Tobelo Gary Holton Languages of the World/Materials 328 2003 LINCOM EUROPAPublished by LINCOM GmbH 2003. All correspondence concerning Languages of the World/Materials should be addressed to: LINCOM GmbH Freibadstr. 3 D-81543 Muenchen LINCOM.EUROPA@tonline.de htip://home.t-online. de/home/LINCOM.EUROPA wo. lincom-europa.com All rights reserved, including the rights of transiation into any foreign language. No part of this book may be reproduced in any way without the permission of the publisher. Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data ‘Acatalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek (http://www.ddb.de) Printed in E.C. Printed on chlorine-free paper Contents 0, tvoductoryremasks 0.1. Thedinguistie sting. 0.2. Genetic clasitiation and yPAI0EY crn 03. Language use - 04, Previous studies 05, Curent study 1. Phonology a Vowels Consonants. * Vowel sequences and diphthongs. Syllable stactne ra ‘Word Stes Wond-ormation processes end morpho phonetics 2." Lexical eateries eae BAL Notes “inn But. Nomber 212 Gender 213. Nemeral lasifen., a 2.14, Quamtifiesion neon _ 215. Independent pronouns = 2 Personal pronouns. 1 1 x L 1 1 5 243, 1 152. Demonsteatve pronours : 2 2 1 2 ‘52.1 Locaional demonsstives S 5 2.2 Diretonal demonstasives 23, _Desorstve pons di emis 216,” Nemes 21641, Personal names. 2162 Placenames. : 217. Vocative. 218. Relational nouns. i 0 22. Verbs 23. Property concept words : 23, Sslar constuction nn a 23.1.1. Comparative constuctions. = 2312. Equative constuction 23.13. Superlative constructions 7" 244, Minor lexiealestagores, = Baa Adverbs 241.1. Temporal adverbs 241.2. Evahative adverbs 2413. Epistmic adberbs,..eeonn 24.1 Directional cutive adverbs vnc 24.15. Emphatic adverbs —m 242. Numerals 243. Propositions. = Mampbolog nnn a 3.4, Nomina morphology BLA. Nown prefixes.[Noun makers o- and me: Possessiveprefies. 2 Feminine nga \Nominalzation 4.1 Reduplication 42. Voicing, = 4.3 Instrumental nominaliztion Noun SUMP. = Locatve suffix = Allative and sbativesulfises Diretional sts... [Non suf 2s ‘Nominal compounds. 32.” Verbal morphology. 324. Personmarking. = 322. Aspectand negation 323. Reflexive rwemennns 324. Reciprocal 325. Applicatve = = 321, Cavsative., 3252. Valeny increase. 3253, Senlemtal complement. 3254, Insuumenal . 326. Invensifer 327. Disrbutive sso 328 Habitual... nnn 329. Continsnve 432. Equational constructions 4.33. Exisenfialeonsrtions 44.” Wordonter _ 45. Grammatical relations 46. Inertogative and indefinite constuction 47. Complex clauses... 474. uxtapositon 472. Foxmally-marked complex clauses. 4721. "Coordination 47211 Conjunction de 472.12 Disjunction ctoetla... | 472.13 Contastive conjunction ma 472.14 Implications cogjunction le | 472.15 Temporal -pata | 432.16 Temporal bo wo. 4.12.2. suborination.. 47221 Casal mangale 47222 Conditional nok. 4722.3. Concessivengaro 4722.4 Resulative hundono 72.25 Direct speech complements 4723.” Relative clases 48. Discourse phenomena. = ‘481, Definteness and relerniliy 482. Discourse particles, 482, Reported speech, 5. Texts 23,” Category-independent morphology soon | 1. Pesonal mative: Expericaes inthe forest 2 7m 33M Aspectal sues... : 52, Instructional ext: How wo make pandas ms. 93 BBL. Petfctive okt snes bog eae . es 3312, 3313, | 3314. Dutaive-off- 3315 Sequential ofall 3316 Frequentve kal : 3317. Domain of aspect suffixes 332. Negation 333. Directional slices. 334. Dual 4 Symes rns 4.1. Noun phe 41. Possesiveconsiction, 412. Detoniners. 413. apposition 414 NP-coocination 42.” Direstional system 421. Syntax of directional a 422. Semantics of directional. 43.” Simple cuss. 7 43. Simple verbal elsesAbbreviations and symbels ‘The following abbreviations ae used inthe losses fist-person singular first-person plural exclusive ‘hid: person nop-hurnan ‘hid: person Feminine third-person masculine thirdperson purl ablative all a endo eonjunction aiscibutive ‘ieeotiona dover is wed fo the planter in sme ptions eg, Lembogs Alki Indonesia 19,(©) Phonemic comrast between el and gato “yet neal ‘erossbeam” “abs “hoist “Tabu “ko, watermelon" “rake ‘atach -lako ‘eye () Phonemic contrast tween and yl -laho “boi” slyaho ‘eat (tle) “lou “copy’ “you “fot? ‘The phoneme /s! is a voiceless aveolo-palaal(paatalzed post alveolar) Heat fe] (Gl. Ladefoged & Madeson 1996)3 For many younger speakers this eund appears to have fallen together with dhe Maly alveolar fricatve [s(n the Dodinga dialect ite pronounced 8 palatal afficate and hs merged with /o) However, older Malay loans containing (ere bommowed as (h). Thus -huha “ificul from Malay swsoh. In an’ eas, the phoneme fe, ‘whether pronounced a5} or [s,femuins phonemieslydistint fom (8) Phonemic contrast between ! with AY solo “dye” oko “knock? ‘engo ‘unrecognizable’ “tengo ‘alone “The phoneme i alo dtne from ©) Phonemic contmst hese with ho “thus #0 “hold? “hereko “border ssere “ket” ‘The phone [s] also oocurs in loans, especially fiom Teme e, -suba ‘swear’. This sound aso oceus in the Dodings dialect 2s the regulr telex of Heleworuns (h]. Old Malay Toans containing the palatal aftcas fe] ar nativisnd al, though moder lone may be borrowed. ‘wholesale using the forign phoneme Jl. Thus, sare ‘manner fom Malay ear, Also, some tore reent modem Malay loans with eriginal// may be borrowed ass}. Thus, omen from Malay esi “machine” ‘The phoneme // occurs only in borrowings, especialy from Tema. This sound also ‘occurs. as the regular reflex off in the Boeng dikect. It oes not contrast with inna oeabulay 2 Thi sund was described by Hating (19083) <5» Gent palatal cate and waseibd by him at cr (10) Examples of? ‘ovfla “house” ( inthe standard Indonesian ontogriphy. Thus, in well-known Tobdlo words, sich ax place names, the [Phoneme /s/has been represented orhographically as “e>. For example, the well known ame of the lke pronounced [paca] ie phonemicaly jas but usually writen 13. Vowel sequences and diphthongs Adjacent vowels are gencslly pronounced as sequences of distinc! vowels, Exceptions include the sequences ol, au, a0 and o, which may bepronouned ts «diphthongs (12) Examples ofdiphithong (i) mol [i “one oti toi} more" im [im speagun’ (13), Examples of dphthong [0] snare (iam nauk (da) "war! a Gu] “howe” aur aru) “pul (14) Examples of dphthong fa] wa we alley” a-ama [aieanal “his father" bait (si) “hoe odin (os) ih, comes haifa (hata) “Beate(13) Examples of dpiong (63) torow (91) “bad “ho (ou) “remainder” “Tyew (you) “toot hours (Sar) “medicine” Where the second vowel of a sequence i8 lexically sessed, the sequence is always pronounced as two vowels rater thin a. iphthong, (16) koiwa tkotwa} “notexist" oie [sok] "you 89" Araino Thao) “bring? In other cases adjacent votes are pronounced a8 soquences of dstinet owas. Syllable boundaries ate indiated below with a period (07) ~haoke [hae] head” ‘manaoko [ma na.oko) "wenty* ‘moioa (mo:10.3) ive" boa (bo) “ave “lama [giana] “hand ama i. spese? “ngoore [ngo.erel “sarong Adjacent identical vowels are generally pronounced separately. Examples are given below. (18) haake (baaLka} ‘silver “tadga {ta‘.gal “Iake" -ngooto[ngo.010] “ocean rauk tuku) “ shape’ Im some cases it may be difficult to distinguish separate articulations foreach of sequence of identical vowels, particularly when sues falls on the Fst vowel in the sequence, In those cases the sequence may be realized as 2 lengthened vowel. For example -saona ‘thousand? may be trisyllabi (a. or disylbie [sana the ater contaning long vowel, ‘There areno tripitongs, however, itis possible fora sequence of diphhong plas vowel or vowel plus dipthang a accu, (19) ystajoka (yao.kal “they caved them Sodiak (doa) “woos? foreven a sequence of tree dstinet vowel, (20) tomaiete toma‘iese} “aughed™ 14, Syllable structure The sllable structure of native Tabelo vocabulary consists of open syllables, with or witout an onset consonant. Vowre! mic may be short or long, the later consisting ofa phonetic Aiphtnong clang vowel 21) Mini gables ow ov In her words, the ylable may or may not contin sm onset, nd the mceus may consis of single vowel or diphtnong. The minimal Tobelo root morpheme consis at least two vosls (ora single diphthong). That i, 2 ret canot consist of a single vowel V. Examples ‘of minimal roots are given below. @ 0a “au 50 “hold tg? cause noun and verb rots require one or more prefizes or protest minimal Tobelo ‘wor is somewhat longer. Tabele minimal words hae the fm CV or (IVEY (23) Minimal words it “only? aha FUTURE “Most rots ae polyslabic. Examples of admissible shapes ae given below: 2 cv 0 “hold tig" w so ‘aun cw oi “one vev ska sf cvev ‘bole ret" cvvev “nacho fish? cvevey ngohska “chlo” cvevew votaleo “bie CVEVCVCY ——“Kakatama “tongs CVEVEVCVCY —“balahadada “Ko. fong dress? Closed sabes occur only in borrowed words, Someexamples fallow: (25) o-gohang “kindof cir smancing sh with ole forbarang “things bongkar “bomb -More often words containing closed sylales are borowed ino Tobelo withthe deletion of| ‘nonfnal coda consonants and insertion of an epenitic echo vowel following orginally ‘word-finaleonsonsas 08) orkapongo “village (= Malay Ramps) tukamga ‘erftsman’ (© Malay ala) "No native words contain complex onsets, however, sabes with complex onsets may occur im borrowed words, 15. WordStress ‘Woct stress on plysylabie words is generally on the >enultimate vowel. Stress is resized phonatisally by oth increased duration and higher pith 27) ohidodiawo} “my trend? {o-ruha “sland the final slab of a word contains. diphong this sylabe tact stress,0 28) tngindy If the penultimate vowel forms the second member of a diphhong, den that diphtbong reccives ste. (29) [Simi speargun’ In words which conan more than two slbles, the final two of which conisin the same ‘vowel, stress som the anepenulinate syllable G0) o-hongana forest? ‘higogama ‘Ym shivering? tomatyohini “Pm urinating’ imsyahink “t's diting aay” ovakere “water -ngote "canoe" riclingii “we look for o-baska “silver Exceptions 1 these mules of stress assignment are indicated orthopaphically with an accute accent onthe stessed vowel. Examples of words which don follow these stessassignment pattem ace given below. (81) gira “gota” indo “vo! poli ‘pinch ‘Word stress ie assigned posexically, afer the word formation process. Tus, sess ray shift aRersuffization For example, compre the following two examples, where the {on in sant backs incates the underlying morphological frm. 62) Taricbose] ohicbole! S-lscrtited tied? (03) [ekibole-wa) ‘ehicholeua! Iscted NEG 'm not tre Attaation oF the ne ‘hen atact tes 04) [motos] ‘mobos! Starve “ane ae 68) [moboahil mobo Sharve-00R “aho's tl aniving” Aiaation of a the duratvesspestaal six ahi inthe example (38) leads to a sequence of| identical vowels, triggering a regular process of deletion (see morphologial processes ‘ylom), Stes then assigned wo the pemtimate sable ofthe affixed word tive au ur shits the location of the penultimate sya, which the sulixed frm, u Some suffixes also contain undedying lexical stress pattems. For example, the suis ito ‘seaward and ik ‘downward’ tes he penultimate sllable when occuring ‘word-finally. Thus ia the examples below, sulization of ko does trigger deletion of the preceding vowel, but sess remains on dhe penalise (not anepenalimat) lable, even ‘hough the final a vowels the resulting word ate identi 25) [mictio} Imictio! Tere “we retrmed! G7) [mitioko} Iimictiondkal e-etmesta ‘we rehimed tthe coast” As with root morbemes, inherent stress on sixes is indatedonhographically vi an ate 16 Wordformation procs an morpto-phonmcs Word formation processes are general agaltntve. However, when sequences face ‘owels arise asa ret of sultston, one oh wo ws may be sycoptel, Where ident vowes ars, theft vowel is syeopated Ta puicua, were formed fom sufiacs ith lxeal sues on the pensimae lie feuin penultimate ss afer Syncopton (05) -paye + ska > supayika (pian) covet down ‘An exept 1th above rule ound in he neste sti ue, Sysopation i option when this suffix follows the vowel 1 Thus, — = (09) idan ideas tpimovinee ret dk" Where suffixation Leads to sequence of unlike vows, syncoption is govered both by ‘vowel quality and stess pattrns. Ifthe sess on the stem (rot pls any alceady fed ‘lies fall om the emcpenltimase syllable, or if the sexs fon he elias ae tnd that sable diphthong, ten he Fist vowel of the sequence is scopted (40) iki + oka —> -2oikoka -woere + oli => socal dy nee aka + oka => -obakoka ‘cooked PER IF the stesso the stem falls on the penultimate syllable ofthe woud, inclding when stress dna been lend altered by sufixation then bath vowels are relsne.2 G41) toto ka > sooika aye ALL toa + ino —> -bosino Exceptions to this rules occur when the vowel a precedes. In these eases the initial oof the si is syncopated, regardless ofthe location of tess on the stem (42) -boa + oka => -boska samive ALL “Those regular processes of vowel syncope are not indicated in the morpheme-by-morpheme losses found in the examples inthis book, Thus, for example [bobeska] “we arived” is represented as ho-boa- ofa, with no syacope represeted. 2 “The major openclas: Tobelo leveal caegories of moun and verb te unambiguously determined via the type of mombology present on a word: verbs always oecur wit ‘pronominal person-marking prefies; nouns slways occur with 2 noun marker, However the steprialty of Tobelo root momplemes ean be more difficult to determine. Maay, if not most, Tobelo roots may occur ‘ih eiher verbal or nominal morphology. The semantic relationship between the comosponding noun and ver lexemes is not always predictable, ‘Some examples ae given below. ls (43) the root fa may oecur asa verb mesning "buy, with ‘concomilnt personal prefix, or af noun meaning “price with concomitant noun-marking prefix 42) onnpotiri ton sarcanve buy Thal canoe” b, maja jlyamoko Rowprice Serge "the pice high In (44) the root pokore say oocur asa verb meaning ‘have dysentery” or asa noun meaning “abdomen 44) ik-pokoro 3-Lhavedysentery "have dysentery” babipokoro Iwoss-abdomen "my abdomen” “This system of oro derivation co-eiee with a system of marginally productive rominaizing morphology, achieved either va duplication ofthe inl syllable ofthe ver stem with a ‘prespecified mid back vowel or via Voicing ofthe ii 3124). “inthe Toblo pata onbogrphy oun and ver prefs ae generally writen as separate words, {rexamply noir to ja Tobe examples are writen ere wth hyphens belweon refines and 3 ‘An important subelass of rons which may oceu a ether nouns or vers a those denoting property concepss. For ease of exposition ese are discussed asa separate lexical ‘ategory below, though this category is semantically delinated. Other minor closod-class lexialeategoros difer from nouns and verbs in hasing a much more ciumscrbed Et of erivational possibilities. 24. Nous “obelo nouns are morphologically distinguished by the presence of a noun marker immedialy preceding the noun. This prefix mayb: 0, man ora possessive prone refx indexing the person and numberof the poses. The deal or unmarked non ‘uke is Nouns which have aa (aplco expi) elon to another ty re marked Sih he eon noun maker mao a posesie onou, Noun maths te wien hee wih Talloning hyphen, hough iasng nd many items speakers preter fo write tee ‘mores a isnt word 5) oko dog? maka dog" hia “my dog? Proper names lo ocr ith noun maker 45) o-Yabe “(oan ram ‘Mas osname) ‘Amerika “Amer ‘ov Tobsloho “Tobelo ‘Noun makers occur on every noun in noun phrase Only the noun marker on the head (ita) noun varies eccording to he extra relatonsnps ofthe noun phrase. (47) o-kaho ma-dimono “dog” ahickaho masdimono “my ld dog Compound nouns ar distinguished by the rosence of two nouns roots with ¢ single moun marker (see section 3.1.24 below). 2 Nouns are not specitid for number, shough sumer may’ be inated via persom-marking prefixes on the ver, (45) o-nawry wotos Ssteman Samarive "aman is coming’ 49) o-naury yo-boa ximan 3parive ome men are coming! A, Number ‘Number may also be indicated via the use of quantifies (6ce section 2.1. below). 212, Gender ‘Nouns refering to female humans ae optionally marked by the prefix ago, This protic precedes the passcsive prefix and follows the noun-akero-(30) neosiayo FERImPOss mother his mother ontgo-Rian NMeFINCNAME "Rian ‘The use of go is more common in formal respectful adress. This, ane commonly hears ‘ah-ayo "my mother rahe han ngo-ahiayo 21.3, Numeral clasiiers ‘oun classes may be inicated vi a system oF numeral classifi. people Sin objets dota long tin sh - ong in objects Tong T-dim objects lth ‘punches of eee oes ln roof tate sago bread tambo torches aren pl bers ‘Table 2 Tobolo numeral elasinins ‘Numeral elssifers occur as nouns in an appostionsl construction, ‘The noun marker + is used withthe numeral classifi. Some examples of numeral clastirs ace given below (1) o-gskana ogshuma indo wwadnife oc. to “wo knifes™ (2) osm oan tami Werhowse tect seven "seven houses (23) o-nuoko o-ngai_gimoi Nilish NCL ten “ten fish? (58) o-s0t0—orbelaka hangs plank Nac thee “thes planks’ (65) ami-mane-mane o-guriti into SMhoss-RDP-ead necklace FECL WO. “her two necklaces" ($5) o-bidete ostranga ange Sstsail Nac three "oe sil” (7) bole oahanga moi atbanana NCL one “one bunch of bananas! (55) o-kaw onal Notsoofing NACL one “one pete of roofing material (59) orketeko——o-biono hangs Nutsagoread nicl three “thee spo reads (60) ontiba——oahici thane atbamboo Nec. eight "eight sticks ofkamboo" (61) orilo o-ehoro hange wttorh Niel tree "hee torches” (62) o-kudotua o-baha moi soehaicnat REC one "one hai net 214. Quantineation In general, quantification in Tobelo is achieved via the wae of nouns and verbs. Thus, For example, the rots -woe/ngoe ‘many’ fut Tew", momiono-naga ‘one’, nd -ngodnu “al” an fuoetion as nominal and verbal Guanes. Examyles of ths type of quantification ae siven below. (63) ani-tcko mach 2rosstobueco Swltle “alin of your tobacoo™ (6) congatcd mwngas ‘wesanoe N¥emnany “many canoes” (65) onnyawa—mangangoe Narperson_3prass-many “many people? In addition, there is very small numberof parcks which indice quantity. These are ‘generally redupliceted roots. When a full noun or noun phrase f= presen, these quanifirs ‘immediately precede the noun, Where no noun is presen, the quantifier may precede oF Follow the verb. The quantifier marazmata “all, every, each one indcates an event involving ‘multe parepans (65) nomi mate-mata mi-mms-okoino —_o-gahi_madeteke-ka To bill Te-xFLX-slandowaich Natsea NNCbaside-LOC “we al stood watch beside the water"6 (67) Ka ehonenge mates sill 3.die ROP sill hey lied” ‘This quantifier may occur wih the distributive ver prefix kak (68) mata-maia im-kokiabeba lye oral! J-RFLX-OSF einloth-P "each one was wearing loin loth ‘The panicle mo!not ‘one-y-ono" indicates an ation caried out by each participant in (6) moi-moi o-nyawa —iewingaku opone Notperson 3-Sm-believe "each oe believes” The parsle duge-duga ‘only, except indicates an event eariod out by all except one panieipant oe a cenain group of participant (70) matamaia yolk, degs-duga unanga woluku fdpall Ip-go. RORonly im Imtefvse “everyone went, except he refs” (Hueting 19088) (71) duga-duga unanga ko wortagitag noronly 3m. well 3m-ROF-B0 ‘only he weet” The particles hara-hara "each one is similar to moismoi, hough it lacks the sequen meaning, This quantifier sully fllows the noun (72) ma-dorou hars-hara Reiebad_RDF-ach one ‘ach oneis bad” (Hucting 1908) 21.5. Independent pronouns Independent pronouns differ morphological noun maker oF ma ioe nouns in tha they are not marked with 2 2154. Personal pronouns Pertonal pronouns, like fll nouns, ate not masked for cate, The pronominal sem Aistinguishes first-person plural inclusive and exclusive. Third person singular distinguishes ‘masculine and feminine (rumas). Thied-porsonplialditinguises human and non-human, The complete set of independent personal pronoun listed in the able below. rgomt (EXC) gate (NC) gona | nt smagnga)(wasC) | onalnga) (aman) muntanga) (2) | enafnga (on uma) ‘Table 3: Tobelo personel pronouns ‘The third-person forms have both long (eg. snag) and short (6 na) forms. 21.52, Demonsteative pronouns Demonstatives ae used to indicate reference 10 a ferent in a panicularIoction or seston, The demonstrative fll ato two seman caeyories, locational and directional ‘While they hove identical syniztedistsibution, they may be diferemiated primarily becae the dvetional demonstaives function as pat of ger directional system which includes sirctinalloative adverbs and diestionalsufies ice section 4.2 below). Both locations ‘and dizetional demonstatives dffensate punctual versus arcal reference, ‘The punctual forms refer to a specifi, definite kcaion or time, wheres the areal forms reer @ generl non-specific location a ine 2182.1 Locational demonstratives ‘The locational demonsratves indicate both spatial and temporal dimensions. The peoxinal demonstratves nenanga (shor form mena) and naanes (a0) tay be tensile as "Wis “his ‘one’, here’ or ‘now. The distal demonstatves genanga (gena) and gaamgu (gad) may be ‘eanlated as ‘tha’ “hat on’, there o ‘then’. The ms in parentheses ae allemste forms hich occur ely with no semantic epparent contrast with ihe fill fons Table 4 Locational demonstatve pronouns ‘Short forms of the areal demonstatives are not ported when a sufi ie present. Thus ‘he example below the directional suffi -dko seward” is ffived 10 the proximal areal demonstrative nang, yielding neangao,n0t*naado (73) ma-ngoha-ngohaks yo-hopu-hupsmamgrito NM-ADP-child —” 3p-RDP-po.0ut PROX AREAL-SEA “his eiliem came ott the coast ‘Shon forms of panchal demonstatives have spesial forms when a suffix is present. Geverly, the sufixed shor form can be derived from the long form by dropping the enulimate sable rel the final vowel. Thes, the auined chor form of the, proximal PPuncual demonstrative nenanga is eng, This is exemplified below. where Te ablative Sui -no is affixed to the proximal punctual dmonsative enemy, ycklng nein (7A) moi nengsing ——worpea fone PROXENCT-ADL. Send “ene with his iad coming this way” “This could alterately be rndored using 9 long for demonstrative as nenangina 24822 Directional demonstratves Directional demonstratves locate referent in space with respect to an ale estblshed location, Location is achieved using a coowdinate stom with two ortogonal axe seaward-landward dimension and an upward-downwad dimension, The upward downvand mension may refer to lation along the cous or vertically. In adional to these two ‘orthogonal dimensions, there is a general directional demonstaive whish speilcllyis indicates a locaion which is off the coordinate system (see section 4.2 below) Like the Tocational demonsatives they aso have punctual and areal foams. Also, each diretionsl demonstrative has short form which lacks the fel ong PuNCTAL | AREAL seaward | danenonga(donona) | danoanga (dania) | Ulandward | dinenange (dinene) | dinaanga (nda) upward | datenango (datena) | dakoanga (ake) owmward_| daenanga (dena) | — ener | dokenango (dotona) | dokaanea (oka) ‘Table : Directional demonstative pronouns ‘Note that there ino downward punctual demonstrative. The general demonsratines are not general inthe sense that thoy can refer to any direction. Rather, the general dermonstatves| explicitly refer to a location which lies on neither the upwar-downvard or seaward: Jandvard axes, or location which ies across significant obstacle “The same resections onthe wie of shor forms with slfiaes discussed for locational demonsratves above also apply to directional demonstatives, Examples of directional demonstrates ae given belo (3) oMiti de m-oara dakena madabikive Nie, and Tenn UPeNcr SNtper-ur “we ran up to the upward part of Mi Island” (76) o-Gogsli dakera Nw. UnpwCr “that Gogaii River up there ‘When demonstrative pronouns oceur witha directions or leative sux, te final ofthe iat indicates obligation, (132) ako no'a0 ion! o-todato-ik Hf eamy must SNtko bamboo-DOwN “ityou cary [vate] you must {put iin te bamboo" (133) oakere gangs ini ho-ma-a-i Nvevater 3lilood that must [-RLXRDP-hury "tne water ie loading ws we must bury” (034) farebe kit tetobikt Simoming must (3-beekup Sim the moming | mst beak it up “The deontic adverb fanu “should adicates an even which is desirable o obligatory (235) tana gone ho-morene shoul! Ii Terejoice ‘we should rejoice" (036) ten hoki ho-ma- obi should Tigo Tiaetabathe “we should go bathe’ In a few cases, om may have an epistemic Sense, indicating the truth or certainty of proposition, ain the following example. a (37) tamu mado —o-Paca masduts should RNMtarigin NAEP. ANSorigin “what shouldbe the origin of [Lake] Paes" 243. Eplstemie adverbs ‘The adverb fore ‘sue, certily”indcales the speaker assertion of certainty (compare the verb stem -bote“o be su), (138) bole o-moko ys-oljome certainly Nish 3p “of curse we will eat the ish (139) niko botino mi-ngodumu-us, bole iewichbo if then Jealhiogetherec sure 3-2m-punch if wee nota rogether, then be surely must have been punched 2A.Ls Directional locative adverbs Ditectional osative adverbs function as part of the anger directional system to indicate locaton with respect oa two-dimensional Coordinate stem contrasting a seaward-landwvacd xis wilh an upward-downward axis. In adlton, «gereral directional loatve adverb data indicates location without reference to the coordinate stm, [sai Seawad Cata seaward eatin’ tina [landward Gata bsdwardloaton daku[ upward Cat a upward lotion’) dau —[dovenard Cats downward toeston doka_[ general Cat ation aay’ ‘Table 6: Directional locative adverbs ‘Since the directional lcatve adveibs are iakcretly Icative, they do not oseur with the Iheatve sufi oa. However, the loatve suffix may ozeur with «noun in constuction with 3 Giectionallocative adver, (140) dina o-tyokuoka landward Swcmouniain ioe “Tandvard in the mountains? Directional locativealverbs may oecur with directional affixes. The resulting for indicates toto om sto speci bythe dicta leas adver ns dston seid by the sul, (141) nana Tandsecd-LaNp rom landward plein an inland detion™ ‘Te ore dson ave pa dicen el maybe ved by hee of epic ‘ge? Thess, " * ” . 7 The inetd six pas ave constuction is eporly rain he Boeng diet (Taylor {986115 tne Hever dates stepper gel in ehh pcs tag oe 1s considerable inter-speaker variation. * “_-