INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

T
1.1 Exploration of Natural Gas
he practice of locating natural gas and petroleum deposits has been
transformed dramatically in the last 15 years with the advent of extremely
advanced, ingenious technology. In the early days of the industry, the only
way of locating underground petroleum and natural gas deposits was to
search for surface evidence of these underground formations. Those
searching for natural gas
deposits were forced to scour the earth, looking for seepages of oil or gas emitted from
underground before they had any clue that there were deposits underneath. However,
because such a low proportion of petroleum and natural gas deposits actually seep to the
surface, this made for a very inefficient and difficult exploration process. As the demand for
fossil fuel energy has increased dramatically over the past years, so has the necessity for
more accurate methods of locating these deposits.

1.2 Processing Natural Gas

A Natural Gas Processing Plant Natural gas, as it is used by consumers, is much different
from the natural gas that is brought from underground up to the wellhead. Although the
processing of natural gas is in many respects less complicated than the processing and
refining of crude oil, it is equally as necessary before its use by end users. The natural gas
used by consumers is composed almost entirely of methane. However, natural gas found at
the wellhead, although still composed primarily of methane, is by no means as pure. Raw
natural gas comes from three types of wells: oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells.
Natural gas that comes from oil wells is typically termed as assoiated gas”. This gas can exist
separate from oil in the formation (free gas), or dissolved in the crude oil (dissolved gas).
Natural gas from gas and condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed
non-assoiated gas’. Gas wells typially produe raw natural gas by itself, while condensate
wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid hydrocarbon condensate. Whatever
the source of the natural gas, once separated from crude oil (if present) it commonly exists
in mixtures with other hydrocarbons; principally ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. In
addition, raw natural gas contains water vapor, hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), carbon dioxide,
helium, nitrogen, and other compounds.

Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and
thuds from the pure natural gas, to produe what is known as pipeline uality’ dry natural gas.
Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the natural
gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the natural gas can be

1
transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes must be
removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all waste produts’.

In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants,

some final proessing is also sometimes aomplished at straddle etration plants’. These plants
are located on major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that arrives at these
straddle extraction plants is already of pipeline quality, in certain instances there still exist
small quantities of NGLs, which are extracted at the straddle plants.

The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be
quite complex but usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities:

• Oil and Condensate Removal

• Water Removal

• Separation of Natural Gas Liquids

• Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

Fig 1.1: Diagram of a typical gas processing plant.

Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

1.3 Sweetening
Amine gas treating, also known as gas sweetening and acid gas removal, refers to a
group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkanolamines (commonly
referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
from gases. It is a common unit process used in refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants and other industries. Processes within oil refineries or natural gas
processing plants that remove hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans are commonly referred
to as sweetening processes because they result in products which no longer have the sour,
foul odors of mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide.

1.3.1 Reasons of Removing H2S and CO2

Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other contaminants are often found in natural
gas streams. CO2 when combined with water creates carbonic acid which is corrosive. CO2
also reduces the BTU value of gas and in concentrations of more that 2% or 3% the gas is
unmarketable. H2S is an extremely toxic gas that is also tremendously corrosive to
equipment. Amine sweetening processes remove these contaminants so that the gas is
marketable and suitable for transportation. The recovered hydrogen sulfide gas stream may
be:

• Vented to atmosphere.
• Flared in waste gas flares or modern smokeless flares.
• Incinerated for sulfur removal.
• Utilized for the production of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid.

If the recovered H2S gas stream is not to be utilized as a feedstock for commercial
applications, the gas is usually passed to a tail gas incinerator in which the H2S is oxidized to
SO2 and is then passed to the atmosphere out a stack.

1.3.2 Amine Solutions Used in Sweetening

Amine has a natural affinity for both CO2 and H2S allowing this to be a very efficient
and effective removal process. There are many different amines used in gas treating:

3
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

 Monoethanolamine (MEA) -Used in low pressure natural gas treatment applications

requiring stringent outlet gas specifications.

However, the most commonly used amines in industrial plants are the
alkanolamines MEA, DEA, and MDEA. Amines are also used in many oil refineries to remove
sour gases from liquid hydrocarbons such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

1.3.3 The Girdler Process

Natural gas is considered "sour" if hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is present in amounts
greater than 5.7 milligrams per normal cubic meters (mg/Nm3) or 0.25 grains per 100
standard cubic feet [gr/100 scf]). The H2S must be removed (called "sweetening" the gas)
before the gas can be utilized. If H2S is present, the gas is usually sweetened by absorption
of the H2S in an amine solution, also known as the Girdler process.

Other methods, such as carbonate process, solid bed absorbent and physical
absorption, are employed in the other sweetening plants.

The main reaction of the Girdler process is as follows:

2RNH2 + H2S (RNH3)2S

Where:

R = mono, di, or tri-ethanol

N = nitrogen

H = hydrogen

 Diethanolamine (DEA) -Used in medium to high pressure treating and does not
require reclaiming as do MEA and DGA systems.
 Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) -Has a higher affinity for H 2S than CO2 which allows
some CO2 "slip" while retaining H2S removal capabilities.
 Diisopropylamine (DIPA)
 Aminoethoxyethanol / diglycolamine (DGA)
 Formulated special solvents.

4
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

S = sulfur

1.4 About Sulfur

Sulfur is a non-metallic element that occurs in both combined and f ree states and is
distributed widely over the earth’s surfae. It is tasteless, odorless, insoluble in water, and
often occurs in yellow crystals or masses. It is one of the most abundant elements found in a
pure crystalline form. The word sulfur is L atin for burning stone”, and was used almost
interchangeably with the term for fire. Because of its combustibility, sulfur was used for a
variety of purposes at least 4,000 years ago.

Although it is plentiful on a world scale, native sulfur is usual ly found in relatively

minute quantities. The greatest quantity of naturally occurring sulfur by far is combined
with other elements, most notably the sulfides of copper, iron, lead, and zinc, and the
sulfates of barium, calcium (commonly known as gypsum), magnesium, and sodium.

In the late 1 800s the Frasch process - a mining technique that recovers from 75% to
% of a salt dome’s reoverable sulfur - became operational. Stockpiles today account for
more than 50% of the. US, Canada, Japan, France, Poland, and Mexico are major sulfur
suppliers.

Secondary sources of sulfur today are the sulfur dioxide (SO 2) obtained from
industrial mineral, wastes, and flue gasses, and the hydrogen sulfide (H 2 “ found in sour”
natural gas, petroleum refinery products, and coke-oven gasses. Once considered
unwelcome byproducts of industrial processes, these sources of sulfur have the advantage
of being nearly inexhaustible.

Fig 1.2: A typical amine gas sweetening plant.

5
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

It was stated that 80% to 85% sulfur production in the year 2000 was recovered
sulfur produced from hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

1.4.1 Properties of Sulfur

Chemical Name: Sulfur

Family Name: Element - Sulfur

Chemical Formula: S8

Physical State: Solid

Appearance: Yellow colored lumps, crystals, powder, or formed shape

Odor: Odorless, or faint odor of rotten eggs if not 100% pure

Purity: 90% - 100%

Molecular Weight: 256.50

Vapor Density: (Air = 1): 1.1
Vapor Pressure: 0 mmHg at 280 oF

Solubility in Water: Insoluble

Specific Gravity: 2.07 at 70 oF

Boiling Point: 832 oF (444 oC)

Freezing/Melting Point: 230-246 oF (110-119 oC)

Bulk Density: Lumps 75-1 15 lbs./ft3 Powder 3 3-80 lbs./ft3

Flashpoint: 405 oF (207.2 oC)

Flammable Limits: LEL: 3.3 UEL: 46.0

Auto-ignition Temperature: 478-511 oF (248-266 oC)

Sulfur is an odorless, tasteless, light yellow solid. It is a reactive element that given
favorable circumstances combines with all other elements except gases, gold, and platinum.
Sulfur appears in a number of different allotropic modifications:
rhombic, monoclinic, polymeric, and others. The rhombic structure is
the most commonly found sulfur form. Each allotropic form differs in
solubility, specific gravity, crystalline, crystalline arrangement, and

6
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

other physical constants. These various allotropes also can exist together in equilibrium in
definite proportions, depending on temperature and pressure.

1.4.2 Processing of Sulfur

Sulfur processing is accomplished in plants using four manufacturing methods,
producing sulfurs described as: Milled sulfurs, Formed sulfurs, Emulsified sulfur, and
Precipitated sulfur.

Milled Sulfurs

These products are produced using Raymond roller mills to grind to specific particle
ranges. Additives such as dispersants, flow aids, and dust suppressants may be added to
enhance product performance.

Formed Sulfurs

These products are produced by molding, drum flaking, or rotoforining, and then
sized to meet specific needs. Additives may be used for degradability.
Emulsified Sulfur

These products are manufactured using homogenizing technology to create a water

based suspension.

Precipitated Sulfur

Flowers of sulfur are distilled sulfurs of exceptional purity obtained by sublimation of

sulfur vapor into particulate form in an inert atmosphere.

1.4.3 Uses of Sulfur

Sulfur is an element used for everything from adhesives to matches. Its most
common use is as a hardening agent in the manufacture of rubber products, such as tires.
The most important use of sulfur is in the manufacture of sulfur compounds, such as sulfuric
acid, sulfites, sulfates, and sulfur dioxide. Medicinally, it has assumed importance because
of its widespread use in sulfa drugs and in many skin ointments. Sulfur is also employed in
the production of matches, vulcanized rubber, dyes, and gunpowder. In a finely divided
state and, frequently, mixed with lime, sulfur is used as a fungicide on
plants. The salt, sodium thiosulfate, Na 2S2O3.5H2O, commonly called
hypo, is used in photography for fiing” negatives and prints. When
ombined with various inert mineral fillers, sulfur forms a special
cement used to anchor metal objects, such as railings and chains, in

7
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

stone. Sulfuric acid is one of the most important of all industrial chemicals because it is
employed not only in the manufacture of sulfur-containing molecules but also in the
manufacture of numerous other materials that do not themselves contain sulfur, such as
phosphoric acid.

1.4.4 Products of Sulfur

Three major produt groups eist aording to use: Rubber maker’s, Industrial, and
Agricultural.

Rubber maker’s Sulfur

Sulfur has been used as a rubber chemical since Charles Goodyear discovered its
vulanizing properties in the mid ’s. Penil erasers, rubber bumpers on automobiles, and latex
gloves all use the same type of product, but in different quantities and heat variations.

Rubber maker’s sulfur produts vary widely in formulation and use. Conditioning
agents are added to improve flow ability, handling, and dispersion characteristics of finely
ground sulfur. Oil is often added as a dust suppressant, reducing the risk of a sulfur dust
explosion.

The following sulfur options are called grades, and offer a wide choice of purity,
fineness, and conditioning agents for rubber processing
• Grinding and Screening

• Conditioning Agents

• Oil Treatment

Industrial Sulfur

Industrial sulfurs are 99.5% minimum purity, processed into various physical shapes
to provide a full range of particle sizes. This market includes pulp and paper, metals
reclaiming, mining, steel, oil refining, and a multitude of other uses. Sulfur is also used in the
public utilities sector as a scale inhibitor. Industrial sulfur is available as crude lumps, flakes,
ground sulfur, formed pastilles, or formed briquettes. Flake sulfur can be screened to a
variety of specifications.

Commercial Grades

• Ground sulfurs milled to various specifications.

• Arrow Roll® Refined Sulfur

8
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

• Prill

• Animal Feed Sulfur

• Granular / Pastille

• Emulsified

• Flake

Agricultural Sulfur

These products are formulated for use as nutrients, soil amendments, and
pesticides. Their main uses are as fungicides, insecticides, and miticides. Another common
use is as a soil additive to correct alkalinity or sulfur deficiency.

Wettable Sulfurs

Wettable powders are formulated by blending dispersants and surfactants together

and then milling to a very fine particle size. They can be applied as a spray or dust These
products are used primarily as a fungicide or miticide. Wettable sulfur can be applied as a
ground spray or aerial application. Poultry houses can be rid of depluming mites by applying
spray to all interior surfaces. These products are registered by the EPA.

Flowable Sulfur
Dispersion or flowable type products are generally used on vine crops such as
grapes, tomatoes, and peanuts. Formulated as water based dispersion weighing six pounds
per gallon and is primarily used as a fungicide. This product can also be used as a soil
amendment if immediate pH correction is required. These products are registered by the
EPA.

Dusting Sulfur

Formulated at 98%, this product is primarily used as a fungicide. This product is

registered by the EPA.

Degradable Sulfur

Formulated at 90%, this product is primarily used as a plant nutrient. Formed as a

pastille or granule, degradable sulfur is also available in various sizes
to conform to specific blend requirements.

1.5 Sulfur Recovery Methods

9
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

On a worldwide basis natural gas and crude oil are becoming sourer. As the
sweeter, more desirable natural gas and crude oil supplies are exhausted; more and more
emphasis is placed on these sour, less desirable feed stocks. The sulfur species in natural gas
after its removal is generally in the form of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The most common
means of recovering the sulfur contained in hydrogen sulfide is the Clause process. This
process can recover 93-99% of the sulfur contained in its feed. Recovery depends upon feed
composition, age of catalyst, and number of reactor stages. The gas leaving the Clause plant
is referred to as tail gas and is burnt to convert the remaining hydrogen sulfide, which is
lethal at low levels, to sulfur dioxide, which has a much higher toxic limit. The off-gas stream
Processes are differentiated on the bases of capacity as follows.

1.5.1 Medium (0.20 to 25.0 LTPD)

 Sulfa Treat DO (Direct Oxidation) is a medium scale process.

1.5.2 Large (greater than 25.0 LTPD)

• Clause process least expensive, well proven but only economical at large scales.
• Recycle Selectox Process.
• Selective Oxidation Process.
- Parson’s High Activity Process.
- Super Clause Process.
• Wet Oxidation Based on Aqueous Solution.
-Stratford and Sulfoline Process.
-SulFerox Process.
is vented to atmosphere or sent to Tail Gas Recovery Plant.

12000
Sulfur Production
Production (MTPD)
10000
Production
8000
(MTPD)
6000 Crude

4000 Production
(MTPD)
2000 Natural Gas

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Fig 1.3: Average production of crude oil and natural gas for sulfur extraction.

10
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

-Bio-SR Process.
• Cold Bed Absorption Process.
- CBA 4 Reactor Scheme.
- CBA 3 Reactor Scheme.  Thermal Cracking of H2S.

1.5.3 Explanation of Various Processes

A brief description is given below for each of the above mentioned processes. This
discussion will prove helpful in final process selection.

1.5.3.1 Sulfa Treat Direct Oxidation Process

It is a medium scale process which selectively oxidizes H2S to Sulfur and Water.

1
S+
H2 O2 S + H 2O
2
No equilibrium limitations are there because of good catalyst selectivity. This
process recovers 90% of H2S as sulfur in a single step. It uses a patented catalyst and has a
very low capital and operating costs. It can be directly operated on Natural Gas, Syngas and
Hydrogen. It has got a smaller footprint than Liquid Redox or Claus Process.

1.5.3.2 The Claus Process

11
 Sulfur
Condenser
Sulfur
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

This is the least expensive, well proven but only economical at large scales. It was
developed by Carl Friedrich Claus in 1883. The process was later significantly modified by a
German company; I. G. Farbenindustrie A. G. The Claus technology can be divided into two
process steps, thermal and catalytic.

Thermal Step. In the thermal step, hydrogen sulfide-laden gas reacts in a substoichiometric
combustion at temperatures above 850 °C such that elemental sulfur precipitates in the
downstream process gas cooler. The H2S content and the concentration of other
combustible components (hydrocarbons or ammonia) determine the location where the
feed gas is burned. Claus gases (acid gas) with no further combustible contents apart from
H2S are burned in lances surrounding a central muffle by the following chemical reaction:

3
H 2 S + O2 SO2 + H2O ∆H = -4147.20 kJ/kgmol)
2
Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinery's sour water stripper
(SWS), or hydrocarbons are converted in the burner muffle. Sufficient air is injected into the
muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. The air to the acid
gas ratio is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is converted to SO2.
This ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction (see next section below).

The separation of the combustion processes ensures an accurate dosage of the

required air volume needed as a function of the feed gas composition. To reduce the
process gas volume or obtain higher combustion temperatures, the air requirement can also
be covered by injecting pure oxygen. Several technologies utilizing high-level and lowlevel
oxygen enrichment are available in industry, which requires the use of a special burner in
the reaction furnace for this process option.

Usually, 60 to 70% of the total amount of elemental sulfur produced in the process is
obtained in the thermal process step. The main portion of the hot gas from the combustion
chamber flows through the tube of the process gas cooler and is cooled down such that the
sulfur formed in the reaction step condenses. The heat given off by the process gas and the
condensation heat evolved are utilized to produce medium or low-pressure steam. The
condensed sulfur is removed at the gas outlet section of the process gas cooler.

A small portion of the process gas can be routed through a bypass inside of the
process gas cooler, as depicted in the here above mentioned figure.
This hot bypass stream is added to the cold process gas through a
three-way valve to adjust the inlet temperature required for the first
reactor.

12
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

Catalytic Step. The Claus reaction continues in the catalytic step with activated aluminum
(III) or titanium (IV) oxide, and serves to boost the sulfur yield. The hydrogen sulfide (H 2S)
reacts with the SO2 formed during combustion in the reaction furnace, and results in
gaseous, elemental sulfur. This is called the Claus reaction:

2H2S + SO2 S8 + 2H2O ∆H = -1165.60 kJ/kgmol)

The catalytic recovery of sulfur consists of three sub steps: heating, catalytic
reaction and cooling plus condensation. These three steps are normally repeated a
maximum of three times. Where an incineration or tail-gas treatment unit (TGTU) is added
downstream of the Claus plant, only two catalytic stages are usually installed.

The first process step in the catalytic stage is the gas heating process. It is necessary
to prevent sulfur condensation in the catalyst bed, which can lead to catalyst fouling. The
required bed operating temperature in the individual catalytic stages is achieved by heating
the process gas in a reheater until the desired operating bed temperature is reached.

Several methods of reheating are used in industry:

• Hot-gas bypass: this involves mixing the two process gas streams from the process
gas cooler (cold gas) and the bypass (hot gas) from the first pass of the waste-heat
boiler.
• Indirect steam reheaters: the gas can also be heated with high-pressure steam in a
heat exchanger.
• Gas/gas exchangers: whereby the cooled gas from the process gas cooler is indirectly
heated from the hot gas coming out of an upstream catalytic reactor in a gas-to-gas
exchanger.
• Direct-fired heaters: fired reheaters utilizing acid gas or fuel gas, which is burned
substoichiometrically to avoid oxygen breakthrough which can damage Claus
catalyst.

The typically recommended operating temperature of the first catalyst stage is

315 °C to 330 °C (bottom bed temperature). The high temperature in the first stage also
helps to hydrolyze COS and CS2, which is formed in the furnace and would not otherwise be
converted in the modified Claus process.

The catalytic conversion is maximized at lower temperatures, but care must be taken
to ensure that each bed is operated above the dew point of sulfur. The
operating temperatures of the subsequent catalytic stages are
typically 240 °C for the second stage and 200 °C for the third stage
(bottom bed temperatures).

13
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

In the sulfur condenser, the process gas coming from the catalytic reactor is cooled
to between 150 and 130 °C. The condensation heat is used to generate steam at the shell
side of the condenser.

Before storage, liquid sulfur streams from the process gas cooler, the sulfur
condensers and from the final sulfur separator are routed to the degassing unit, where the
gases (primarily H2S) dissolved in the sulfur is removed.

The tail gas from the Claus process still containing combustible components and
sulfur compounds (H2S, H2 and CO) is either burned in an incineration unit or further
desulfurized in a downstream tail gas treatment unit.

Fig 1.5: Flow diagram for the Claus process.

1.5.3.3 Recycle Selectox Process

The Recycle Selectox Process developed by Parsons and Unocal, treats lean acid gas
containing 5 to 30 mole percent H2S. The selector catalyst directly catalyzes the oxidation of
H2S to SO2, eliminating the reaction furnace of Claus Process. It also catalyzes the Claus
reaction of production of elemental sulfur. The exothermic Claus reaction results in a
temperature increase of 30o C in first reactor stage and about 15 o C across the second stage.

The Recycle Selectox stage usually consists of one Selectox stage, followed by two
Claus stages. A recycler blower dilutes the incoming acid gas with Selectox condenser.

14
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

Typical H2S conversion to sulfur is more than 80%. Total sulfur recovery with two
subsequent Claus stages ranges from 94 to 96 percent. If the lean gas contains less than 5
percent H2S, the once-through Selectox process can be used. Except for the recycle loop,
equipment arrangement is same.

Fig 1.6: Flow diagram for the Recycle Selectox Process.

1.5.3.4 Selective Oxidation Process

There are two types need to be illustrated in this account.

Parson's Hi-Activity Process

In a Claus unit, complete conversion of H2S and SO2 to elemental sulfur is not
possible due to limitations of thermodynamic chemical equilibrium of the Claus process.
Selective oxidation of H2S to sulfur can be thermodynamically complete as indicated by the
following reaction:

H S n + H 2O

Parson's hi-activity process utilizes a series of proprietary catalysts for direct

oxidation of H2S to elemental sulfur. The Hi-activity catalysts, which are prepared with
different mixtures of Iron-based metal oxides without the use of a carrier, posses low
specific surfaces and wild pores , the process scheme is very similar to a conventional
modified Claus unit, except that the last catalytic stage is replaced with h-activity catalyst.

15
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

Super Claus Process

The Super Claus process consists of a thermal stage followed by three of four
catalytic reaction stages. The first two or three reactors are filled with standard Claus
catalyst while the last reactor is filled with the selective oxidation catalyst. In the thermal
stage the acid gas is burnt with a sub-stoichiometric amount of controlled combustion air
such that the tail gas leaving the second reactor contains 0.80 to1.50% by volume of H 2S.
The catalyst in the last reactor (selective oxidation reactor) oxidizes the H2S to sulfur

2 S + H2O) at a very high efficiency. Because the catalyst neither oxidizes

H2S to SO2 and H2O, nor reverses the reaction of sulfur and water to H2S and SO2, a total
sulfur recovery rate in the range of 99% can be obtained, depending on Claus Feed Gas
composition.

1.5.3.5 Cold Bed Adsorption Process

The conventional Claus sulfur recovery process is limited by reaction equilibrium

considerations to sulfur recoveries in the range of 94-97%. Very high (more than 99.8%)
sulfur recoveries can be achieved by adding an amine-based tail gas cleanup process on the
Claus effluent. A good example of this technology is the SCOT process licensed by Shell,
which is often employed in refineries to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions to very low levels.
However, amine-based tail gas cleanup units are not only expensive to build (often 80% or
more of the cost of the upstream Claus plant), but expensive to operate as well. A better
choice of technology for the intermediate sulfur recovery range of 98-99.5% is the so-called
sub-dew point” Claus proess. This proess etends the apability of the Claus proess by
operating the Claus reaction at a lower temperature, so that the sulfur produced by the
reaction condenses. Since the Claus reaction occurs in the gas phase, this liquid sulfur does
not inhibit the reaction like sulfur vapor does, resulting in a favorable shift in the reaction
equilibrium and higher sulfur conversion. Amoco Corporation developed and licenses the
most widely used sub-dew point Claus process.

A CBA sulfur plant consists of a conventional Claus section and a CBA section. The
thermal and catalytic conversion in the conventional Claus portion of the sulfur plant usually
recovers 90-95% of the inlet sulfur. Adding more conventional Claus catalytic stages beyond
this point would not add much sulfur recovery because the Claus reaction is an equilibrium
reaction and becomes limited by the concentrations of water and sulfur vapor in the gases
flowing through the plant. The CBA portion of the sulfur plant overcomes this limitation
through the use of sub-dew point” onversion stages. Although atalyti conversion of H 2S and
SO2 is higher at lower reactor temperatures, conventional Claus reactors must be operated
at temperatures sufficiently high to keep the sulfur produced from condensing. Sulfur
catalyst will adsorb liquid sulfur in its pores, which blocks the active sites where the Claus
reaction occurs. If the Claus reactor temperature is too low, the sulfur concentration in the
vapor will exceed its dew point concentration, causing liquid sulfur to form and adsorb on

16
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

the catalyst. Over time, this liquid sulfur will block all of the active sites in the catalyst and
render the catalyst bed almost completely inactive.

A CBA reactor is operated in a cyclic fashion to avoid complete catalyst deactivation

from liquid sulfur blocking the active sites. The CBA reactor is operated at low temperature
(250-300°F/120-150°C) initially so that it is below the sulfur dew point of the reaction
produts i.e., sub-dew point” and the sulfur formed is ondensed and adsorbed on the
catalyst. After operating in this manner for a period of time, the CBA reactor is regenerated”
by flowing hot gas through the reactor to vaporize the adsorbed liquid sulfur, which is then
condensed and removed in a down-stream sulfur condenser. This process is analogous to
the processing steps used when dehydrating gas streams with molecular sieves. There are
normally two or more CBA reactors in series so that at least one can be operating sub-dew
point while the other is being regenerated. Not only does a CBA reactor benefit from a more
favorable Claus reaction constant at its lower operating temperature, it also has the
advantage of shifting the Claus reaction equilibrium. The Claus reaction is a vapor-phase
reaction, so condensing the sulfur product removes it from the vapor, forcing the
equilibrium in the Claus reaction further to the right, toward higher conversion. These two
factors allow much higher sulfur conversion than in a conventional Claus reactor, resulting
in overall sulfur recovery efficiencies in excess of 98-99.5% for CBA plants.

The cyclic nature of the CBA process requires process gas switching valves that must
perform in very demanding sulfur vapor services. This has caused significant operation and
maintenance problems in CBA plants designed by other engineering companies and
contractors.

1.5.3.6 Thermal Cracking of H2S

17
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

In this process operation at significantly high temperatures is made possible and

economical by oxidation of part of the H2S to provide the energy required for the
decomposition reaction to proceed to a significant extent. Partial oxidation of H2S in the
H2S-containing fuel gas is carried out in the presence of an inert, porous, high-capacity
medium and the intense heat exchange results in flame temperatures that significantly
exceed the adiabatic flame temperature of the gas mixture. By coupling the partial
oxidation of H2S in the porous medium with the H2S decomposition, temperatures as high
as 1400°C (1673K) can be achieved economically within a reaction zone without the input of
external energy, and therefore, no additional CO2 emissions. In this reaction zone, the
selfsustaining conditions are very favorable for the decomposition reaction to proceed to an
industrially significant extent, within a slowly propagating thermal wave.

1.6 The Claus Process

The Claus process is the most significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering
elemental sulfur from gaseous hydrogen sulfide. First invented over 100 years ago, the
Claus process has become the industry standard.

1.6.1 History

The process was invented by Carl Friedrich Claus, a chemist working in England. A
British patent was issued to him in 1883. The process was later significantly modified by a
German company called I. G. Farbenindustrie A. G.

1.6.2 Description

The multi-step Claus process recovers sulfur from the gaseous hydrogen sulfide found
in raw natural gas and from the by-product gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from

Fig 1.7: Thermal cracking of H 2S.

18
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

refining crude oil and other industrial processes. The by-product gases mainly originate
from physical and chemical gas treatment units (Selexol, Rectisol, Purisol and amine
scrubbers) in refineries, natural gas processing plants and gasification or synthesis gas
plants. These by-product gases may also contain hydrogen cyanide, hydrocarbons, sulfur
dioxide or ammonia.

Gases with an H2S content of over 25% are suitable for the recovery of sulfur in
straight-through Claus plants while alternate configurations such as a split-flow set up or
feed and air preheating can be used to process leaner feeds.

Hydrogen sulfide produced, for example, in the hydro desulfurization of refinery

naphthas and other petroleum oils, is converted to sulfur in Claus plants The overall main
reaction equation is:

2H2S + O2 S2 + 2H2O

In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide
in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and other hydrocarbon processing plants.
Sulfur is used for manufacturing sulfuric acid, medicine, cosmetics, fertilizers and rubber
products.

Inevitably a small amount of H2S remains in the tail gas. This residual quantity,
together with other trace sulfur compounds, is usually dealt with in a tail gas unit. The latter
can give overall sulfur recoveries of about 99.8%, which is very impressive indeed.

Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinery's sour water stripper
(SWS), or hydrocarbons are converted in the burner muffle. Sufficient air is injected into
the muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. Air to the acid
gas is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is converted to SO2. This
ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction.

19
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

Fig 1.8: The Claus process for sulfur recovery.

1.6.3 Simplified Process Description

• The hot combustion products from the furnace at 1000- 1300 °C enter the waste heat
boiler and are partially cooled by generating steam. Any steam level from 3 to 45 bar
g can be generated.
• The combustion products are further cooled in the first sulfur condenser, usually by
generating LP steam at 3 – 5 bar g. This cools the gas enough to condense the sulfur
formed in the furnace, which is then separated from the gas and drained to a
collection pit.
• In order to avoid sulfur condensing in the downstream catalyst bed, the gas leaving
the sulfur condenser must be heated before entering the reactor.
• The heated stream enters the first reactor, containing a bed of sulfur conversion
catalyst. About 70% of the remaining H2S and SO2 in the gas will react to form sulfur,
which leaves the reactor with the gas as sulfur vapor.
• The hot gas leaving the first reactor is cooled in the second sulfur condenser, where
LP steam is again produced and the sulfur formed in the reactor is condensed.
• A further one or two more heating, reaction, and condensing stages follow to react

Over the years many improvements have been made to the Claus process. Recent
developments include:
most of the remaining H2S and SO2.
 The sulfur plant tail gas is routed either to a Tail Gas treatment Unit for further
processing, or to a Thermal Oxidizer to incinerate all of the sulfur compounds in the
tail gas to SO2 before dispersing the effluent to the atmosphere.

1.6.4 Process Improvements

20
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

• SUPERCLAUS (TM). A special catalyst in the last reactor oxidizes the H2S selectively to sulfur,
avoiding formation of SO2. Significantly higher conversions are obtained at modest cost.
• Oxygen Claus. The combustion air is mixed with pure oxygen. This reduces the amount of
nitrogen passing through the unit, making it possible to increase throughput.
• Better Catalysts. Higher activities have been achieved with catalysts that provide higher
surface areas and macro porosity.

More improvements can be expected. Here are some possibilities.

• CS2 destruction. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a side product made in the furnace. Laboratory work
has shown that special catalysts operating in the furnace can destroy the CS2 before it gets
into the catalytic section. A commercially available catalyst like this might be developed for
use in a Claus plant.
• Catalyst Temperature Policy. The conversion of H2S goes faster at higher temperatures, but a
more favorable equilibrium is obtained at lower temperatures. It isn't obvious whether
higher or lower temperatures are needed in the third converter. Kinetic modeling may supply
the answer, thereby improving conversion or reducing catalyst replacement cost.

1.6.5 Claus Process Auxiliaries

Following are some of the auxiliaries being used in the Claus process.

1.6.5.1 Blow Down System

Boiler blow down flows is collected and drained into SBD-1. Steam Blow Down Drum. The
steam is vented from the top of SBD-1 and liquid flows from the bottom to SBC-1,Steam Blow Down
Cooler. The blow down flows from E-2 to the drain system.

1.6.5.2 Fuel System

Fuel gas is supplied from OSBL services. The three users are F-1 (Muffle furnace), TG-1 ( Tail
Gas Incinerator), and a PA-1(Package Auxiliary Box). In normal operation, fuel flows only to TG-1.
The fuel to F-1 is used only in start up when heating the unit. The fuel to PA-1 is used only when the
clause process is shut down, then PA-1 is used to supply steam for heating services, primarily on the
liquid sulfur containing lines and equipment.

21
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1

There are two different fuel gases. One is natural gas types and is supplied to all three-fuel
users. The other fuel gas is vaporized LPG which is supplied only to PA-1 to provide an alternate fuel
for this equipment.

22
 Chapter 2
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process

23
 Chapter 3
Material Balance of the SRU

C hapter 3
MATERIAL BALANCE OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
(SRU)

3.1 Introduction
he material balance across the proposed sulfur recovery unit (SRU) e byis don

T
the conservation equation of mass, as is done conventionally. A system must
be defined to account for the streams entering and leaving. In our case the
obvious selection is the sulfur recovery unit (SRU) itself, lwhile
the other
al
premises are considered surroundings. Some preliminary bases are to be
specified for the sake of convenience in the calculations.ng Followi
specifications are taken to meet the above mentioned situation:
 Sulfur production: 80 tons per day
 Time of operation: 1 hr

Now the material balance calculations are made first along the unit
whole
and then
across individual equipments. It is to be noted that whetherculations
the cal are made
across the whole unit or the individual equipments, the basicconservation
law of of mass
equation remains the same and is given as:

Amount of substance Amount of substance Amount of substance

entering the system - leaving the system + generated within the

-

through the boundaries through the boundaries em syst

boundaries

Amount of substance Amount of substance

consumed within the =accumulated within the (3.1)

system boundaries system boundaries

3.2 Overall Material Balance

The chemical reactions taking place are:

24
 Main Reactions:
3
1- H2S + 2 O2 SO2 + H2O (3.2)

3
2- SO2 + 2H2S 8 S8 + 2H2O
(3.3)

Side Reactions:

3- CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (3.4)

4- C2H6 + 2 O2 2CO2 + 2H2O (3.5)

5- C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O (3.6)

Flow Rate = ? Flow Rate = 13 kgmol/hr

H2S = 0.523 S8 = 0.999

CO2 = 0.376 H2O = 0.001

CH4 = 0.004

H2O = 0.010

C2H6 = 0.0008
Flow Rate = ?
C3H8 = 0.0001
O2 = 0.210

N2 = 0.790

Fig 3.1: Overall material balance across SRU.

NOTE: In all the diagrams the compositions are mentioned in mole fraction basis

Sulfur production target (S8) = 80 ton/day

=
80 1 1000 1
tons day kg kgmol
24 1 256.5
day hr ton kg

= 13.0 kgmol/hr
16
H2S required by S8 = 3
× 13.0 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

= 69.30 kgmol

H2S supply for S8 (on account for 99.9% conversion from the Claus process)

= 0.999 69.30 kgmol = 69.37 kgmol

SO2 required by S8 = kgmol (from equ. 3.2)

= 34.65 kgmol
H2S consumed for SO2 = 34.65 kgmol (from equ. 3.2)

Total H2S supplied = 69.37 kgmol + 34.65 kgmol = 104.03 kgmol

Total acid gas feed supply = 104.03 kgmol /0.523 = 198.80 kgmol

26
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

In the furnace the following chemical reactions are taking place:

Main Reactions:

1- H 2 SO2 + H2O (3.2)

2- SO2 + 2H2S S + 2H2O (3.3)

Side Reactions:

3- CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (3.4)

4- C 2CO2 + 2H2O (3.5)

5- C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O (3.6)

SO2 produced = 34.65 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)

H2S still available for S8 production = 104.03 kgmol - 34.65 kgmol = 69.37 kgmol
H2S consumed for S8 production = 10.4 kgmol 2 = 20.80 kgmol

H2S remaining = 69.37 kgmol - 20.80 kgmol = 48.58 kgmol

2

SO2 remaining = 34.65 kgmol - 10.40 kgmol = 24.25 kgmol

SO consumed = 34.65 kgmol 0.30 = 10.40 kgmol

S8 produced 10.40 kgmol = 3.90 kgmol

O2 required in SO2 formation = 52.0 kgmol (from equ. 3.2)

O2 required in CH4 combustion = 1.90 kgmol (from equ. 3.4)

0.10 kgmol

= 54.54 kgmol

Air fed to furnace = 54.54 kgmol / 0.210

= 259.70 kgmol

N2 going in = N2 going out = 259.70 kgmol × 0.790

27
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

O2 required in C2H6 combustion = 0.55 kgmol (from equ. 3.5)

O2 required in C3H8 combustion = 0.10 kgmol (from equ. 3.6)

= 52.0 kgmol + 1.90 kgmol + 0.55 kgmol
Total O2 required +
= 205.20 kgmol
CO2 generated in CH4 combustion = 0.95 kgmol (from equ. 3.4)

CO2 generated in C2H6 combustion = 0.31 kgmol (from equ. 3.5)

CO2 generated in C3H8 combustion = 0.05 kgmol (from equ. 3.6)

CO2 going out = 0.95 kgmol + 0.31 kgmol + 0.05 kgmol +

74.83 kgmol

= 76.16 kgmol

H2O formed in SO2 production = 34.65 kgmol (from equ. 3.2)

H2O formed in CH4 combustion = 1.90 kgmol (from equ. 3.4)

H2O formed in C2H6 combustion = 0.47 kgmol (from equ. 3.5)

H2O formed in C3H8 combustion = 0.08 kgmol (from equ. 3.6)

H2O formed in S8 production = 20.80 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)

Total H2O produced = 34.65 kgmol + 1.90 kgmol + 0.47 kgmol +

0.08 kgmol + 20.80 kgmol

= 58.0 kgmol
H2O going out = 58.0 kgmol + 18.80 kgmol = 76.72 kgmol
Now the Stream-02, Stream-03 and Stream-04 compositions are as follows:

Stream-02 composition

Stream-03 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F03 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.116 48.58
CO2 0.183 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25

28
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F02 (kgmol/hr)

O2 0.210 54.54
N2 0.790 205.20
TOTAL 1.0 259.70

29
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

H2O 0.140 58.0

S8 0.010 3.90
TOTAL 1.0 416.0

There is no need for the calculation of material balance across the

t waste hea
boiler B-100 since no material change takes place in there. So the composition of Stream-03

balance, calculations are made across it.

3.4 Material Balance across Condenser E-100

All of the sulfur produced in the furnace F-100 is condensed in the first condenser E-
100, along with some water. The purity of sulfur extracted is 99.9%.

Flow Rate = 416.0 kgmol/hr Flow Rate = ?

H2S = 0.116 H2S =?

CO2 = 0.183 CO2 =?

N2 = 0.50 N2 =?

SO2 = 0.058 SO2 =?

H2O = 0.140 H2O =?

S8 = 0.010 Flow Rate = ?

S8 = 0.999

H2 O = 0.111

Fig 3.3: Material balance across condenser E-100.

S8 going in Stream-S21 = 3.90 kgmol

30
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Total amount of Stream-S21 = 3.91 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-S21 = 3.91 kgmol 0.111 = 0.004 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-05 = 58.0 kgmol – 0.004 kgmol = 57.90 kgmol

Now the Stream-S21 and Stream-05 compositions are as follows:

Stream-S21 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS21 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 3.90
H2O 0.001 0.004
TOTAL 1.0 3.904

Stream-05 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F05 (kgmol/hr)
H 2S 0.117 48.58
CO2 0.184 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25
H 2O 0.140 57.90
TOTAL 1.0 412.0

31
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Again there is no need for the application of material balance calculations around
the heat exchanger E-101. So the Stream-06 has the same composition as that of
Flow Rate = ?
Flow Rate = 412.0 kgmol/hr
H2S = ? CO2
H2 S = 0.117
= ? N2 =?
CO2 = 0.184

N2 = 0.50 SO2 =?

SO2 = 0.058 H 2 O = ? S8 = ?

H2 O = 0.140

Fig 3.4: Material balance across reactor R-100.

Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-100
converts only 70% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur. 1 Thus:

32
 Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

SO2 consumed in S8 production = 24.25 kgmol 0.70 = 16.90 kgmol

SO2 remaining = 24.25 kgmol – 16.90 kgmol = 7.27 kgmol

H2S consumed in S8 production = 16.90 kgmol 2 (from equ. 3.3)

= 33.90 kgmol
H2S remaining = 48.58 kgmol – 33.90 kgmol = 14.62 kgmol
H2O formed along with S8 = 16.90 kgmol 2 (from equ. 3.3)

= 33.90 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 57.90 kgmol + 33.90 kgmol = 91.86 kgmol

S8 produced 16.90 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)

= 6.36 kgmol
H2O 0.228 91.86
S8 0.015 6.36
TOTAL 1.0 401.50

3.6 Material Balance across Condenser E-102

As in the previous case all of the produced sulfur is condensed through the condenser
and then withdrawn from the collecting pits.
Flow Rate = 401.50 Flow Rate = ?
kgmol/hr
H2 S = ? CO2
H2 S = 0.036
=?
CO2 = 0.190
N2 = ?
N2 = 0.511 SO2 = ? H2O
=?
SO2 = 0.018

O
H2 = 0.228
Now the Stream-07 composition is as follows:
S8 = 0.015
Stream-07 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F07 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.036 14.62
CO2 0.190 76.16
N2 0.511 205.20
SO2 0.018 7.27

1 th
“ulfur Reovery”, GP“A Engineering data book Vol. , edition, 1998. Chapter 22

33
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Flow Rate = ?

S8 = 0.999

H2 O = 0.111

Fig 3.5: Material balance across condenser E-102

S8 going in Stream-S22 = 6.36 kgmol

Total amount of Stream-S22 = 6.37 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-S22 = 6.37 kgmol 0.111 = 0.006 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-08 = 91.86 kgmol – 0.006 kgmol = 91.85

kgmol
Stream-08 composition

Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F08 (kgmol/hr)

H 2S 0.037 14.62

CO2 0.192 76.16

N2 0.520 205.20

SO2 0.018 7.27

Now theH2Stream-
O 0.232
S22 and Stream-08 compositions are91.86
as follows:

Stream-S22 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS22 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 6.37
H2O 0.001 0.0067
TOTAL 1.0 6.38

34
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

TOTAL 1.0 395.12

Again there is no need for the application of material balance calculations around the
Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-101 converts
only 80% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur.1 Thus:

SO 2 8

SO2 remaining = 7.27 kgmol – 5.82 kgmol = 1.45 kgmol

consumed in S production = 7.27 kgmol 0.80 = 5.82 kgmol

35
 Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

H2S consumed in S8 production = 5.82 kgmol 2 (from equ. 3.3)

= 11.64 kgmol
H2S remaining = 14.62 kgmol – 11.64 kgmol = 2.98 kgmol
H2O formed along with S8 = 5.82 kgmol 2 (from equ. 3.3)

= 11.64 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 91.86 kgmol + 11.64 kgmol = 103.50 kgmol

S8 produced 5.82 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)

= 2.18 kgmol
Now the Stream-10 composition is as follows:

Stream-10 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F10 (kgmol/hr)
H 2S 0.007 2.98
CO2 0.194 76.16
N2 0.524 205.20
SO2 0.003 1.45
H 2O 0.264 103.50
S8 0.005 2.18
TOTAL 1.0 391.48

3.8 Material Balance across Condenser E-104

As in the previous case all of the produced sulfur is condensed through the condenser

and then withdrawn from the collecting pits.

1 th
“ulfur Reovery”, GP“A Engineering data book Vol. , edition, 1998. Chapter 22

36
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Flow Rate = ?
Flow Rate = 391.48 kgmol/hr
H2S = ? CO2
H2 S = 0.007 = ? N2 = ?
SO2 = ? H2 O
CO2 = 0.194 =?

N2 = 0.524

SO2 = 0.003

H2 O = 0.264
Flow Rate = ?
S8 = 0.005

S8 = 0.999

H2 O = 0.111

Fig 3.7: Material balance across condenser E-104

S8 going in Stream-S23 = 2.18 kgmol

Total amount of Stream-S23 = 2.185 kgmol

HO 2 going in Stream-S23
= 2.185 kgmol 0.111
H2O going in Stream-11 = 103.50 kgmol – 0.002 kgmol
= 0.002 kgmol

37
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

= 103.48 kgmol

Now the Stream-S22 and Stream-08 compositions are as follows:

Stream-S23 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS23 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 2.18
H 2O 0.001 0.002
TOTAL 1.0 2.20
Again there is no need for the application of material balance calculations around the

38
 Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

Flow Rate = 389.30 kgmol/hr

H2 S = 0.037

CO2 = 0.192 Flow Rate = ?

N2 = 0.520 H2S = ? CO2

= ? N2 =?
SO2 = 0.018

H2 O = 0.232
SO2 =?

H 2 O = ? S8 = ?

Fig 3.8: Material balance across reactor R-102

Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-102 converts
only 95% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur.1 Thus:

H2S remaining = 2.98 kgmol – 2.76 kgmol = 0.21 kgmol

H2O formed along with S8 = 1.38 kgmol 2 (from equ. 3.3)

SO2 consumed in S8 production = 1.45 kgmol 0.95 = 1.38 kgmol

SO2 remaining = 1.45 kgmol – 1.38 kgmol = 0.07 kgmol

H2S consumed in S8 production = 1.38 kgmol × 2 (from equ. 3.3)

= 2.76 kgmol

1 th
“ulfur Reovery”, GP“A Engineering data book Vol. , edition, 1998. Chapter 22

39
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

= 2.76 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 103.48 kgmol + 2.76 kgmol = 106.27 kgmol

S8 produced 1.38 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)

= 0.51 kgmol

Total amount of Stream-S24 = 0.52 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-S24 = 0.52 kgmol 0.111 = 0.0005 kgmol

H2O going in Stream-14 = 106.27 kgmol – 0.0005 kgmol

condenser and then withdrawn from the collecting pits.
Flow Rate = 388.43 kgmol/hr Flow Rate = ?

H2S = 0.005 H2 S =?

CO2 = 0.120 CO2 =?

N2 = 0.528 N2 =?

SO2 = 0.0001 SO2 =?

H2O = 0.273 H2 O =?

S8 = 0.001 Flow Rate = ?

S8 = 0.999

H2 O = 0.111

Fig 3.9: Material balance across condenser E-106

S8 going in Stream-S24 = 0.51 kgmol

40
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3

= 106.27 kgmol

Total S8 produced from SRU = S8 withdrawn from condenser E-100 + S8

withdrawn from condenser E-102 + S8

withdrawn fr1om condenser E-104 + S8

withdrawn from condenser E- 106

= 3.90 kgmol + 6.37 kgmol + 2.18 kgmol +
0.51 kgmol
= 12.99 kgmol = 80 tons/day

41