSUASION 396
What It Means to Persuade 396
Three Forms of Rhetorical Proof 398
CONTENTS • xi
CREATING A PERSUASIVE MESSAGE 402
Types of Persuasive Propositions 402
Four Ways to Organize a Persuasive
Message 404
Avoiding Logical Fallacies 406
HONING YOUR PERSUASIVE-SPEAKING
SKILLS 408
Adapt to Your Audience 408
Build Rapport with Your Listeners 412
Establish Your Credibility 412
A SAMPLE PERSUASIVE SPEECH 415
For Review 418
Key Terms 418
Notes 418
APPENDIX Workplace Communication
and Interviewing A-1
COMMUNICATING IN THE WORKPLACE A-2
Communicating within the Workplace A-2
Communicating to External
Audiences A-3
Workplace Culture A-4
MANAGING WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION
CHALLENGES A-7
Globalization and Cross-Cultural
Challenges A-7
xii • CONTENTS
Communication Technology
Challenges A-8
Work/Life Conflict A-9
Workplace Diversity A-9
INTERVIEWING SUCCESSFULLY A-11
What Is an Interview? A-11
Types of Interviews A-11
Landing a Job Interview A-12
Succeeding in a Job Interview A-15
Identifying and Responding to Illegal
Questions A-18
For Review A-21
Key Terms A-21
Notes A-21
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
Three chapters, written by Kory Floyd for
Communication Matters, are available
exclusively through McGraw-Hill’s Create
customization site:
CHAPTER 16 Communicating in
Organizations
CHAPTER 17 Communication and Media
CHAPTER 18 Communication and Health
BOXES
Sharpen Your Skills
Communication Needs 7
Communication Rules 16
Communication Experts 18
Evaluating Competence 25
Communication Challenges 32
Co-cultural Norms 41
­Adapting to Time Management 46
Gestures 53
Limitations of Stereotypes 66
Attribution-Making 71
Your Johari Window 73
Minimizing Face Threats 82
Word Development 88
Constructive Criticism 100
Slang 103
Speaking at an Appropriate Level 108
Tone of Voice 118
Adapting Your Appearance 130
Interpreting Nonverbal Emotion Displays 135
Listening Rather than Responding 146
Visualization 148
Open-Mindedness 155
Critical Listening 162
Discouraging Cyberbullying 174
Relational Maintenance Behaviors 181
Friendship Rules 188
Communicating with a Superior 193
Relational Commitment 204
Changes in Communication 215
Family Roles 218
Dialectical Tensions 226
Online Group Communication 240
Group Functions 245
Group Conflict 253
Small Group Values 256
Brainstorming 264
Leadership Styles 273
Applying Referent Power 277
Conflict Resolution 279
Identifying Speaking Goals 292
Brainstorming Speech Topics 297
Audience Analysis 301
Informal Interviewing 312
Purpose and Thesis Statements 319
Finding and Using Statistics 321
Outlining 331
Finding Credible Websites 339
Drafting Three Speaking Points 347
Breathing to Reduce Stress 352
Improving Articulation 362
Creating Charts 366
Defining a Term in Multiple Ways 375
Generating Informative Speech Topics 381
Audience Involvement 387
Analyzing Opinion Appeals 397
Propositions of Value, Fact, and Policy 403
Establishing Common Ground 412
Workplace Rites A-5
Intercultural Communication A-7
Preparing for a Job Interview A-17
BOXES • xiii
DIFFICULT CONVERSATIONS
Dealing with an Angry Customer 26
Talking about Beliefs that Offend You 50
Disagreeing about Politics 67
Comforting a Grieving Friend 99
When You Think Someone Is Lying 120
Being Called “Closed-Minded” 156
Responding to a Friend in Need 186
Real Life and Romance: Handling Conflict
Constructively 224
Motivating Action for a Group Assignment 243
Managing High-Stakes Decisions 284
Writing a Memorable and Respectful Eulogy 293
Introducing a Sensitive Topic 323
Addressing the “Elephant in the Room” 351
Delivering Bad News 388
Making a Public Apology 414
Keeping Your Cool When Asked an Illegal
Question A-20
THE DARK SIDE OF
COMMUNICATION
Tell Me Lies: Misrepresentations in Online Dating
Profiles 20
Cultural Intolerance: Discrimination against Muslim
Americans 35
Mental Illness: Would You Tell? 79
Crossing the Line: When Criticism Becomes
Abuse 100
Hungry for Affection: The Problem of Affection
Deprivation 126
Need Someone to Listen? Just Click 164
Invasions of Privacy Online 173
When a Desire for Commitment Turns to
Obsession 203
Working at Odds: Dysfunctional Groups 237
xiv • BOXES
When Coercion Becomes Abuse 275
A Joke Gone South: Offending Your Listeners 302
Stretching the Truth: Exaggeration or
Deception? 318
Stressing Out: Public Speaking Elevates Stress
Hormone Levels 353
Listener Beware: When “Information” Becomes
Propaganda 389
Misleading to Persuade: A Threat to Credibility 415
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace A-10
FACT OR FICTION?
You Cannot Not Communicate 15
Change Is Inevitable: The United States Is Becoming
More Culturally Diverse 39
When Forming Perceptions, More Information
Is Always Better 61
Texting Reduces the Ability to Use
Language Properly 91
In the Eye of Which Beholder?—Cultures Vary Widely
in Perceptions of Beauty 123
Sex Matters: Men and Women Listen
Differently 158
When Forming Friendships, Opposites Attract 177
Still Going Nuclear: The Average American Family
Remains a Nuclear Family 219
Losing Weight Is Easier in Groups 247
Work at It: Groups Can Resolve Any Conflict if
They Try Hard Enough 280
All Information Found Online Is Equally
Valuable 308
Using Information from the Internet
Constitutes Plagiarism 342
My Slideshow Needs Bells and
Whistles—Right? 368
Show and Tell: People Learn Best by
Seeing and Hearing 378
Hooked on a Feeling: Emotion Persuades 399
THE COMPETENT
COMMUNICATOR
Are You a High Self-Monitor? 24
Who, Me? Being Aware of Ethnocentrism 51
Googling Yourself: Managing Your Online
Image 75
How Well Can You Distinguish Opinions from Factual
Claims? 107
Nonverbal Know-How: Rate Your Interpretation and
Expression Skills 136
People, Action, Content, Time: What’s Your Listening
Style? 144
What Draws You? Attraction in Your Closest
Friendship 176
So, What Do You Expect? Your Expectations for
Romantic Relationships 209
One on One: Mentoring a New Group
Member 255
Your Extroversion—High, Low, or No? 272
What Moves You? Selecting Your Speech Topic 296
Speech Preparation Checklist—Dot Your i’s and Cross
Your t’s 335
Personal Appearance Checklist 360
It’s All Relative: Framing Your Informative Topic 383
Name That Fallacy! 409
PUTTING COMMUNICATION
TO WORK
Public Information Officer for Nonprofit
Organization 22
International Student Life Coordinator, College or
University 48
Teacher, Kindergarten through Grade 12 76
Grant Writer, Nonprofit Organization 105
Overseas Teacher of English 132
Community Liaison, State or Local Legislative
Office 160
Equal Employment Opportunity Officer 193
Financial Planner 217
Jury Coordinator for Superior Court 256
Editor, Print or Online Magazine 269
Public Policy Consultant 304
Fact Checker, News Media or Publishing
Industry 340
Undergraduate Recruiting Specialist 355
Community Outreach Educator, Healthcare and
Insurance Industries 387
Sales Associate for Financial Services Firm 411
Account Manager for Telecommunications
Company A-4
BOXES • xv
 McGraw-Hill Connect: An Overview
McGraw-Hill Connect offers full-semester access to comprehensive, reliable content
and learning resources for the Introduction to Communication course. Connect’s
deep integration with most learning management systems (LMS), including
Blackboard and Desire2Learn (D2L), offers single sign-on and deep gradebook
synchronization. Data from Assignment Results reports synchronize directly with
many LMS, allowing scores to flow automatically from Connect into school-specific
grade books, if required.
The following tools and services are available as part of Connect for the
Introduction to Communication course:

Tool Instructional Content Description

SmartBook • SmartBook is an engaging and
interactive reading experience for
mastering fundamental communication
content.
• The metacognitive component
confirms learners’ understanding of
the material.
• Instructors can actively connect
SmartBook assignments and results
to higher-order classroom work and
one-on-one student conferences.
• Learners can track their own
understanding and mastery of course
concepts, and identify gaps in their
knowledge.
• Heat maps within Connect identify
topics students struggle with. The
result is a thoughtful revision based on
data and the following digital assets.
Connect • Connect Insight for Instructors is an
Insight for analytics resource that produces
Instructors quick feedback related to learner
performance and learner engagement.
• It is designed as a dashboard for
both quick check-ins and detailed
performance and engagement views.
• SmartBook is an adaptive reading experience
designed to change the way learners read
and learn. It creates a personalized reading
experience by highlighting the most impactful
concepts a student needs to learn at that
moment in time.
• SmartBook creates personalized learning
plans based on student responses to content
question probes and confidence scales,
identifying the topics learners are struggling
with and providing learning resources to
create personalized learning moments.
• SmartBook includes a variety of learning
resources tied directly to key content areas
to provide students with additional instruction
and context. This includes video and media
clips, interactive slide content, and mini-
lectures and image analyses.
• SmartBook Reports provide instructors with
data to quantify success and identify problem
areas that require addressing in and out of the
classroom.
• Learners can access their own progress and
concept mastery reports.
• Connect Insight for Instructors offers a series
of visual data displays that provide analysis on
five key insights:
–– How are my students doing?
–– How is this one student doing?
–– How is my section doing?
–– How is this assignment doing?
–– How are my assignments doing?

xvi • COMMUNICATION MATTERS

Connect • Connect Insight for Students is a
Insight for powerful data analytics tool that
Students provides at-a-glance visualizations to
help a learner understand his or her
performance on Connect assignments.
Speech • Speech Assignment (Video Submission
Assignment/ Assignment in student view) provides
Video instructors with a comprehensive and
Submission efficient way of managing in-class and
Assignment online speech assignments, including
student self-reviews, peer reviews, and
instructor grading.
Speech • Speech Preparation Tools provide
Preparation learners with additional support, such
Tools as Topic Helper, Outline Tool, and
access to third-party Internet sites like
EasyBib (for formatting citations) and
SurveyMonkey (to create audience-
analysis questionnaires and surveys).
Instructor • Instructor Reports provide data that
Reports may be useful for assessing programs
or courses as part of the accreditation
process.
Student • Student Reports allow learners to
Reports review their performance for specific
assignments or for the course.
Pre- and • Instructors can generate their own
Post-Tests pre- and post-tests from the test bank.
• Pre- and post-tests demonstrate what
learners already know before class
begins and what they have learned by
the end.
Tegrity • Tegrity allows instructors to capture
course material or lectures on video.
• Students can watch videos recorded
by their instructor and learn course
material at their own pace.
Simple LMS • Connect seamlessly integrates with
Integration every learning management system.
• Connect Insight for Students offers details on
each Connect assignment to learners. When
possible, it offers suggestions for learners on
how they can improve scores. These data can
help guide the learner to behaviors that will
lead to better scores in the future.
• The Speech Assignment tool allows
instructors to easily and efficiently set up
speech assignments for their course that can
easily be shared and repurposed, as needed,
throughout their use of Connect.
• Customizable rubrics and settings can
be saved and shared, saving time and
streamlining the speech assignment process
from creation to assessment.
• Speech Capture allows users, both students
and instructors, to view videos during the
assessment process. Feedback can be left
within a customized rubric or as time-stamped
comments within the video-playback itself.
• Speech Preparation Tools provide learners
with additional resources to help with the
preparation and outlining of speeches, as well
as with audience-analysis surveys.
• Instructors have the ability to make tools
either available or unavailable to learners.
• Connect generates a number of powerful
reports and charts that allow instructors to
quickly review the performance of a given
learner or an entire section.
• Instructors can run reports that span multiple
sections and instructors, making it an ideal
solution for individual professors, course
coordinators, and department chairs.
• Learners can keep track of their performance
and identify areas with which they struggle.
• Instructors have access to two sets of
pre- and post-tests (at two levels). Instructors
can use these tests to create a diagnostic and
post-diagnostic exam via Connect.
• Instructors can keep track of which learners
have watched the videos they post.
• Learners can watch and review lectures by
their instructor.
• Learners can search each lecture for specific
bits of information.
• Learners have automatic single sign-on.
• Connect assignment results sync to the LMS
gradebook.
COMMUNICATION MATTERS • xvii
 Instructor’s Guide to Connect for
Communication Matters
When you assign Connect, you can be confident—and have data to
demonstrate—that the learners in your courses, however diverse, are
acquiring the skills, principles, and critical processes that constitute effective
communication. This leaves you to focus on your highest course expectations.
TAILORED TO YOU. Connect offers on-demand, single sign-on access to
learners—wherever they are and whenever they have time. With a single,
one-time registration, learners receive access to McGraw-Hill’s trusted content.
Learners also have a courtesy trial period during registration.
EASY TO USE. Connect seamlessly supports all major learning management
systems with content, assignments, performance data, and LearnSmart, the
leading adaptive learning system. With these tools, you can quickly make
assignments, produce reports, focus discussions, intervene on problem topics,
and help at-risk learners—as you need to and when you need to.

Communication Matters SmartBook

A PERSONALIZED AND ADAPTIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCE WITH
SMARTBOOK. Boost learner success with McGraw-Hill’s adaptive reading and
study experience. The Communication Matters SmartBook highlights the most
impactful communication concepts the learner needs to study at that moment in
time. The learning path continuously adapts and, based on what the individual
learner knows and does not know, provides focused help through targeted
question probes and Learning Resources.
ENHANCED FOR THE NEW EDITION! With a suite of new Learning Resources
and question probes, as well as highlights of key chapter concepts, SmartBook’s
intuitive technology optimizes learner study time by creating a personalized
learning path for improved course performance and overall learner success.

SmartBook highlights the key concepts of every chapter, offering learners a high-impact
learning experience. Here, highlighted text provides an explanation of one of the functions of
communication. Highlights change color (right) when a learner has demonstrated his or her
understanding of the concept.

xviii • COMMUNICATION MATTERS

HUNDREDS OF INTERACTIVE LEARNING RESOURCES. Presented in a range
of interactive styles, Communication Matters Learning Resources support
learners who may be struggling to master, or simply wish to review, the most
important communication concepts. Designed to reinforce the most important
chapter concepts—from competent online self-disclosure and nonverbal
communication channels to detecting deceptive communication and managing
relationships—every Learning Resource is presented at the precise moment of
need. Whether a video, audio clip, or interactive mini-lesson, each of the
200-plus Learning Resource was created for the new edition and was designed
to give learners a lifelong foundation in strong communication skills.

MORE THAN 1,000 TARGETED QUESTION PROBES. Class-tested at colleges

and universities nationwide, a treasury of engaging question probes—new and
revised, more than 1,000 in all—gives learners the information on communication they
need to know, at every stage of the learning process, in order to thrive in the course.
Designed to gauge learners’ comprehension of the most important Communication
Matters chapter concepts, and presented in a variety of interactive styles to facilitate
learner engagement, targeted question probes give learners immediate feedback
on their understanding of the material. Each question probe identifies a learner’s
familiarity with the instruction and points to areas where additional review is needed.

COMMUNICATION MATTERS • xix

 RESEARCH BASED. We all communicate, all the time. Consequently, many of
us believe we’re experts, and that good communication is based on personal
instincts. Communication Matters became one of the most successful new
offerings in introductory communication because it debunks that myth,
using sound and relevant research to help students think critically about the
communication they take part in every day.
• Updated with more than 50 percent new scholarly references, the third
edition of Communication Matters continues to emphasize communication
as a discipline of study and ensures that students are exposed to the most
recent and pertinent research.
• Fact or Fiction boxes invite learners to challenge their own assumptions
about human communication, and to re-think seemingly self-evident
communication questions in light of what the scholarship reveals. New and
revised topics include how texting does (or doesn’t) affect language
(language chapter) and whether more information leads to more accurate
perceptions (perception chapter).
• Dark Side features in each chapter offer an in-depth, well-researched look
at a specific dark side topic and promote discussion of mature, effective
ways of dealing with its challenges. New topics include invasions of privacy
online (social and professional relationships chapter), affection deprivation
(nonverbal chapter), and empathic online listening sites (listening chapter).
REAL-WORLD BACKED. Communication Matters doesn’t just offer research—
it shows, clearly and consistently, why the research is important. Whether
learners are reading a chapter, responding to a question probe, or reviewing key
concepts in a Learning Resource, their every instructional moment is rooted in
the real world. McGraw-Hill research shows that high-quality examples reinforce
academic theory throughout the course. Relevant examples and practical
scenarios—reflecting interactions in school, the workplace, and beyond—
demonstrate how effective communication informs and enhances students’ lives
and careers.
• Relevant, timely chapter opening examples. In addition to fresh examples
integrated throughout, each chapter in Communication Matters opens with
a familiar and provocative example that primes learners for what’s to come.
New topics include the family/working relationship between comedian Amy
Schumer and her sister/writing partner Kim (intimate relationships chapter),
public speaking challenges faced by young Malala Yousafzai (choosing a topic)
and Pope Francis (persuasive speaking), and the unique friendship between a
rape victim and the man falsely convicted of the crime (social and professional
relationships chapter).
• EXPANDED Putting Communication to Work features. Communication
skills are at the top of the job description in a variety of careers. This
popular feature has been expanded in the new edition of Communication
Matters to offer learners a glimpse of how they can apply the skills they
learn in the intro communication course to a variety of jobs—regardless
of what they wind up majoring in. New career paths include grant writing
(language chapter), community outreach education (informative speaking),
political staffer (listening chapter), and financial planning (intimate rela-
tionships chapter).
• NEW Integrated Treatment of Computer-Mediated Communication in every
chapter. Today’s digital natives move seamlessly from face-to-face conversa-
tions to text-based chats and collaborative work spaces. Communication Matters

xx • COMMUNICATION MATTERS
 meets learners where they are, addressing the converging channels of
communication the same way, with up-to-date tech references and examples
throughout.

SKILLS FOCUSED. Communication Matters takes research and relevance a step

further, providing learners with clear takeaways that integrate into their every
day lives. In every chapter, learners are introduced to research-based strategies
for improving communication skills and applying those skills to a variety of
real-life situations, making Communication Matters a real tool for real life.
• New Difficult Conversations boxes invite students to consider specific—and
not uncommon—real-life situations that are uncomfortable or awkward, and
then provides useful strategies for managing the communication competently.
Topics include dealing with an angry customer (introductory chapter), offering
condolences (language chapter), defusing political arguments on social media
(perception chapter), writing a eulogy (developing and researching a topic), and
making a public apology (persuasive speaking chapter).
• The Competent Communicator boxes in each chapter present students with a
self-assessment of a particular communication skill or tendency. These boxes
were designed with the underlying idea that for students to improve their
communication skills and ability, they need to reflect on how they communi-
cate now. New assessments include determining whether you are a high self-
monitor (introductory chapter), Googling yourself to manage your online image
(perception chapter), and determining your level of extroversion (decision
making and leadership chapter).
• Sharpen Your Skills boxes, which appear throughout each chapter, are stand-
alone skill-builders comprising active-learning exercises that may be carried
out in a group or individually. New activities include watching and reacting
to a TED Talk (perception chapter) and examining co-cultural norms (culture
chapter).

Speech Assignment/Video Submission

Assignment
Designed for use in face-to-face, real-time classrooms, as well as online courses,
Speech Assignment (Video Submission Assignment in student view) allows you
to evaluate your learners’ speeches using fully customizable rubrics. You can
also create and manage peer review assignments and upload videos on behalf
of learners for optimal flexibility.
Learners can access rubrics and leave comments when preparing self-
reviews and peer reviews. They can easily upload a video of their speech from
their hard drive or use Connect’s built-in video recorder. Learners can even
attach and upload additional files or documents, such as a works cited page or
a PowerPoint presentation.
PEER REVIEW. Peer review assignments are easier than ever. Create and
manage peer review assignments and customize privacy settings.
SPEECH ASSESSMENT. Speech Assignment lets you customize the
assignments, including self-reviews and peer reviews. It also saves your
frequently used comments, simplifying your efforts to provide feedback.
SELF-REFLECTION. The self-review feature allows learners to revisit their own
presentations and compare their progress over time.

COMMUNICATION MATTERS • xxi

 Data Analytics
Connect Insight provides at-a-glance analysis on five key insights, available at
a moment’s notice from your tablet device. The first and only analytics tool of
its kind, Insight will tell you, in real time, how individual students or sections are
doing (or how well your assignments have been received) so that you can take
action early and keep struggling students from falling behind.

Instructors can see how many

learners have completed an
assignment, how long they spent
on the task, and how they scored.

Instructors can see, at a

glance, individual learner
performance: analytics
showing learner investment
in assignments, and success
at completing them, help
instructors identify and aid
those who are at risk.

xxii • COMMUNICATION MATTERS

Connect Reports
Instructor Reports allow instructors to quickly monitor learner activity,
making it easy to identify which learners are struggling and to provide
immediate help to ensure those learners stay enrolled in the course and
improve their performance. The Instructor Reports also highlight the concepts
and learning objectives that the class as a whole is having difficulty grasping.
This essential information lets you know exactly which areas to target for review
during your limited class time.
Some key reports include:
Progress Overview report—View learner progress for all modules, including
how long learners have spent working in the module, which modules they have
used outside of any that were assigned, and individual learner progress.
Missed Questions report—Identify specific probes, organized by chapter, that
are problematic for learners.

Most Challenging Learning Objectives report—Identify the specific topic areas

that are challenging for your learners; these reports are organized by chapter
and include specific page references. Use this information to tailor your lecture
time and assignments to cover areas that require additional remediation and
practice.
Metacognitive Skills report—View statistics showing how knowledgeable your
learners are about their own comprehension and learning.

Classroom Preparation Tools

Whether before, during, or after class, there is a suite of products designed
to help instructors plan their lessons and keep learners building upon the
foundations of the course.
Instructor’s Manual. Written and updated by the author, the Instructor’s Manual
provides a range of tools for each chapter to help structure the course and
use the Communication Matters text effectively for particular course needs—
discussion questions, assignment ideas, lecture ideas, and other resources.
Test Bank. The Test Bank offers multiple-choice questions, true/false questions,
fill-in-the-blank questions, and essay questions for each chapter.
PowerPoints for each chapter created and updated by the author.

COMMUNICATION MATTERS • xxiii

 Support to Ensure Success
Digital Success Academy—The Digital Success Academy on Connect offers
a wealth of training and course creation guidance for instructors and learners
alike. Instructor support is presented in easy-to-navigate, easy-to-complete
sections. It includes the popular Connect how-to videos, step-by-step Click-
through Guides, and First Day of Class materials that explain how to use both
the Connect platform and its course-specific tools and features. http://createwp
.customer.mheducation.com/wordpress-mu/success-academy/

Digital Success Team—The Digital Success Team is a group of specialists

dedicated to working online with instructors—one-on-one—to demonstrate how the
Connect platform works and to help incorporate Connect into a customer’s specific
course design and syllabus. Contact your digital learning consultant to learn more.
Digital Learning Consultants—Digital Learning Consultants are local resources
who work closely with your McGraw-Hill learning technology consultants. They
can provide face-to-face faculty support and training. http://shop.mheducation
.com/store/paris/user/findltr.html
Digital Faculty Consultants—Digital Faculty Consultants are experienced
instructors who use Connect in their classroom. These instructors are available to
offer suggestions, advice, and training about how best to use Connect in your class.
To request a Digital Faculty Consultant to speak with, please e-mail your McGraw-
Hill learning technology consultant. http://connect.customer.mheducation.com/dfc/
National Training Webinars—McGraw-Hill offers an ongoing series of webinars for
instructors to learn and master the Connect platform, as well as its course-specific
tools and features. We hope you will refer to our online schedule of national training
webinars and sign up to learn more about Connect! http://webinars.mhhe.com/
CONTACT OUR CUSTOMER SUPPORT TEAM
McGraw-Hill is dedicated to supporting instructors and learners. To contact
our customer support team, please call us at 800-331-5094 or visit us online at
http://mpss.mhhe.com/contact.php

xxiv • COMMUNICATION MATTERS

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes to the Third Edition:
Highlights
Communication: A First Look New discussion
of #BlackLivesMatter protests as an example of
social networking technology facilitating collective
action; new box on how to deal with an angry
customer
Communication and Culture New opening
vignette on relations between the United States
and Cuba; new box offers advice on how to talk
about beliefs that offend you
Perceiving Ourselves and Others Discussions
of perception updated throughout with fresh
examples from the news, including Kim Davis,
Rachel Dolezal, and John Travolta; new discussion
of selfies as a form of image management;
new boxes offer advice on navigating political
disagreements, managing your online image,
and putting communication skills to work as an
educator
How We Use Language Discussion of linguistic
determinism integrated and thoroughly updated
with discussion of critiques/limitations of the
theory; updated coverage of weasel words, hate
speech, and online harassment; new boxes on
careers in grant writing, the effects of texting on
language, and how to comfort a grieving friend
Communicating Nonverbally New opening
vignette on nonverbal communication as depicted
in Pixar’s Inside Out; new boxes on affection
deprivation, interacting with a person you think
may be lying, and adapting your appearance;
new examples examine workspace design, emoji,
and time spent on mobile devices as instances of
nonverbal communication
Listening Effectively New opening vignette
about veterans coping with PTSD; new boxes on
determining your listening style, how to respond
when you are called “closed minded,” putting
communication skills to work in a career as a
political staffer, and online resources devoted to
listening
Communicating in Social and Professional
Relationships New opening vignette on the
unlikely friendship between a rape victim and
the man falsely imprisoned for the crime; new
coverage of relationships and privacy in online
contexts; new box offers advice on responding to
a friend in need
Communicating in Intimate Relationships New
opening vignette on the relationship between
comedian Amy Schumer and her sister Kim;
new boxes highlight skills required for careers
in financial planning and for managing conflict
constructively in romantic relationships
Communicating in Small Groups New boxes
on motivating action for a group assignment;
new extended example examining how group
dynamics—including synergy and conflict—play
out in The Avengers films
Decision Making and Leadership in Groups New
boxes with guidance on managing high-stakes
decisions, opportunities to assess your level of
extroversion, and an exploration of careers in print
and online publishing
Choosing, Developing, and Researching a Topic
New opening vignette features Malala Yousafzai;
new box offers advice for writing a memorable
and respectful eulogy; a thoroughly revised
section on research reflects modern convergence
of information sources
Organizing and Finding Support for Your Speech
Revised treatment helps learners to distinguish
between their specific speech purpose and
their thesis, and emphasizes the thesis as a
work in progress to be continually revisited and
revised; new section, Don’t Commit Intellectual
Theft, covers copyright infringement in addition
to several forms of plagiarism; expanded table
on bibliography entries includes more citation
models, in both APA and newly revised MLA style
Presenting a Speech Confidently and
Competently New opening vignette highlights
Caitlyn Jenner’s ESPY speech; new box on how
to gracefully acknowledge uncomfortable truths
in a speech; coverage of public speaking anxiety
COMMUNICATION MATTERS • xxv
 revised with clarified explanations and discussion
of its economic costs
Speaking Informatively New boxes on careers
in community outreach and communicating
competently when delivering bad news; additional
guidance for using definitions for terms that have
multiple meanings
Speaking Persuasively New opening vignette on
Pope Francis’s address to the U.S. Congress; new
box on making a public apology
Appendix: Workplace Communication and
Interviewing Discussion of work/life balance
updated to include single-parent households
and the intrusion of work on home life via
communication technology; new box on how to
handle illegal questions in job interview
xxvi • COMMUNICATION MATTERS
CREATE YOUR OWN CUSTOMIZED
COMMUNICATION MATTERS AT
WWW.MCGRAWHILLCREATE.COM.
The following are available exclusively through
McGraw-Hill’s Create customization site:
Communication in Organizations Revised
discussion of privacy in corporations and
organizations, with updated coverage of
technology including hacking, e-commerce, and
trust markers; new boxes on careers in social
media coordination, and how to explain unpopular
business decisions
Communication and Media Thoroughly updated,
with coverage of media convergence and the
impact of podcasts, e-books, and streaming video
on traditional sound, print, and image media; new
discussions of diversity in media, and the “fear
of missing out”; new box topics include careers
in radio/podcasting and managing arguments on
social media
Communication and Health Updated coverage
of prescription drug abuse; new boxes explore
careers in social work and offer advice on how
to competently discuss a health condition with a
doctor
CONTRIBUTORS
I am very grateful to the thoughtful, astute instructors across the country who
offered insights and suggestions that improved and enhanced all three editions of
Communication Matters, Third Edition:
Bakari Akil, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Sherrill Ashely, Central Piedmont Community College
Lisa Heller Boragine, Cape Cod Community College
Sandra Brisiel, Delaware Technical Community College
Pamela Brooks, Arizona State University Polytechnic
Christy Burns, Jacksonville State University
Anna Carmon, Indiana University–Purdue University
Columbus
Natalia Cherjovsky, Kirkwood Community College
Margaret Chojnacki, Barry University
William Davis, Westchester Community College
Jenny Erikson, Normandale Community College
Jodi Gaete, Suffolk County Community College
Mattea Garcia, Indiana State University
Terri Gibson, Anderson University
Mary Gill, Buena Vista University
Charles Goehring, San Diego State University
Brent Goken, Illinois Central College
Joni Gray, Fairmont State University
Lysia Hand, Phoenix College
Chris Harper, Arkansas State University
Heather Heritage, Cedarville University
Ronald Hochstatter, McLennan Community College
Milton Hunt, Austin Community College
Mohammad Islam-Zwart, Eastern Washington University
and Spokane Falls Community College
Brent Kice, Frostburg State University
Kimberly Kline, University of Texas at San Antonio
Kurt Lindemann, San Diego State University
Kathryn Lookadoo, University of Oklahoma, Norman
Laura Marqua, Joliet Junior College
Anne McIntosh, Central Piedmont Community College
Shawn Miklaucic, Johnson C. Smith University
Steven Montemayor, Northwest Vista College
Teresa Morales, Suffolk County Community College
Thomas Morra, Northern Virginia Community College
Diane Nicodemus, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown
Liz O’Brien, Phoenix College
Laura Oliver, University of Texas at San Antonio
Susan Olson, Mesa Community College
Karen Otto, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Marcie Pachter, Palm Beach State College
Carol Paulnock, Saint Paul College
Tami Phillips, University of Central Arkansas
Whitney Pisani, Collin College
Tonia Pope, Houston Community College
Elsha Ruminski, Frostberg State University
Kevin Ryals, Mississippi State University
Shari Santoriello, Suffolk County Community College
David C. Schrader, Oklahoma State University
David K. Scott, Northeastern State University
Karen Stevens, Austin Community College
Kelly Stockstad, Austin Community College
Christy Takamure, Leeward Community College
Raymond Taylor, Blue Ridge Community College
Richard Underwood, Kirkwood Community College
Curt Van Geison, St. Charles Community College
Adam Vellone, Miami Dade College
Myra Walters, Florida SouthWestern State College
Jenny Warren, Collin College
Charlene Widener, Hutchinson Community College
Karin Wilking, Northwest Vista College
Karen Wolf, Suffolk County Community College
Arnold Wood, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Emily R. Workman, Guilford Technical Community College
David Worth, Lone Star College
CONTRIBUTORS • xxvii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Few endeavors of any significance are achieved in isolation. There are always others who help us
rise to—and exceed—our potential in nearly everything we do. I am delighted to acknowledge and
thank those whose contributions and support are responsible for the book you are now reading.
This was the second book I wrote with McGraw-Hill, and I could not ask for a better team of
­editors, managers, and publishers to work with. I am indebted to Nancy Huebner, Laura Young,
Sally Constable, Lisa Pinto, Lisa Bruflodt, David Patterson, and Mike Ryan for the consistent,
­professional support I have received from each of them. I’m also grateful for the excellent con-
tributions of Janet Byrne Smith, Samantha Donisi-Hamm, and Jennifer Shekelton to the digital
components available for the book in Connect.
Ann Kirby-Payne is a development editor par excellence. She made nearly every word of this
book more interesting, more relevant, and more compelling than it was when I wrote it. I have
been exceedingly grateful for her insights, her humor, and her patience throughout this revision
process.
Special thanks go out to the team behind the scenes who built and continue to maintain
speech assignment/video submission assignment functionality on Connect: Irina Blokh-Reznik,
Vijay Kapu, Swathi Malathi, Rishi Mehta, Bob Myers, Bhumi Patel, Dan Roenstch, Ayeesha Shaik,
Kapil Shrivastava, and Udaya Teegavarapu.
My students, colleagues, and administrators at the University of Arizona are a joy to work with
and a tremendous source of encouragement. Undertaking a project of this size can be daunting,
and it is so valuable to have a strong network of professional support on which to draw.
Finally, I am eternally grateful for the love and support of my family and my lifelong friends.
One needn’t be an expert on communication to understand how important close personal rela-
tionships are—but the more I learn about communication, the more appreciative I become of the
people who play those roles in my life. You know who you are, and I thank you from the bottom
of my heart.

xxviii • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
COMMUNICATION
MATTERS
1

© Associated Press/AP Wide World

 COMMUNICATION:
A FIRST LOOK
What We Have Here
Is a Failure to Adapt
Comedian Kathy Griffin is known for pushing boundaries.
She frequently uses coarse language and off-color jokes in her stand-
up routines, and she often seems unafraid—if not genuinely eager—to
make her listeners uncomfortable. Griffin’s irreverent style of humor
has made her famous . . . but when she takes it too far, it also gets her
in trouble. Such was the case when she performed at the famed Apollo
Theater in Harlem as a guest of Rev. Al Sharpton. Although her audi-
ence comprised both adults and children of various ethnicities, ­Griffin
began her performance with adult language and sexually explicit
humor. Within minutes, the audience booed her off the stage, and she
has since been banned from the Apollo for life. Griffin’s supporters
said she was simply performing the type of comedy for which she is
known. Critics noted, however, that she should have been more aware
of who her audience was. Had she thought more about her ­listeners—
and adapted her communication style to them—she may well have
avoided such an embarrassing incident.

As You READ
• What needs does communication help us meet?
• How does communication work, and what misconceptions do we have about it?
• What particular skills characterize competent communicators?

• adapt To modify one’s
behavior to accommodate
what others are doing.
• communication The
process by which people
use signs, symbols, and
behaviors to exchange
information and create
meaning.
© Andrew Burton/Getty Images
4 • PART I COMMUNICATION IN PRINCIPLE
Why We Communicate
Just as Kathy Griffin seeks to entertain people by communicating humor, we com-
municate with others to affect several dimensions of our lives. For example, we com-
municate to form personal relationships, to maintain them, and to end them. We
communicate to order dinner at a restaurant, negotiate a car loan, and buy music
online. Through communication behaviors, teachers instruct us, advertisers persuade
us, and actors entertain us. In truth, very little about our lives isn’t influenced by the
way we communicate.
Because communication affects so many aspects of our existence, learning how to
communicate effectively helps improve our lives in multiple ways. As you will see,
effective communication depends not only on having the right message but also on
shaping that message to meet the needs of your audience. Griffin’s example illustrates
the negative outcomes of failing to adapt a message for listeners. To adapt means to
modify your behavior to accommodate what others are doing. This course will help
you develop the tools you need to understand the communication process and the
skills you need to adapt your communication behavior to others.
Communication is the process by which we use signs, symbols, and behaviors to
exchange information and create meaning.1 Digital technologies such as Twitter give
us unprecedented communication abilities. In early 2015, for example, thousands
marched the streets of Baltimore, Maryland, to protest police actions they blamed for
the death of 25-year-old Freddie Gray, who lost his life from injuries sustained while
he was in police custody. In the aftermath, protesters and police officers alike used
Twitter to shape public perception. The Baltimore Police Department appealed to its
113,000 followers to remain peaceful and to
ensure the safety of their children. Likewise,
protesters tweeted that the police were exag-
gerating the level of public threat by blaming
rioters for inciting violence. With a 24-hour
period in April 2015, the hashtag #Balti-
moreUprising, which contained information
about protests and community resources for
those involved, received more than 9,600
Twitter mentions.2
Never before has it been so easy to com-
municate with others—but what draws us to
do so? Why do we communicate? As you will
see in this section, communication is vital to
many different aspects of life, from meeting
physical and practical needs, to experiencing
relationships, spirituality, and identity.
COMMUNICATION ADDRESSES PHYSICAL NEEDS
We humans are such social beings that when we are denied the opportunity for inter-
action, our mental and physical health can suffer. That is a major reason why solitary
confinement is considered such a harsh punishment. Several studies have shown that
when people are prevented from having contact with others for an extended period,
their health can quickly deteriorate.3 Similarly, individuals who feel socially isolated
because of poverty, homelessness, mental illness, or other stigmatizing situations can
suffer emotional distress and even physical pain owing to their lack of interaction
with others.4
We literally cannot survive without human communication, as shown in a bizarre
experiment in the thirteenth century. Frederick II, emperor of Germany, wanted to
know what language humans would speak naturally if they weren’t taught any partic-
ular one. To find out, he placed 50 newborns in the care of nurses who were instructed
only to feed and bathe the babies, but not to speak to or hold them. The emperor
never discovered the answer to his question because all the infants died.5 Frederick’s
experiment was clearly unethical by modern standards, meaning that it did not fol-
low established guidelines for right and wrong. Such an experiment would not be
repeated today. However, more recent studies in orphanages and adoption centers,
conducted in an ethical manner, have convincingly shown that human interaction—
especially touch—is critical for infants’ survival and healthy development.6
Positive social interaction keeps adults healthy, too. Research shows that people
without strong social ties, such as close friendships and family relationships, are more
likely to suffer major ailments (such as heart disease and high blood pressure) and to
die prematurely than are people who have close, satisfying relationships.7 They are
also more likely to suffer basic ailments, such as colds, and they often take longer to
recover from illnesses and injuries.8 Although we can’t say for sure why social interac-
tion and health are related, it is clear that communication plays an important role in
keeping us healthy, both physically and mentally.

COMMUNICATION MEETS RELATIONAL NEEDS

Besides our physical needs, each of us also has relational needs—the essential elements • relational needs The
we look for in our relationships with other people. As communication scholar Rebecca essential elements people
Rubin and her colleagues have found, relational needs include companionship, affec- seek in their relationships
tion, and the ability to relax and get away from our problems.9 We don’t necessar- with others.
ily have the same needs in all our relationships—you probably value your friends for
somewhat different reasons than you value your relatives, for instance. The bottom
line, though, is that we need relationships in our lives, and communication is a large
part of how we establish and maintain these relationships.10
Many features of our day-to-day lives are designed to promote the development
of human relationships. Neighborhoods, schools, workplaces, malls, theaters, and
restaurants are all social settings in which we regularly interact with others in some
way. Technology is also an avenue for promoting our relationships. Smart phones let
us call or exchange text messages with virtually anyone at the touch of a button. The
Internet offers multiple ways of connecting with others, and many people have met
new friends or romantic partners online.11 Table 1 provides an idea of how much Communication tech-
of our lives are spent communicating in electronically mediated ways. Just imagine nology connects us in
how challenging it would be to form and maintain strong social relationships if you unprecedented ways.
did not have the ability to communicate with others. The lack of communication Social networking sites
and chat apps make it
opportunity is a common experience for many immigrants, who often struggle to
easy for us to maintain
adapt to their new culture and to learn its language—and who may feel lonely or
close relationships, regard-
ignored in the process.12 less of physical distance.
Some scholars believe our need for relationships is so fundamental that we can
© Fancy Photography/
hardly get by without them.13 For example, research has shown that having an active Veer RF
social life is one of the most powerful
predictors of a person’s overall happi-
ness.14 In fact, the single most impor-
tant predictor of happiness in life—by
far—is the degree to which an indi-
vidual has a happy marriage.15 ­Marital
happiness is more important than
income, job status, education, leisure
time, or anything else in accounting
for how happy people are with their
lives. On the negative side, people in
distressed marriages are much more
likely to suffer from major depression,
and they even report being in worse
physical health than their happily mar-
ried counterparts.16
The cause-and-effect relationship
between marriage and happiness isn’t
a simple one. It may be that strong

CHAPTER 1   Communication: A First Look • 5

 TABLE 1 1.7 Average number of e-mail accounts per U.S. e-mail user
COMMUNICATING 23 Percentage of Facebook users who check their account five or more times per day
ELECTRONICALLY
87 Percentage of U.S. teenagers who sleep with, or next to, their cell phone

350 Number of friends the average Facebook user has

4,900,000 Number of Skype users per day

63,800,000 Number of users following Katy Perry (@katyperry), the most followed account
on Twitter

106,200,000 Number of .com domain names

196,400,000,000 Average number of e-mail messages sent worldwide per day

Take note of how you compare to these averages. Do you have more e-mail accounts or
HOW DO YOU Facebook friends than average, or fewer? Do you sleep next to your cell phone? Are you
COMPARE?
an average communicator in these ways, or do you differ from the averages?

SOURCES: Radicati Group; Consulting Media; Pew Research Center; Edison Research; Digital Marketing Research; Verisign; Sourcedigit.
com. Statistics are from October 2015.

marriages promote happiness and well-being, or it may be that happy, healthy people
are more likely than others to be happily married. Whatever the reason, personal rela-
tionships clearly play an important role in our lives, and communication helps us form
and maintain them.

COMMUNICATION FILLS IDENTITY NEEDS

Research indicates that
the strongest predictor
of happiness in life is
the degree to which an
individual has a happy
marriage.
© Purestock/Alamy RF
Are you curious? Laid-back? Caring? Impatient? Each of us can probably come up with
a long list of adjectives to describe ourselves, but here’s the critical question: How do
you know you are those things? In other words, how do you form an identity?
The ways we communicate with others—and the ways others communicate with
us—play a major role in shaping how we see ourselves.17 As we’ll consider in the
chapter on perceiving ourselves and others, people form their identities partly by
comparing themselves to others. If you consider yourself intelligent, for instance,
what that really means is that you
see yourself as more intelligent than
most other people. If you think
you’re shy, you see most other peo-
ple as more outgoing than you are.
One way we learn how we com-
pare to others is by communicating
with those around us. If people treat
you as intelligent or shy, you may
begin to believe that you have those
characteristics. In other words, those
qualities will become part of your
self-image. As you will see in the
perceiving chapter, identity develops
over the course of life, and communi-
cation plays a critical role in driving
that process. Good communicators
also have the ability to emphasize
different aspects of their identities

6 • PART I COMMUNICATION IN PRINCIPLE

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN