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The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in
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Brief
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xxi
About the Authors xxiii
Section 1 Section 4
Early Intervention and Public Policy Implementing Inclusive Early Childhood
Programs
Chapter 1 An Inclusive Approach to Early Education 3
Chapter 2 Federal Legislation: Early Intervention Chapter 12 The Developmental-Behavioral
and Prevention 29 Approach 305
Chapter 3 Inclusive Programs for Young Children 55 Chapter 13 Arranging the Learning Environment 329
Chapter 14 Facilitating Self-Care, Adaptive,
Section 1 Wrap Up Early Intervention
and Independence Skills 361
& Public Policy 75
Chapter 15 Facilitating Social Development 383
Chapter 16 Facilitating Speech, Language,
Section 2 and Communication Skills 413
Likenesses and Differences among Children Chapter 17 Facilitating Pre-Academic
and Cognitive Learning 441
Chapter 18 Managing Challenging Behaviors 473
Chapter 4 Normal and Exceptional Development 79
Chapter 19 Planning Transitions to Support Inclusion 503
Chapter 5 Developmental Disabilities: Causes
and Classifications 97 Section 4 Wrap Up Implementing Inclusive Early
Chapter 6 Sensory Impairments: Hearing and Vision 119 Childhood Programs 524
Chapter 7 Physical Disabilities and Health Problems 143 APPENDIX A Culminating Activities 530
Chapter 8 Learning and Behavior Disorders 173 APPENDIX B Skill Profile (0–72 Months) 533
APPENDIX C Resources for Teachers and Parents 536
Section 2 Wrap Up Likenesses and Differences
APPENDIX D Early Learning and Developmental Diversity 538
among Children 206
APPENDIX E Sample IFSP Form 543
Glossary 547
Section 3 References 557
Planning for Inclusion Index 577
Chapter 9 Partnership with Families 215

Chapter 10 Assessment and the IFSP/IEP Process 245
Chapter 11 Characteristics of Effective Teachers
in Inclusive Programs 281
Section 3 Wrap Up Planning for Inclusion 301
v
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Contents
Preface xv 1-5c Benefits for Families 21

Acknowledgments xxi 1-5d Benefits for Society 21
About the Authors xxiii 1-6 Concerns and Challenges of Inclusion 21

1-6a Will Special Needs Be Served? 22
Case Study How Much to Share? 22
1-6b Concerns about Inappropriate Behaviors 23
1-6c Will Children with Special Needs Be
Teased? 23
Section 1 1-6d A Final Word about Inclusion 24
Early Intervention and Public Policy Summary 25
Key Terms 25
Chapter 1 An Inclusive Approach to Student Activities 26
Review Questions 26
Early Education 3 Helpful Websites 27
1-1 Inclusion Defined 5
TeachSource Digital Download The Division for Early Chapter 2 Federal Legislation:
Childhood and the National Association for the Education Early Intervention and Prevention 29
of Young Children Joint Position Statement on Early Child-
hood Inclusion 7 2-1 The Early Intervention Movement 30
2-1a Environment and Experience 30
1-2 Historical Perspective of Inclusion 8 2-1b Civil Rights 31
1-2a Early Attitudes 8
2-2 Landmark Legislation and People
1-3 Rationale for Inclusive Early Education 9 with Disabilities 32
1-3a The Ethical Issue 9 2-2a University Affiliated Facilities
1-3b The Socialization Issue 9 (PL 88-164) 33
1-3c Developmental Issues 10 2-2b Handicapped Children’s Early Education
TeachSource Digital Download Basic Developmental Assistance Act (PL 90-538) 34
Skills 11 2-2c Head Start Act 34
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice 2-2d Developmental Disabilities Act (DDA)
to Brain Research The Importance of Relationships 13 (PL 106-402) 35
1-3d The Cost Issue 15 2-2e Education for All Handicapped Children Act
1-4 Supporting Inclusion: Implications (PL 94-142) 35
for Teachers 16 2-2f Education of the Handicapped Amendments
(PL 99-457) 37
TeachSource Digital Download Teachers’ Responsibilities
2-2g Latest Updates on IDEIA 39
for Effective Inclusion 16
Case Study Helping an At-Risk Child 40
TeachSource Video Connections Bobby: Serving
2-2h Americans with Disabilities Act
a Student with Special Needs in an Inclusive Elementary
(PL 101-336) 40
Classroom 17
2-2i Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act 41
1-4a Structuring Child-to-Child Interactions 17
1-4b Planning Activities 18 2-3 No Child Left Behind 41
1-4c Professional Collaboration 18 2-3a Assessment of Children with Disabilities 43
2-3b Concerns about NCLB Lead to Changes 43
1-5 Benefits of Inclusion 19 TeachSource Video Connections No Child
1-5a Benefits for Children with Disabilities 19
Left Behind 43
1-5b Benefits for Typically Developing
Children 19 2-4 Inclusion and Case Law 44
vi
2-4a Sacramento Unified School District v. Holland 3-6b Teaching to Enhance Development
(1992) 44 and Learning 71
2-4b Oberti v. Board of Education of Clementon 3-6c Constructing an Appropriate Curriculum 71
School District (1993) 45 3-6d Integrated Curriculum 71
3-6e Guidance of Social-Emotional Development 71
2-5 Public Policy and the Gifted 45
3-6f Assessing Learning and Development 72
2-6 Prevention 47 3-6g Reciprocal Relationships with Parents 72
2-6a The Timing of Prevention 47
Summary 73
2-6b Prevention of Secondary Disabilities 48
Key Terms 73
2-6c Prevention and Federal Legislation 49
Student Activities 73
Summary 51 Review Questions 74
Key Terms 52 Helpful Websites 74
SECTION 1 WRAP UP Early Intervention &
Review Questions 52
Helpful Websites 53 Public Policy 75
What Is a Team? 75
Special Focus: A Preschool Teacher’s Thoughts 76
Chapter 3 Inclusive Programs for Young
Children 55
3-1 Types of Inclusive Early Childhood Programs 56
TeachSource Video Connections Quality of Childcare 57 Section 2
3-1a Child Care Programs 57 Likenesses and Differences among
3-1b Preschools 58
3-1c Head Start 59 Children
3-1d School-Age Children 59
3-1e Recreation Programs 59 Chapter 4 Normal and Exceptional
3-2 System of Supports and Services 60 Development 79
3-3 Recommended Practices for Programs 60 4-1 What Is Normal, or Typical, Development? 81
3-3a Research-Based or Value-Based Practices 60 4-1a Developmental Sequences 81
3-3b Family-Centered Practices 61 4-1b Developmental Milestones 82
3-3c Multicultural Practices 61 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
3-3d Cross-Disciplinary Practices 61 Brain Research Experiences and Brain Development 83
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Aspects TeachSource Video Connections Language Development
of Culturally Competent Early Childhood Programs 61 for Early Childhood, from 2–5 84
3-3e Developmentally/Chronologically Case Study Why are they so restless? 86
Age-Appropriate Practices 62
4-2 What Is Atypical or Exceptional Development? 86
3-3f Normalized Practices 62
4-2a Developmental Disabilities and Delays 88
3-4 Inclusive Programs for Children from Birth 4-3 Children at Developmental Risk 88
to Age Two 63 4-3a Children with Special Gifts and Talents 89
3-4a Relationships among Caregivers and Children 63 Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Gifted
3-4b Environment and Experiences 63 Minority-Language Children 91
3-4c Equipment 64
TeachSource Digital Download Appropriate Toys Summary 93
for Very Young Children 65 Key Terms 93
3-4d Health, Safety, and Nutrition 65 Student Activities 94
3-4e Reciprocal Relationships with Families 66 Review Questions 94
Additional Resources/Readings 94
3-5 Inclusive Programs for Children Ages Three Helpful Websites 95
to Five 67
3-5a Creating a Caring Community of Learners 67
3-5b Teaching to Enhance Development
Chapter 5 Developmental Disabilities:
and Learning 67 Causes and Classifications 97
Case Study A caring community of learners 67 5-1 Causes of Developmental Differences 99
3-5c Constructing an Appropriate Curriculum 68 5-1a Biological Factors 99
3-5d Assessing Children’s Learning TeachSource Digital Download Typical Fetal
and Development 69 Development 100
3-5e Reciprocal Relationships with Parents 70 5-1b Abnormal Gene Disorders 102
3-6 Inclusive Programs for Children Ages 5-1c Prenatal Infections and Intoxicants 103
Six to Eight 70 5-1d Birth Complications 104
3-6a Creating a Caring Community of Learners 70 5-1e Complications Following Birth 105
5-1f Poverty 106
CONTENTS vii
5-2 Classifications of Developmental Disabilities 108 7-2a Team Efforts 149
Case Study Jodie revisited 109 7-2b Adaptive Equipment 150
5-2a Categories of Disability under the IDEIA 109 7-2c Adapting Materials 151
TeachSource Digital Download Specific Disability Terms TeachSource Digital Download Classroom and Material
from the IDEIA Regulations 109 Adaptation 153
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections 7-2d Adaptations in the Classroom 155
Disproportionality in Special Education 111 Case Study Helping Clarissa 156
TeachSource Video Connections Kristina: Modifications for 7-3 Health Problems 156
a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Student in an Inclusive 7-3a Asthma 156
Elementary Classroom 112 7-3b Cystic Fibrosis 157
5-2b A Final Thought on Categories 115 7-3c Hemophilia 157
Summary 116 7-3d Leukemia 158
Key Terms 116 7-3e Sickle-Cell Anemia 158
Student Activities 116 7-3f Heart Problems 159
Review Questions 117 7-3g Diabetes 159
Helpful Websites 117 7-3h Seizure Disorders 160
7-3i AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Chapter 6 Sensory Impairments: Syndrome) 162
7-3j Obesity (Overweight) 162
Hearing and Vision 119 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
6-1 Deafness and Hearing Loss 121 Brain Research Recess and Brain Development 163
6-1a Types of Hearing Loss 121 7-3k Undernourishment 165
6-1b Warning Signs of Hearing Loss 122 7-3l Schools Play a Critical Role 165
TeachSource Digital Download Possible Signs of TeachSource Video Connections Childhood Obesity
a Hearing Impairment 123 and School Nutritions 165
6-1c The Impact of Hearing Loss 7-4 Health Problems and Classroom Practices 167
on Development 123 7-4a Health Records 167
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Bilingual 7-4b Administering Medication 167
Education 126 7-4c Emergency Considerations 168
6-1d Early Intervention 126 7-4d Confidentiality 168
6-1e Guidelines for Teachers 126
Summary 169
6-1f Assistive Technology 128
Key Terms 169
Case Study Helping a new student 128
6-2 Blindness and Vision Impairments 129 Review Questions 170
6-2a Types of Vision Problems 130 Additional Resources/Readings 170
6-2b Identifying Vision Problems 131 Helpful Websites 171
6-2c The Impact of Vision Problems on
Development 133 Chapter 8 Learning and Behavior
6-2d Early Intervention Programs 135
6-2e Teaching Children with Vision Loss 136 Disorders 173
Summary 138 8-1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Key Terms 138 (ADHD) 174
Student Activities 139 8-1a History of ADHD 175
Review Questions 139 8-1b Current Attempts at Defining ADHD 175
Additional Resources/Readings 140 8-1c Causes and Prevalence of ADHD 176
Helpful Websites 141 8-1d Intervention Strategies 176
8-2 Learning Disabilities 179
Chapter 7 Physical Disabilities and 8-2a Learning Disabilities Defined 180
Health Problems 143 TeachSource Digital Download Risk Indicators for
Learning Disabilities 181
7-1 Physical Disabilities 145 8-2b Risk Indicators 182
7-1a Cerebral Palsy 145 8-2c Response to Intervention (RTI) 186
7-1b Hypotonicity 146 TeachSource Video Connections Autism Therapy
7-1c Spinal Cord Injuries 147 and Insurance 186
7-1d Muscular Dystrophy 148 TeachSource Digital Download The Response to
7-1e Hip Dysplasia 148 Intervention Model 187
7-1f Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis 148 8-2d Program Considerations 187
TeachSource Video Connections Including Children
8-3 Behavior Disorders 189
with Physical Disabilities: Best Practices 148
8-3a Definitional Issues 189
7-2 Program Implications 149 8-3b Prevalence 189
viii CONTENTS
8-3c Depression 190 9-5e Photos and Videos 236
8-3d Anxiety 190 9-5f Class Websites and E-mail Updates 236
9-5g Newsletters 236
8-4 Autism Spectrum Disorder 191
9-5h Parent and Teacher Meetings 237
8-4a Prevalence 192
TeachSource Video Connections Communicating with
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Lower Rates
Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood
of Autism in Hispanic Children? 193
Setting 238
8-4b Advances in Autism Research 194
9-5i Parent Support Groups 239
8-4c Problems that May Accompany ASD 194
9-5j Parent Feedback 239
8-4d Other Forms of Autism Spectrum Disorder 195
9-5k Home Visits 240
Case Study A new student 195
8-4e Intervention 196 Summary 241
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to Key Terms 241
Brain Research Early Intervention Model Helps Normalize Student Activities 242
Brain Activity in Children with Autism 198 Review Questions 242
8-5 Eating and Elimination Disorders 200 Helpful Websites 243
8-5a Pica 200
8-5b Soiling and Wetting 201
A Final But Important Note 202 Chapter 10 Assessment and the IFSP/IEP
Summary 203 Process 245
Key Terms 203 10-1 Assessment of Young Children 246
Student Activities 203 10-1a Criterion-Referenced Assessment 247
Review Questions 204 10-1b Norm-Referenced Assessments 247
Helpful Websites 204 10-1c IQ Tests 248
SECTION 2 WRAP UP Likenesses and Differences 10-2 The Process of Early Identification 248
among Children 206 10-2a Case Finding 248
Special Focus: Inclusion Experience At JCC—A Parent’s 10-2b Screening 250
Perspective 206
10-3 The Family’s Role in Assessment 252
Inclusion Experience: Updated for Second Grade 208
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Avoiding
Inclusion Experience Updated for Fifth Grade 209
Cultural Bias during the Assessment Process 253
10-4 Teachers’ Role in Early Identification 254
10-4a Teachers’ Qualifications 254
10-4b Types of Observations 255
Section 3 TeachSource Digital Download Teacher Observation
Planning for Inclusion Form and Checklist for Children 3–5 Years 256
TeachSource Video Connections Progress Monitoring: Using
Chapter 9 Partnership with Families 215 Transitional Time in an Early Childhood Classroom 259
TeachSource Digital Download Guidelines for
9-1 Historical Perspectives on Family Involvement 217 Teacher Observations 260
9-2 Family Uniqueness? 218 TeachSource Digital Download Time Sampling of
9-2a What Is a Family? 218 Free-Play Activities 262
9-2b Families of Children with Disabilities 220 TeachSource Digital Download Teacher’s Dos
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Cultural and Don’ts 264
Self-Awareness and Cultural Competence 221 10-4c Some Cautionary Notes for Teachers 264
9-2c Family Adjustment 222 10-5 Individualized Family Service Plan 264
9-3 Family-Centered Practice 224 10-5a IFSP Requirements 265
9-4 Parent Participation 227 10-6 Individualized Education Program (IEP) 269
9-4a Rationale for Parent Participation 228 10-6a The IEP Team 269
9-4b Degree of Participation 228 10-6b Requirements of the IEP 270
9-4c Types of Parent Participation 229 Case Study An IEP dilemma 274
TeachSource Digital Download Sample Form for Parent 10-7 504 Plans 275
Observation 230 10-7a Requirements of the 504 Plan 275
9-4d Establishing Trust 231 TeachSource Digital Download Comparative Table for
9-5 Communicating with Parents 232 IFSP, IEP, and 504 Plans 276
9-5a Informal Exchanges 232 Summary 277
9-5b Telephone Calls 233 Key Terms 277
Case Study Sofia’s mom 233 Student Activities 278
9-5c Written Notes, Including E-mails 234 Review Questions 278
9-5d Texts 235 Helpful Websites 279
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 11 Characteristics of Effective Case Study Marie’s behavior 314
TeachSource Digital Download Examples of
Teachers in Inclusive Programs 281 Incompatible Behaviors 315
11-1 Teachers As Members of a Team 282 12-3 Punishment 316
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Preparing 12-3a Side Effects of Punishment 316
Teachers to Work with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 12-3b Discipline versus Punishment 317
Children 283
11-1a Teachers’ Concerns 284 12-4 Step-By-Step Learning 319
11-1b Supplemental Professional Development 285 12-4a Observation and Task Analysis 319
11-1c Teacher and Program Self-evaluation 286 TeachSource Digital Download Blank Task Analysis
Data Sheet 320
11-2 The Applied Developmental Approach 286 12-4b Prompting, Fading, and Cueing 321
11-2a A Child Is a Child 286 12-4c Amount and Timing of Reinforcement 322
11-2b Review of Developmental Principles 287 12-4d Praise 322
11-2c Teachable Moments 289 12-4e Shaping 323
11-2d Milieu Teaching 290
12-5 Learning By Imitation 323
11-3 Characteristics of Effective Teachers 291 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
TeachSource Digital Download Characteristics of Brain Research Imitation and Mirror Neurons 324
Effective Teachers 291 12-5a Competition Is Inappropriate 324
11-3a Enthusiasm 292
11-3b Sense of Humor 292 Summary 325
11-3c Patience 292 Key Terms 326
11-3d Consistency 292 Student Activities 326
11-3e Flexibility 293 Review Questions 326
TeachSource Video Connections Teaching as a Profession: Additional Resources/Readings 326
An Early Childhood Teacher’s Responsibilities and Helpful Websites 327
Development 294
11-3f Trustworthiness 294 Chapter 13 Arranging the Learning
11-3g Provides Limits 294
11-3h Facilitates Experiences 295
Environment 329
Case Study One preschool teacher’s inclusion experience 296 13-1 The Inclusive Classroom Environment 330
11-3i The Teacher as Mediator 297
13-2 Preventive Discipline 331
Summary 298
Key Terms 299 13-3 Arrangements for Learning 332
Student Activities 299 13-3a Types of Learning 333
Review Questions 299 Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections
Additional Resources/Readings 300 Individualism versus Collectivism—What a Teacher
Helpful Websites 300 Learned 337
Section 3 Wrap Up Planning for Inclusion 301 13-4 Planning Early Learning Environments 339
Special Focus: Creating a Community of Caring 13-4a Safety 339
Learners 301 13-4b Visibility 342
13-4c Matching Children and Equipment 343
13-4d Ease of Movement 344
13-4e Promoting Independence 344
Section 4 TeachSource Video Connections Preschool: Appropriate
Implementing Inclusive Early Learning Environments and Room Arrangements 344
13-4f Teachers’ Availability 345
Childhood Programs 13-4g Offering Choice 345
13-4h Novelty versus Familiarity 345
Chapter 12 The Developmental- Case Study Preventive discipline in action 346
Behavioral Approach 305 13-4i Structured Flexibility 346
12-1 Developmental and Behavioral Principles: 13-5 Scheduling 347

13-5a Principles Related to Scheduling 347
A Blend 306
13-5b Application of Scheduling Principles 349
12-1a Historical Influences 307
13-5c Sample Daily Schedule 349
12-2 Behavior Principles and Practices 308 TeachSource Video Connections Daily Schedules and
12-2a Every Child Can Learn 309 Program Planning 350
12-2b Reinforcement Procedures 310 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to
TeachSource Video Connections Guidance for Young Brain Research Recess and Brain Development 352
Children: Teacher Techniques for Encouraging Positive 13-5d Learning Goals Schedule and Embedded
Social Behaviors 312 Learning Opportunities 353
12-2c Withdrawing or Withholding Reinforcers 313 13-5e Teacher Schedules 354
x CONTENTS
13-6 Transitions 355 15-3a Temperament and Emotions 387
13-6a Procedures 355 15-3b Social Reinforcement 388
13-6b Considerations for Infants and Toddlers 356 15-3c Impact of Developmental Problems 389
13-6c Considerations for Early Elementary Years 357 15-3d Social Skills in Sequence 391
Summary 358 15-4 The Role of Early Learning Programs 392
Key Terms 358 15-4a Play 394
Student Activities 358 TeachSource Video Connections Young Children’s Stages
Review Questions 359 of Play: An Illustrated Guide 395
Additional Resources/Readings 359 15-4b Incidental Social Learning 398
Helpful Websites 359 15-4c Imitation and Modeling 402
15-5 Teacher-Structured Peer Interactions 402
Chapter 14 Facilitating Self-Care, 15-5a Peer Tutoring and Peer Mediating 403
Adaptive, and Independence Skills 361 Case Study Extra practice 404
15-5b Additional Ways Teachers Can Structure
14-1 Self-Care Skills and the Curriculum 363 and Facilitate Learning 404
14-1a Assessment 363 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
TeachSource Digital Download Examples of Self-Care to Brain Research Cognitive, Emotional, and Social
Skills for Various Age Groups 364 Capacities 406
14-1b Embedding Self-Care Learning 365
14-1c Individualizing Self-Care Programs 365 15-6 When More Intervention Is Needed 406
TeachSource Digital Download A List of Critical Social
14-2 When and How to Teach Self-Care Skills 367 Skills Required to Succeed in a Classroom Setting 407
14-2a Let the Child Do It 367 15-6a One-to-One Shadowing 408
14-2b How Much Assistance? 368
Summary 409
14-2c When to Help 369
Key Terms 409
Case Study Too much help 371
14-2d Game-Like Assistance 371
Review Questions 410
14-3 A Systematic Approach to Teaching Additional Resources/Readings 410
Self-Care 373 Helpful Websites 411
14-3a Specifying a Goal for Learning 373
14-3b Breaking the Skill into Small Steps 374 Chapter 16 Facilitating Speech,
14-3c Using a Systematic Teaching Approach 374
14-3d Using Data to Evaluate Progress 375 Language, and Communication Skills 413
14-3e Modifying the Teaching as Needed 375 16-1 Defining Speech, Language,
TeachSource Video Connections Preschool Health and Communication Skills 414
and Nutrition 375
TeachSource Digital Download Classroom Toileting 16-2 Language Acquisition 415
Data Sheet 376 16-2a Environmental Perspective 415
16-2b Innateness Perspective 416
14-4 Snack Time: An Opportunity to Teach so
Many Skills 377 16-3 Sequences in Language Acquisition 417
16-3a Pre-Linguistic Communication 417
14-5 Maturation and Learning: Toilet Training as 16-3b First Words and Sentences 418
an Example 378 TeachSource Digital Download Sequences in Language
14-5a Toilet-Training Programs 378 Acquisition 419
14-5b Special Considerations 378 16-3c Early Sentences 420
TeachSource Digital Download Toileting 16-3d Language Complexity 421
Sequence 379
16-4 Alternative Language Systems 422
Summary 380 16-4a Nonverbal Communication 423
Key Terms 380 16-4b Augmentative and Alternative Communication
Student Activities 380 Systems 423
Review Questions 380 Case Study Communicating with Tommy 424
Additional Resources/Readings 381 TeachSource Video Connections Assistive Technology in
Helpful Websites 381 the Inclusive Classroom: Best Practice 425
TeachSource Video Connections Tyler: Augmentative
Communication Techniques for a Kindergarten Student
Chapter 15 Facilitating Social
with Autism and Language Issues 425
Development 383
16-5 The Naturalistic Language-Learning
15-1 Social Skills and Overall Development 385 Environment 426
15-2 Defining Appropriate Social Skills 386 16-5a Arranging a Language-Learning
Environment 426
15-3 Acquiring Social Skills 387 16-5b Direct Assistance 428
CONTENTS xi
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to Summary 469
Brain Research Parent’s Use of Technology and Its Impact Key Terms 469
on Their Child’s Development 430 Student Activities 470
Review Questions 470
16-6 Speech Irregularities 430
16-6a Articulation Errors 431
Helpful Websites 471
16-6b Lisping 431
16-6c Dysfluency 431
TeachSource Digital Download How to Keep Common
Speech Irregularities from Becoming Major Problems 432
16-6d Referral 433 Chapter 18 Managing Challenging
16-6e Intervention 433 Behaviors 473
16-7 English language learners (ELL) 434 18-1 When Is a Behavior a Problem? 474
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections What 18-1a Temperament 475
Is the Most Effective Method for Improving ELL 18-1b How Much Is Too Much? 475
Achievement? 435
Linguistic and Cultural Diversity Connections Total
18-2 A Tiered Framework for Intervention 476
TeachSource Video Connections Emotional
Physical Response (TPR) 437
Development 477
Summary 437 18-2a Designing Interventions 478
Key Terms 438
Student Activities 438 18-3 A Functional Approach to Managing Problem
Review Questions 438 Behaviors 478
Helpful Websites 439 TeachSource Digital Download A Functional Approach
to Managing Problem Behaviors 479
18-3a 1. Identify the Problem Situation 479
Chapter 17 Facilitating Pre-Academic 18-3b 2. Assess the Child and the
and Cognitive Learning 441 Environment 479
18-3c 3. Specify an Objective for the
17-1 Cognitive Development and
Intervention 480
Emerging Literacy 442 18-3d 4. Assess the Function of the Behavior 480
17-1a Defining Pre-Academics 442
18-3e 5. Identify a Replacement Behavior 480
17-2 What Brain Research Tells Us 444 18-3f 6. Plan the Intervention 481
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice to 18-3g 7. Implement the Plan and Ensure that It Is
Brain Research Learning and the Brain 445 Carried Out as Planned 481
17-3 Banning Academics: ILL-Advised? 446 18-3h 8. Monitor the Child’s Progress and Continue to
Monitor Implementation 481
17-4 Developmentally Appropriate Pre-Academic
18-4 Data Collection and Monitoring
Experiences 447
17-4a Direct Teaching 447 Progress 482
17-4b Embedded Learning 448 18-4a Types of Data Collection 482
17-4c Computers and Assistive Technology 449 18-4b Collecting Data 482
17-4d Fostering Eagerness to Learn 451 18-5 Common Behavior Problems
17-4e Engaging Children’s Minds 451 and Solutions 485
17-4f Valuing Today’s Learning 452 18-5a Aggression 485
17-4g Readiness Skills 452 18-5b Disruptive and Destructive Behaviors 487
17-4h Fine Motor Skills 456 Case Study Reading time in Jessica’s classroom 488
17-4i Memory 459 18-5c Noncompliance 489
17-4j Following Directions 460 18-5d Temper Tantrums 492
17-4k Emerging Literacy 460 18-5e Separation Problems 493
TeachSource Video Connections English Language 18-5f Over-Dependence 494
Learners: Partnering with Parents to Promote Oral 18-5g Withdrawal 495
Language and Early Literacy 463 18-5h Inability to Share 496
17-4l Support for Emergent Reading 463 18-5i The Family’s Involvement 497
17-4m Support for Emergent Writing 463 Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
17-4n Shared Book Experience 464 to Brain Research Executive Function Skills and Social
17-4o Integrated Content Focused Activities 464 Problem Solving 498
Case Study Supporting emerging literacy 465
Summary 499
17-5 Planning and Presenting Pre-Academics 465 Key Terms 500
17-5a Grouping Children 466 Student Activities 500
17-5b Arranging Pre-Academic Review Questions 500
Group Activities 466 Additional Resources/Readings 501
17-5c Enjoying Teacher-Directed Activities 468 Helpful Websites 501
xii CONTENTS
Chapter 19 Planning Transitions to TeachSource Digital Download Some Activities That
Help Prepare the Child for a Transition from Preschool
Support Inclusion 503 to Kindergarten 519
19-1 Transitions During Early Childhood Services 504 Summary 521
19-2 Steps in the Transition Process 505 Key Terms 522
19-2a Developing a Planning Team 505 Student Activities 522
19-2b Setting Goals 505 Additional Resources/Readings 522
19-2c Roles of Team Members 506 Helpful Websites 523
19-2d Writing the Transition Plan Section 4 Wrap Up Implementing Inclusive
and Procedures 508 Early Childhood Programs 524
TeachSource Digital Download Information That Special Focus: My Role in Supporting Inclusion 524
Families May Wish to Share with Providers 509
19-2e Reviewing the Outcome of the Transition and
the Child’s Adaptation to the New Program 509 APPENDIX A Culminating Activities 530
TeachSource Video Connections Preschool: IEP and APPENDIX B Skill Profile (0–72 Months) 533
Transition Planning for a Young Child with Special APPENDIX C Resources for Teachers and Parents 536
Needs 509
APPENDIX D Early Learning and Developmental
19-3 Transition From Early Intervention Services to Diversity 538
Preschool Services 510
19-3a Changes in Service Delivery Models APPENDIX E Sample IFSP Form 543
and Plans 511 Glossary 547
19-3b Legal Requirements of Transition 511
Case Study Planning for a smooth transition 514 References 557
19-3c Specific Considerations for Children Moving Index 577
to Inclusive Settings 514
19-4 Transition to Kindergarten 515
Connecting Developmentally Appropriate Practice
to Brain Research Redshirting and Readiness 516
19-4a Transition Planning 516
CONTENTS xiii
Preface
A Comprehensive and
Accessible Guide
This eighth edition of The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in Early Childhood Education
provides a comprehensive guide for teachers, two- and four-year college students,
and for early childhood teachers and child care personnel in in-service training
programs—all of whom will be working in inclusive early childhood settings. It
is an equally valuable guide for parents, as well as for clinicians working with
teachers to provide a viable setting for children both with and without special
needs. The clinicians most commonly involved with teachers are speech and lan-
guage therapists, audiologists, physical and occupational therapists, nutrition-
ists, psychologists, social workers, behavior analysts, pediatricians, and nurses.
The combination of theory, philosophy, and best practices that comprise this
text will help to ensure that inclusion in early childhood programs is carried out
in the best sense of the concept:
That children with special needs attend school, child care, and recreational pro-
grams with their typically developing peers; that inclusion is much more than a
place, a curriculum, or teaching strategy; that inclusion is about belonging, being
valued, and having options; that inclusion is about accepting and valuing human
diversity and providing the necessary support so that all children and their families
can participate in programs of their choice.
In this edition of The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in Early Childhood Education,
we address many basic issues facing teachers, parents, and individuals working
in an inclusive setting. These issues include how to:
work effectively with a group of young children, one or more of whom
may be significantly challenged in physical, cognitive, language, social, or
behavioral development.
apply the developmental-behavioral approach to make classroom
management effective and positive.
arrange the environment so that every child has developmentally
appropriate learning opportunities.
translate significant research findings about the relationship of early brain
and language development into classroom practices.
ensure that every child, with his or her own interests and capabilities, is both
included with and accepted by other children.
xv
arrange optimal learning activities at both the individual and the group
levels.
include parents and caregivers in ways that incorporate and value their
firsthand knowledge in planning for their child’s learning.
facilitate optimum speech, language, and communication development.
facilitate pre-academics and cognitive learning, as well as overall intellectual
development.
facilitate adaptive, self-care, and independence skills.
plan and facilitate transitions to other programs in ways that support
inclusion.
Text Philosophy
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is emphasized as basic to effective
teaching. Research findings in reinforcement theory and early childhood special
education give teachers well-tested and developmentally appropriate teaching
strategies. The focus of these strategies is on the intentional teaching of skills
that put a child’s physical, cognitive, or social development back on track. For
these strategies to be DAP-compatible, teachers must use them in the context
of ongoing assessment of a child’s developmental status, interests, and learning
styles.
Language Usage
Both vocabulary and language in this text will be familiar to most teachers and
students, despite overlapping terms. For example, terms such as exceptional, spe-
cial, and atypical are used interchangeably, reflecting the mixed usage within the
field. The same holds true for words commonly used, such as normal and typical,
to describe the vast majority of children who are more similar than different in
their development.
Words that may be unfamiliar, or that have special meaning, appear in bold-
face in the text and are defined in the glossary. Use of person-first language re-
flects respect for individuals with developmental disabilities.
Both the acronyms of IDEA and IDEIA are used interchangeably in this text
to refer the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendment of 1997, and
most recently renamed as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improve-
ment Act of 2004, PL 108-446.
Text Organization
The nineteen chapters that comprise the eighth edition are grouped by content
into four major sections.
Section 1 gives an overview of early intervention and public policy, providing
the background and foundation material for the text as a whole. Chapters 1, 2,
and 3 set the scene for the chapters that follow by defining inclusion. These
chapters also provide an updated review of public policy related to early inter-
vention and describe the major types of inclusive early childhood programs.
xvi Preface
Section 2 concentrates on children and their similarities, as well as their dif-
ferences. Chapters 4 and 5 offer a detailed exploration of typical and atypical
development; an overview of types and causes of developmental disabilities; and
an expanded look at genetic, chromosomal, and metabolic disorders.
Section 3 concentrates on planning for inclusion. The chapters focus on
partnerships with parents and their participation in the inclusion process, as
well as their participation in the writing of the individualized education program
and/or individualized family services plan (IEP/IFSP). This section also includes
information on the preparation of teachers for working in inclusive classrooms
and functioning on an interdisciplinary child-study team.
Section 4, comprising most of the second half of the text, focuses on what
teachers do in their classrooms on a day-to-day basis. This is the heart of the
book—the “how to”—and it provides teachers with information they need in
order to apply the philosophy, principles, and strategies that make inclusion
work for all children.
New Features and Updates

The new, larger trim size and beautiful color design with outstanding color
photos makes this eighth edition even more engaging and accessible.
The learning objectives correlated to the main sections in each chapter show
students what they need to know to process and understand the information
in the chapter. After completing the chapter, students should be able to
demonstrate how they can use and apply their new knowledge and skills.
The text has been thoroughly revised to reflect current National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) standards—especially those
related to inclusion, developmentally appropriate practice, and early
childhood education. Every chapter starts off with a list of the NAEYC
standards addressed within the chapter.
Digital Downloads include the text’s figures as well as a complete version of
the Skills Profile for students to download, often customize, and use in the
classroom! Look for the Digital Download label that identifies these items.
Did You Get It? quizzes allow students to measure their performance against
the learning objectives in each chapter. One question for each learning
objective is featured in the textbook to encourage students to go to the
book’s accompanying website, CengageBrain.com, take the full quiz, and
check their understanding.
There are twenty-one TeachSource Video Connection boxes included in this
edition. The TeachSource videos feature footage from the classroom to help
students relate key chapter content to real-life scenarios. Critical-thinking
questions provide opportunities for in-class or online discussion and
reflection.
Every chapter has at least one new Connections box highlighting recent
brain research or relating to English language learners and diversity.
The new edition contains many recent research findings related to young
children with special needs—such as information about hearing and vision
problems, leukemia, autism, ADD/ADHD, and current brain research related
to young children with disabilities.
Preface xvii
The text also contains a description of current legislative activities on
behalf of young children and their families, including an update on the
reauthorization of IDEA and No Child Left Behind. Current coverage of
Response to Intervention (RTI) is also included.
The text includes updated and expanded information on many topics,
including universal learning design, childhood obesity and school health
guidelines, the appropriate use of technology in early childhood programs,
quality indicators of an inclusive classroom, family-center practices,
augmentative and alternative communication systems, and English language
learners.
Comprehensive and up-to-date website listings are included at the end of
each chapter.
New “Section Wrap Ups” have been added to this edition. These Section
Wrap Ups include “Special Focus” features written by parents and
professionals that provide a real-life, first-person perspective on inclusion.
There are application questions at the end of each Special Focus piece.
The full-color photos in this edition illustrate key concepts within the text.
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes
The eighth edition of The Exceptional Child has been updated in a myriad of
ways. The most significant of these revisions are:
Chapter 1: Information on the importance of nurturing relationships to
brain development in infants and children.
Chapter 2: Expanded information on a child care center’s responsibility
under the ADA. Updated information on No Child Left Behind and the
Vaccines for Children’s program.
Chapter 3: Information on the aspects of culturally competent early
childhood programs.
Chapter 4: Research showing the importance of everyday experiences to
brain development.
Chapter 5: Expanded information on categories of disabilities under IDEIA.
Updated content for intellectual and emotional disorders.
Chapter 6: A reference chart for signs of a hearing impairment as well as
description of sign language around the world.
Chapter 7: Expanded information on universal design for learning (UDL).
A discussion of research demonstrating the connection between physical
activity and brain development. Information on the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s School Health Guidelines to Promote Healthy
Eating and Physical Activity.
Chapter 8: Updates on the autism spectrum and attention deficit
disorders, based on DSM-5, as well as a discussion of advances in the area
of autism research.
Chapter 9: Additional content on family-centered practice and the
importance of family involvement.
Chapter 10: New content on the role of the family in the assessment
process, including information on cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
differences. Expanded information on how to write IEP Goals.
xviii Preface
Chapter 11: Material on preparing teachers to work with culturally diverse
children.
Chapter 12: A review of research on mirror neuron networks and their
relation to learning by imitation.
Chapter 13: A checklist that can be used by parents when looking for a program
or by program staff to determine if their program is effectively including every
child, as well as a checklist for age-appropriate design for outdoor play.
Chapter 14: A description of how visual cues can be used to support self-care
routines. A discussion of how snack time provides an opportunity to practice
many skills in addition to self-care.
Chapter 15: An explanation of how the Tiered Framework for Intervention
provides a model for supporting the social and emotional development of
all children, while also providing the systematic intervention that some
children need to acquire social and emotional skills.
Chapter 16: Additional information on augmentative and alternative
communication systems. Updated information on English language
learners (ELL).
Chapter 17: Expanded information on the appropriate use of technology and
interactive mediation tools in early childhood programs.
Chapter 18: A discussion of the importance of children’s executive function
skills as the foundation for learning and social interaction, and the link
between early school success and social-emotional development.
Chapter 19: Updated information on transitional kindergartens and the
practice of red-shirting kindergarten-aged children, as well as additional
information on the role of service providers and parents during transitions.
Ancillaries for the Student

Early Childhood Education CourseMate
Cengage Learning’s Early Childhood Education CourseMate brings course concepts
to life with interactive learning, study, and exam-preparation tools that support the
printed textbook. Access the eBook, Did You Get It? quizzes, Digital Downloads,
TeachSource videos, flashcards, and more in your Education CourseMate. Go to
CengageBrain.com to register or purchase access.
TeachSource Videos
The TeachSource videos feature footage from the classroom to help students relate
key chapter content to real-life scenarios. Critical-thinking questions provide op-
portunities for in-class or online discussion and reflection.
Ancillaries for the Instructor

Early Childhood Education CourseMate
Cengage Learning’s Early Childhood Education CourseMate brings course concepts
to life with interactive learning, study, and exam-preparation tools that support the
printed textbook. CourseMate includes the eBook, quizzes, Digital Downloads, Teach-
Source videos, flashcards, and more—as well as EngagementTracker, a first-of-its-kind
Preface xix
tool that monitors student engagement in the course. The accompanying instructor
website, available through login.cengage.com, offers access to password-protected
resources such as PowerPoint® lecture slides and the online Instructor’s Manual with
Test Bank. CourseMate can be bundled with the student text. Contact your Cengage
sales representative for information on getting access to CourseMate.
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank

An online Instructor’s Manual accompanies this book. It contains information to
assist the instructor in designing the course, including sample syllabi, discussion
questions, teaching and learning activities, field experiences, learning objectives,
and additional online resources. For assessment support, the updated test bank
includes true/false, multiple-choice, matching, short-answer, and essay questions
for each chapter.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

These vibrant Microsoft® PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter assist you with
your lecture by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables di-
rectly from the textbook!
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xx Preface
Acknowledgments
The authors express their great appreciation to the following lifelong friends,
family, and colleagues who gave generously of their time, energy, and talent in
making the eighth edition of this text the best yet.
John, Henry, and Callie Cowdery, who, although patient, were very happy
when the book was complete
Kim Crane, friend and third-grade teacher
Clarie Peterson, preschool teacher
Ann Gordon, consultant, retired professor
Leslie Kowitz, parent
Lynn R. Marotz, R.N., Ph.D., assistant professor and associate director of the
Edna A. Hill Child Development Center at the University of Kansas
Susan R. Sandall, Ph.D., associate professor, College of Education, University
of Washington at Seattle
Eileen would especially like to give equally heartfelt words of appreciation to
her coauthor, Glynnis Cowdery, who enabled this text to go to press.
Finally, the authors want to acknowledge the help of the following reviewers,
who provided useful input during the revision process:
Marnie Anderson, Harrisburg Area Community College
Rashida Banerjee, University of Northern Colorado
Deborah Bruns, Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Mary Cordell, Navarro College
Christine Davis, Triton College
Jennifer Dobbs-Oates, Purdue University West Lafayette
Elizabeth Elliott, Florida Gulf Coast University
Cyndra Gasperini, Pitt Community College
Kelly Hantak, St. Charles Community College
Dana Hilbert, Cameron University
Sharon Hirschy, Collin County Community College
Shari Johnson, Southwest Wisconsin Technical College
Abigail Kelley, Baystate College
xxi
Holly Kirk, Itawamba Community College
Sharon Little, South Piedmont Community College
Suzanne Mira-Knippel, Southwestern Community College
Charlynne Murphy, Woodland College
Esther Ntuli, Idaho State University Pocatello
Tiffany Paine, Trinidad State Junior College
Dorothy Phalen, Adelphi University
Megan Purcell, Eastern Kentucky University
Karren Streagle, Virginia Commonwealth University
Sara Wasserman, Montclair State University
Chun Zhang, Fordham University
xxii Acknowledgments
About the
Authors
The authors’ experience in early childhood

education and inclusion spans seven de-
cades. Eileen is a pioneer in the field. Both
Glynnis and Eileen have been teachers and
facilitators of effective and developmen-
tally appropriate programs. Glynnis is cur-
rently involved in supporting community
preschools educating children with special
needs. Both authors have observed and par-
ticipated in the changing face of inclusion
and celebrate how far the field of early child-
hood education and inclusion have come.
If you have questions or feedback about
this text, please e-mail Glynnis Cowdery at
gecowdery@gmail.com.
K. Eileen Allen started out in the late

1940s as a parent participant and subse- Eileen and Glynnis, November 2012
quently as a lay teacher in a parent co-op
in Seattle, Washington. At age thirty-four,
the mother of three children, she took her first college course. During the next
ten years she taught full-time and also completed her bachelor’s degree at the
University of Washington. Concurrently, she began her teaching career as an
assistant teacher in the Developmental Psychology Laboratory Nursery School
at the University of Washington. Through what she describes as a series of seren-
dipitous events, she became head teacher and was soon engaged in research and
the publication of significant findings in child development and child learning.
A decade later, having also completed advanced degrees, she assumed the role
of director of the laboratory preschool and coordinator of teacher training and
research at the Experimental Education Unit, a part of the University of Washing-
ton’s Child Development and Mental Retardation Center in the medical school.
There she served on a pediatric interdisciplinary team and published her first book,
Early Intervention: A Team Approach (Allen, Holm, & Schiefelbusch, 1983).
Her next career move came in 1973, when she joined the faculty of the
Department of Human Development at the University of Kansas in Lawrence.
There, Eileen continued to teach, conduct research, and publish several college
textbooks.
xxiii
Throughout her career, Eileen has been active in national and international
organizations focused on the development of young children and their families.
For more than fifty years, she has been an active member of the National Associa-
tion for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), beginning in those long-ago
days when it was called NANE (the National Association of Nursery Education,
pronounced “nanny”). Eileen was also an original member of the NAEYC Com-
mission on Developmentally Appropriate Practice, helping to draft the first DAP
handbook. She served on the Commission on Early Childhood Teacher Educa-
tion and participated in drafting the first set of published guidelines. Also, as a
founding member of National Association of Early Childhood Teacher Educators
(NAECTE), an affiliate of NAEYC, she became its second president. The Council
for Exceptional Children (CEC) was another focus for Eileen in the 1960s; she
served as a member of its governing board. During these years, she was a found-
ing member of DEC (the Division of Early Childhood, an affiliate of CEC) and
was elected as one of its early presidents.
While teaching at the University of Kansas, Eileen became active in the
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD), serving on the editorial
board and as chairperson of the national interdisciplinary committee. At this
time she was selected to be a congressional science fellow, and she devoted her
energy to children, youth, and family issues in the 101st Congress.
In 1987, Eileen retired from the University of Kansas and returned to her
home in Seattle, Washington. She continued to write and to advocate for chil-
dren and families well into her eighties when her loss of vision become too
limiting. Consulting as a child development specialist was also a part of her re-
tirement activities. (Eileen considers her two years as a consultant to Microsoft’s
efforts to design developmentally appropriate programs for toddlers and pre-
schoolers a highlight of her retirement.) Now in her nineties and with severely
limited vision and mobility, she most recently coauthored a book with Judith
R. Starbuck entitled I Like Being Old: A Guide to Making the Most of Aging. Eileen
spends as much time as possible at her peaceful cabin on the shore of the Hood
Canal, enjoying retirement with fewer external demands.
Glynnis Edwards Cowdery received a B.A. in Psychology from Hood

College, Frederick, Maryland. She worked at the Kennedy Institute in Baltimore,
Maryland, providing treatment and conducting research with children with se-
vere self-injurious behavior and feeding disorders. She then received an M.A. in
Early Childhood Education and Applied Behavior Analysis from the University
of Kansas in Lawrence. She served as a lead teacher in the university’s Inclusion
Lab Preschool.
There she met coauthor Eileen Allen and worked as her teaching assistant.
Upon completion of her degree, Glynnis moved to the Boston area to work for
the May Institute. There she designed and directed a preschool serving children
with autism and children who were typically developing. She later moved to
Northern California, where she has provided in-home parent training, served
as a director of an early intervention program, consulted with public schools,
and designed classrooms for children with autism. She is a parent of two young
adults, who played on Eileen’s beach as preschoolers when Eileen and Glynnis
were working on the fifth edition of this textbook. Glynnis is extremely involved
in her community and with local public schools. She also serves as a city arts
commissioner. She provides behavioral and inclusion support services to com-
munity preschools and local school districts.
xxiv About The Authors
The
Exceptional
Child
An Inclusive
Approach to 1
Early Education
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1-1 provide a definition of inclusion.
1-2 describe an overview of the history of inclusion.
1-3 provide a rationale for inclusion in early childhood education.
1-4 discuss the implications for teachers and their responsibilities to ensure effective inclusion.
1-5 outline the potential benefits of inclusion.
1-6 identify concerns and challenges about inclusion for children with and without disabilities.
The following NAEYC Standards are addressed in this chapter:
STANDARD 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

STANDARD 2 Building Family and Community Relationships
Jim Craigmyle/Comet/Corbis 3
CONNECTIONS
●
Chanda, a young child with Down syndrome, attends a local child care program
while her parents are at work. A speech-language pathologist and physical therapist
come to the program every week to work with her and meet with her teacher.
●
After preschool, in a class with six children with disabilities and six children
without disabilities, Devon, a little boy with autism, takes swimming lessons
at the local community center.
●
Jonathan, a second grader with severe communication delays, participates in the
youth choir at his church.
● All of these children are involved in inclusive programs.
This book is about inclusion in the lives of young children such as Chanda,
inclusion children with special Devon, and Jonathan. Inclusion means that children with special needs attend
needs attend preschool, child preschool, child care, recreational programs, and school with typically develop-
care, and recreational
programs with their typically
ing peers. In an inclusive program, all participants are accepted by their peers
developing peers and other members of the community and are supported in an appropriate manner
that ensures that their needs are met (Stainback & Stainback, 1996).
Inclusion is not merely a place, or an instructional strategy, or a curriculum;
inclusion is about belonging, being valued, and having choices. Inclusion is also
about accepting and valuing human diversity and providing the necessary support
so that all children and their families can participate successfully in the programs
of their choice. Furthermore, inclusion is about accepting all children and their
families and supporting their participation in the program. This means that pro-
grams must be sensitive to and respectful of different cultural values, beliefs, and
practices. Program staff need to change their practices to accommodate the cultur-
al beliefs and practices of children and families; these accommodations will result
in programs that facilitate belonging and promote optimal child development.
A major change in public
educational policy came about
with the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act
(PL 94-142) in 1975. (This
law was renamed the Indi-
viduals with Disabilities Ed-
ucation Act [IDEA] when it
was reauthorized in 1990 as
PL 101-476 and amended
as PL 105-17, the Individu-
als with Disabilities Edu-
cation Act Amendment
of 1997, and most re-
cently as the Individuals
with Disabilities Educa-
tion Improvement Act
so of 2004, PL 108-446.
p o rt n ecessary
ing the s
u p Both the acronoyms
a ti o n is on provid of IDEA and IDEIA are
edu c
h a s is in inclusive used interchangably to
The emp a n particip
ate.
d re n c ng refer to this law.) This
that chil e Le ar ni
© Cengag
law entitles every-
one with a disability,
4 SECTION 1 | EARLY INTERVENTION AND PUBLIC POLICY
from birth to age twenty-one, to a “free and appropriate public education” (FAPE).
In addition, this federal law requires every child with a disability to be educated
in the least restrictive environment. This means that children should be educated least restrictive environment
in the environment most like the educational environment of their peers who are (LRE) the most normalized
environment in which the needs
typically developing, where the child can be successful with appropriate supports
of a child with disabilities can
in place. Chapter 2 includes more information on legislation and policy. be met appropriately; often,
For more than three decades, parents and professionals have been working to the LRE is interpreted as the
provide free and appropriate education for all children in the least restrictive envi- environment in which typically
developing children function
ronment. The first attempt at implementing this vision was called mainstreaming.
The term integration also has been used to describe the inclusion of children mainstreaming enrolling
with disabilities in programs for typically developing children. children with disabilities along
with typically developing
Some educators argue that there are clear-cut differences between integration children in the same classroom
and mainstreaming; others use the terms interchangeably. Both terms refer to
integration children with
children with disabilities being placed in full-time or part-time programs designed
disabilities and typically
for typically developing children. You may also encounter the terms reverse developing children enrolled
mainstreaming or integrated special education. These terms are used to describe in the same program
special education classes that also include some typically developing children. In reverse mainstreaming spe-
a reverse mainstreaming or integrated special education class, the majority of the cial education classes that
children have identified special needs, the lead teacher has special education train- also include some typically
ing, and only one-quarter to one-third of the children are typically developing. developing children
The difference between mainstreaming and inclusion is philosophical. In main- integrated special education
streaming, children with disabilities had to “be ready” to be integrated into the including a few typically
developing children in classes
mainstream. The emphasis was placed on helping the child with disabilities meet
where the majority of children
the existing expectations of the classroom. Often the child with disabilities was have special needs
regarded as a visitor in the classroom and was actually assigned (according to school
records) to a special education class (Schorr, 1990). In inclusive education, children
with disabilities are full-time members of the general education classroom. The em-
phasis in inclusive education is on providing the support necessary so that the chil-
dren can participate in ongoing classroom activities. Support may include adaptation
of the curriculum, materials, or instructional practices. Support may also include addi-
tional staff, consultation, or specialized training for the existing staff. Support services,
such as speech therapy and physical therapy, are conducted in natural places in the
school environment, including the classroom, gym, and playground.
This chapter focuses on current perspectives on inclusive education for
young children. A brief overview of effective practices will be given; the specifics
of what to do are reserved for the remaining units of the text. The outcomes of
inclusive education, the benefits of inclusion, and some of the barriers to inclu-
sion will also be discussed.
Inclusion Defined 1-1

“Inclusion is a right, not a privilege for a select few” (Oberti v. Board of Education
in Clementon School District, 1993). The call for inclusion continues to come from
families, professional organizations, and advocacy groups. Inclusion means:
providing all students within the mainstream appropriate educational pro-
grams that are challenging yet geared to their capabilities and needs as well as
any support and assistance they and/or their teachers may need to be success-
ful in the mainstream. But an inclusive school also goes beyond this. An
inclusive school is a place where everyone belongs, is accepted, supports, and is
supported by their peers and other members of the school community in the
course of having their educational needs met. (Stainback & Stainback, 1996)
Chapter 1 | AN INCLUSIVE A
PPROACH TO EARLY EDUCATION 5
Inclusion is not a set of strategies or a placement issue. Inclusion is about
belonging to a community—a group of friends, a school community, or a neigh-
borhood. Ehlers (1993) describes three ways to view inclusion: through beliefs
and values, through experiences, and through outcomes.
The beliefs and values that every family brings to inclusion reflect the unique his-
tory, cultural influences, and relationships of that family (Harry, 1998; Luera, 1993).
Family choices must drive the inclusion process. The family identifies the commu-
nity to which it belongs and in which the child is to be included. The concept of
“goodness of fit” (Thomas & Chess, 1977) is essential when developing inclusive pro-
grams. An inclusive program must consider the uniqueness of every child and family
and how it can address the child’s strengths and needs as well as family priorities.
The beliefs and values that influence inclusion occur at the levels of the fam-
ily, the community, and society (Peck, 1993). A family’s belief system will have a
direct impact on its views about inclusion.
The sociopolitical context in which children and families live and work also im-
pacts inclusion. This includes how our society views high-quality early c hildhood
care and education for all children. In other words, if providing high-quality
child care for typically developing children is not a societal priority, providing
high-quality child care for children with disabilities will not be a priority either.
The experience of inclusion varies from child to child and from family to
family. The goal is to create a match between the program and the child and
family. Inclusive classrooms are caring communities that support the ongoing
development of participants (Salisbury, Palombaro, & Hollowood, 1993). Inclu-
sion requires planning, teamwork, and support. “Our values and beliefs will help
define our experience with inclusion; in turn, our experience will shape future
values and beliefs” (Odom et al., 1996).
The outcomes observed and reported by the parents and teachers of children
in inclusive educational programs are broad-based and holistic. These outcomes
include some of the developmental changes observed in segregated special educa-
individualized education tion programs (e.g., improved communication skills, improved motor skills). They
program (IEP) a document also include important changes in social behavior and a general sense of belonging.
that is mandated for every
student with a disability (ages
Many parents of children in inclusive educational programs report that their child
three to twenty-one) by PL 94- received his or her first invitation to a birthday party or to play at a friend’s house
142. The IEP is the blueprint for after being involved in inclusive education. Some parents report that they feel more
the services the child receives included in the community because their child is attending a “regular” school.
and must be developed every
year. It describes the child’s
Billingsley et al. (1996) propose three outcomes of inclusive education. These
current level of functioning and three interrelated concepts are membership, relationships, and development.
includes short- and long-term Membership includes the child’s interactions with groups: being a member of
goals and objectives. Parents a class, being a member of a small group within a class, and being a member of
must approve all IEPs.
non-school-related groups (e.g., children’s choir at church). The defining crite-
individualized family service rion is that other members of the group are willing to make accommodations for
plan (IFSP) similar to an IEP. the child with disabilities to support inclusion and membership.
The IFSP describes services
for very young children with The relationships concept looks at the different roles that children play in their
disabilities (ages 0–3) and their interactions with peers. For example, in the majority of interactions with peers,
families. The IFSP is mandated is the child with disabilities receiving help? Does the child with disabilities have
by PL 99-457. The IFSP is opportunities to be in the role of helping other children? Are there reciprocal or
written collaboratively and
describes the child’s current
play and companionship types of interaction? Looking at relationships this way
strengths and needs. The IFSP allows us to provide useful descriptions of the peers in the child’s social network.
describes what services will The development concept looks at more traditional types of early childhood spe-
be provided and the major cial education outcomes: changes in participation in classroom routine and rituals,
expected outcomes. Plans for
the transition at age three are
changes in social-communicative behavior, changes in functional skills, changes in
also included in pre-academic skills, and other goals that are included on a child’s individualized
the IFSP. education program (IEP) or individualized family service plan (IFSP) and plan for the
fi g ure 1 - 1
Definition of Early Childhood Inclusion The Division for Early
Childhood and the National
Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, policies, and practices that sup- Association for the Education
port the right of every infant and young child and his or her family, regardless of of Young Children Joint
ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members Position Statement on Early
of families, communities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experi- Childhood Inclusion
ences for children with and without disabilities and their families include a sense
of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and
© Cengage Learning
development and learning to reach their full potential. The defining features of
inclusion that can be used to identify high quality early childhood programs and
services are access, participation, and supports.
TeachSource Digital Download Download from CourseMate.
unique outcomes found in inclusive educational settings. This outcome framework

also can be used to guide the development of goals and objectives for inclusive edu-
cational programs. (See the discussion of IFSP and IEP development in Chapter 10.)
The Division for Early Childhood and the National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children approved a joint position statement. Early Childhood
Inclusion: A Joint Position Statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC)
and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
(2009) provides a shared national definition of inclusion. The document was de-
veloped through a collaborative national process that the National Professional
Development Center on Inclusion (NPDCI) coordinated. This document is an-
ticipated to have significant positive impact on the early childhood field. This
shared definition of inclusion is found in Figure 1-1.
Jerlean Daniel, Deputy Executive Director of NAEYC, summarizes the need
for this shared definition as follows:
Early childhood finally has a clear definition of inclusion. It is amazing that
we have gone this long without a definition for an idea that gives children with
and without disabilities an equal opportunity to learn together. In its place, with
the best of intentions, individuals, programs, and schools have created their own
working definitions based upon interpretations of federal laws, and the idiosyn-
crasies and politics of assorted venues where young children with disabilities
are served. The DEC/NAEYC joint position statement on Early Childhood Inclu-
sion’s designation of the three primary components of inclusion, access, par-
ticipation, and support offers the field a rich, substantive framework for what it
means to serve all children well. (Early Childhood Community, 2009.)
Did You Get It?

Why is the concept of “goodness of fit” considered to be essential when
developing inclusive programs?
a. The family identifies the community to which it belongs and in which the
child is to be included.
b. Goodness of fit takes into account the idea of an inclusive program
considering the uniqueness of every child and family and how it can address
the child’s strengths and needs as well as family priorities.
c. The term implies compatibility.
d. Inclusion reflects the cultural influences of the family.
Take the full quiz on CourseMate.
Chapter 1 | AN INCLUSIVE A
PPROACH TO EARLY EDUCATION 7
1-2 Historical Perspective of Inclusion
1-2a ■ Early Attitudes
The number of children with disabilities in the educational mainstream has in-
creased steadily over the past thirty years. This is in marked contrast to the way
children with disabilities were viewed in the past. Caldwell (1973) gives the fol-
lowing description of the stages our society has gone through in its treatment of
people with disabilities.
Forget and hide Until the middle of the twentieth century, families, commu-
nities, and society in general seemed to try to deny the existence of people with
disabilities. As much as possible, children with disabilities were kept out of sight.
For example, families often were advised immediately to institutionalize an in-
fant with an obvious disability such as Down syndrome.
In 1950, the National Association for Retarded Children (now the ARC)
was founded. Efforts were put into motion to identify children with disabilities
and to bring them out of attics and back rooms. Members of President John F.
Kennedy’s family also were influential through their public acceptance of their
own family member with mental retardation.* The Kennedys’ acceptance went
a long way toward breaking down the social stigma attached to a family that
allowed a child with a disability (especially a child with mental retardation*) to
be seen in public.
Screen and segregate About the same time (1950), special education began in
public school systems. These first special education classes often provided little
more than custodial care. Caldwell describes it this way:
My first experience in lobbying was in Jefferson City, Missouri, where we
were trying to get classes for the educable and trainable mentally retarded.*
The children would be tested, labeled, segregated into a special facility,
and virtually isolated again. These special facilities would keep them out
of everybody’s hair . . . and [avoid] the irritation of not only the parents
but also the teachers. . . . It would also get them out of the way of other
children who would supposedly be held back by them. (p. 5)
The screen-and-segregate period lasted more than twenty years, at which
point the constitutional rights of people with disabilities began to be recognized.
Identify and help The identify-and-help period came about during the 1960s as a
result of political and social activities. Caldwell summed up this period thus: “We
have not abandoned concern with screening, with trying to find children who
need help. . . . We now try to make the search earlier in hopes of affording early
secondary prevention refers remediation or more accurately, secondary prevention” (p. 5; emphasis added).
to the early identification of
handicapping conditions (or Include and support Since Caldwell’s significant contribution, we have seen
potentially handicapping
conditions) and providing further change. In 1986, Madeleine Will, then assistant secretary at the Office
appropriate intervention of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (under the U.S. Department
services before the condition of Education), in an annual report regarding the status of special education
worsens or affects other areas programs, proposed what has been called the Regular Education Initiative. She
of development
cited concerns about some unintended negative effects of special education
“pull-out” programs. Her report suggested that greater efforts to educate
* The term is now intellectual disability.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in

Early Childhood Education 8th Edition

Chapter 9 Partnership with Families 215

Preface xv 1-5c Benefits for Families 21

About the Authors xxiii 1-6 Concerns and Challenges of Inclusion 21

12-1 Developmental and Behavioral Principles: 13-5 Scheduling 347

New Features and Updates

Ancillaries for the Student

Ancillaries for the Instructor

Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero

The authors’ experience in early childhood

K. Eileen Allen started out in the late

Glynnis Edwards Cowdery received a B.A. in Psychology from Hood

xxiv About The Authors

The following NAEYC Standards are addressed in this chapter:

STANDARD 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning

4 SECTION 1 | EARLY INTERVENTION AND PUBLIC POLICY

Inclusion Defined 1-1

6 SECTION 1 | EARLY INTERVENTION AND PUBLIC POLICY

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unique outcomes found in inclusive educational settings. This outcome framework

Did You Get It?

* The term is now intellectual disability.

8 SECTION 1 | EARLY INTERVENTION AND PUBLIC POLICY

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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