LESSON NO.

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter focuses into the attributes and roles of language, providing a
deeper understanding of the goals and purposes behind teaching English. Additionally,
it briefly explores the position and range of English in both the global and Philippine
context.
.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Understand meaning, characteristics and functions of language

2. Know principles of language learning
3. Realize nature and scope of English Language
4. Get some insights into different types of aims and objectives of Teaching English
5. Answer the given activities / exercises

LEARNING CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

In ancient times, humans noticed that other creatures communicated their emotions through
sounds. Gradually, humans also acquired this ability and developed what we now know as
language. Unlike other creatures, humans have the unique capacity to use language through
speech and writing. We produce various sounds, sound clusters, words, phrases, and sentences
using our vocal organs.
Language is a product of evolution and collective agreement. It wasn't created overnight or
by an individual; rather, it emerged as a shared creation of human groups to facilitate
communication. Languages are not static; they can change, grow, and even fade away, in contrast
to human institutions. Each language is a convention upheld by a community and passed down
from one generation to the next.
Language holds significant importance in human life. We learn and use it as a means of
communication and as a symbol of our social identity. Through language, we can make statements,
convey information, share knowledge, and maintain social connections.
English, recognized as an international link language, enjoys widespread popularity and
usage across the globe. It is not only a part of our historical heritage through the British Empire but
also coexists with our native languages. Utilizing English effectively allows us to enrich ourselves
culturally, scientifically, technologically, and materially, enabling us to compete on a global scale

1
(Kumari, 2014).

1. Meaning, Characteristics & Functions of Language

1.1 Meaning of Language
The word ‘Language’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Lingue’ which means ‘produced
with the tongue’. Hence language means a thing which is produced with the tongue.
Let’s see some of the definitions by linguistic.
Edward Sapir:
"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols."
Block and Tragers :
“Language is a set of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
communicates.”
Otto Jespersen :
“Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to human
thoughts and feelings especially to impart them to others.”
Bernard Bloch & George L. Trager:
“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
operates.”
By examining all these definitions, we arrive at a comprehensive understanding of
language: "Language is a collection of arbitrary vocal symbols used by a social group to
function, communicate, and convey their emotions, feelings, and desires."

1.2 Characteristics of Language

Language is an integral aspect of human society, and it has been crucial in enabling
human civilization to flourish (Naeem, 2010). Unlike animal communication, language is
distinctively human. Let's examine some of the key characteristics of language:

a. Language is Learned:
Language is not an innate ability like crying or walking. It is not automatic and requires
active learning. Learners acquire language through imitation and practice.

b. Language is an Acquired Behavior:

Language is a learned behavior. If an individual or a child is exposed to a different
community or cultural group, they will acquire the language spoken in that particular

2
cultural setting. For instance, if a Filipino family moves to the United States, their children
will pick up English with an American accent.

c. Language is a System:
Language functions as a system, much like the human body operates through various
organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. In language, sounds, words, and structures
play crucial roles.
d. Language is Vocal:
Speech is the primary form of language. Speaking is fundamental to language learning,
while reading and writing are secondary. Through speech and its modulation, we
understand the nuances of language, including inflection in English.
e. Ever Changing:
Languages are not static; they constantly undergo changes in grammar, vocabulary,
structure, and phonology over time.
f. Language is for Communication:
The primary purpose of language is communication. Therefore, it is essential for a
person's speech to be intelligible to others, which requires acquiring the correct
pronunciation and intonation.
g. Language is Arbitrary:
There is no inherent connection between the words of a language and their meanings.
The relationship between word and meaning is arbitrary. For example, the word
"Language" is called "Bhasha" in Hindi and "Zaban" in Urdu, with no specific reason for
these designations.
h. Language is Based on Cultural Experiences:
Each language is shaped by the society and culture it originates from. Words such as
"Good morning," "Thank you," and "Sorry" reflect the culture of English-speaking people,
while words like "Asslamu alaykum," "Khuda Hafiz," and "Shaba khair" showcase the
culture of Urdu-speaking communities.
i. Language is Made of Habits:
A person truly learns a language when they can speak it effortlessly without conscious
effort. Language cannot be mastered solely through rules; it requires consistent practice
to become a habit.
j. Language is Unique:
Every language is distinct and possesses its own set of patterns, structures, sounds,
grammatical rules, and vocabulary. No two languages are alike; they have their
individual specialties.

3
1.3 Functions of Language

M. A. K. Halliday (1975) outlined seven fundamental functions of language in his

book "Explorations in the Functions of Language." These functions can be summarized
as follows:
a. The Instrumental Function:
Language serves as an instrument to make the recipient perform certain actions. It is
used for making requests, giving commands, and expressing desires related to material
needs.
Examples: Could you lend me your pen?"
"I wish to have a slice of chocolate cake."
You should definitely try this new restaurant; the food is amazing."
b. The Regulatory Function:
Language is employed to regulate the behavior of others, directing or controlling their
actions. It includes giving instructions, advice, warnings, suggestions, and using
emotional appeals.
Examples : You should take some rest; you look exhausted."
Please refrain from using cell phones during the performance."
"Beware of the slippery floor; it's wet."
c. The Interaction Function:
Language facilitates interaction between individuals, fostering communication in social
settings. This function encompasses greetings, expressions of sympathy, gratitude,
compliments, as well as hostile or negative expressions.
Examples: "Did you watch the game last night?"
Take care, have a safe trip!"
Have a great day!"
d. The Personal Function:
Language is used to express personal feelings and meanings, allowing speakers to
convey their emotions and attitudes directly. This function is observed in poetry,
speeches, and expressions of love or sorrow.
Examples: Thank you for your kind words."
"I love you."
"I'm really sorry for your loss."
e. The Heuristic Function:

4
 Language serves as a tool for inquiry and questioning, allowing learners to explore and
discover information about the world.
Examples: I'd like to explore different cultures and traditions."
My research aims to investigate the effects of social media on mental health."
"I wonder how this machine functions."
f. The Imaginative Function:
Language is used creatively to create imaginary worlds, providing pleasure through
imaginative and aesthetic expression.
Examples: "The painting portrayed a surreal landscape where the moon embraced the
ocean, and the stars weaved patterns in the sky."
Imagine all the people, living life in peace..."
g. The Representational Function:
Language is used to communicate factual information about the real world, describing
and presenting objects, processes, persons, qualities, states, and relations. This function
is evident in books, newspapers, magazines, and other forms of mass media
communication.
Examples: News Reports:
"The stock market experienced a significant increase today, with the Dow Jones
reaching an all-time high."
Scientific Explanations:
"Photosynthesis is the process through which plants convert sunlight into energy and
produce oxygen."
Biographies:
"Albert Einstein was a renowned physicist who developed the theory of relativity and
won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921."

In essence, language serves a multitude of purposes, ranging from practical

communication and regulation of behavior to emotional expression, inquiry, creativity,
and the conveyance of factual information.

2. PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Children can acquire language skills as effortlessly as they learn to walk, run, or play. It
is a common belief that students attending English medium schools excel in English,
while those in government schools struggle with the language. However, language
learning is not dependent on the medium of instruction; rather, it relies on the teachers'
application of language learning principles. Let's explore these principles:

5
a. Habit Formation:
Language learning involves the formation of various language habits, such as listening,
speaking, reading, and writing, which can be consciously and unconsciously developed.
b. Practice and Drill:
Sufficient practice and drill are essential in the habit-forming process of language
learning.
c. Oral Approach:
Similar to how children learn their mother tongue by speaking first, a second or foreign
language should also be taught with a primary focus on oral communication.
d. Natural Order of Learning:
The natural order of language learning is Listening-Speaking-Reading-Writing (LSRW).
This order resembles how children naturally learn their mother tongue without formal
instruction and should be considered in English language teaching.
e. Multi-Skill Approach:
Balanced emphasis should be given to all four language skills: listening, speaking,
reading, and writing, without neglecting any particular skill.
f. Selection and Gradation:
In language learning, progression from simple to complex is crucial. Vocabulary and
language structures should be chosen and organized based on frequency, teachability,
and difficulty.
g. Situational Approach:
Teaching English in contextual situations, similar to how children learn their mother
tongue, facilitates natural language acquisition.
h. Exposure:
Being exposed to the target language, such as English, aids in the learning process.
i. Imitation:
Children learn their mother tongue through imitation. Similarly, English teachers should
provide a good speech model, using audio-visual aids to aid learning.
j. Motivation:
Motivation plays a significant role in language learning. Therefore, learners should be
motivated to engage in the process.
k. Accuracy:
Emphasizing accuracy in all aspects of language learning helps learners follow their
teachers' lead and view them as role models.
l. Purpose:
Setting clear language learning objectives from the beginning enables the design of a

6
 suitable course.
m. Multiple Approaches:
Teachers should not stick to a specific teaching method but should use various
approaches and techniques based on learners' needs.

n. Interest:
Generating enthusiasm and interest among learners encourages them to be actively
involved in language learning.
o. Co-relation:
Linking English teaching and learning to real-life situations helps learners understand the
significance of language acquisition and encourages their interest in the process.

3. Nature of the English Language

English is a varied language that has absorbed vocabulary from many languages of
the world. English is the most dynamic language of the world. Let us discuss the nature of
English language
a. Receptive
Receptiveness is regarded as an extraordinary nature of English language. It has
maintained its open door policy. It has adopted and accepted thousands of words from
European, Asian, African, Indian, Japanese, Chinese and other languages. We can see
a great impact on classical languages like Latin, Greek, Arabic, French and Sanskrit on
English. English has the richest vocabulary due to its receptiveness (Kumari, 2014).

b. Heterogeneous
As English contains vocabulary from many languages, it has become heterogeneous in
nature. In the process of adopting words from other languages, in some cases the
original words as it is without change in meaning, but in some other cases, the spelling,
pronunciation and meaning of original words from other languages was changed for
instance; the French word, ‘tour’ and the Latin word, ‘turris’ bacome ‘Tower’ in English
(Kumari, 2014).
c. Systematic
The system of English language functions through sounds, words and structures. The
system of sound is known as phonology. The system of words is called as morphology
whereas the system of structures is named as syntax. All these three systems are
integrated with one another making an organic whole which is called as the English
language.

7
d. Unique
English is unique in its nature. English is not 100% French, not German or Arabic, not
Latin or Greek. English is English. English differs from other languages in its sounds,
words, structures and functioning. Though English has adopted vocabulary from other
languages, it has shaped them remarkably as if these words are its own.
e. Dynamic
English is a dynamic language. It is constantly changing. These changes are regular and
systematic. If you study the history of English language, you will come to know the
difference between Old English, Medieval English and Modern English. The old English
words like; ‘thou and thee’ are now ‘you and your.’ In the age of technology, we have
developed ‘SMS English’ where many short forms are used such as; ‘you’ is written as
‘u’, ‘as soon as possible’ is written as ‘ASAP’, and ‘your’ is written as ‘ur’.
So English is a dynamic language, therefore, it is continuously changing throughout the
world.
f. Creative
English is a highly creative language, that’s why it has the richest literature in the world.
A writer or speaker can write or speak something he has never written or said before.
English literature has a wide variety of prose and poetry, fiction and non-fictional writing,
such as;
novels, short stories, travelogues, fairy tales, science fiction, drama, songs, etc. Because
of the creative power of English, English literature is very easy to listen and read.
g. Productive
English is also highly productive. One can make thousands and lakhs of sentences with
its words. There is no need to learn by rote English sentences. We can produce
sentences without effort. People speak and write in different ways and styles best still,
the words and sentence structures are same. The world is rapidly producing knowledge
with the help of English that is doubling every 13 months.
h. Symbolic
English is symbolic. Every English word, phrase or sentence represents some object,
activity or idea. For ex; after listening to the sentence, ‘Sami was singing a song.' we can
visualize how Sami could be singing the song. The announcement, ‘The Ajanta Express
is arriving on platform no 1,' creates a mental picture of the train arriving on a particular
platform. So, English is symbolic in its nature (Kumari, 2014).
i. Modifiable
English is extremely modifiable. It penetrates, fuses and assimilates with the local
language of a given country to emerge in different modified and extended forms of
English to be accepted, understood and enjoyed universally, such as; Indian English,

8
 American English, British English, Australian English, etc (Kumari, 2014).
j. Grammatical
English has its own grammatical rules and structures of sentences. These grammatical
rules and sentence structures are necessary for proper relationship of the words in a
sentence and to avoid ambiguity. It also clarifies the acceptable and unacceptable forms
of sentences. For example; ‘I am writing a book' is the correct order of present
continuous tense rather than the sentence ‘I book writing.' Therefore, Functional English
grammar is essential for learning the English language.

4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English

Teaching English language has specific aims and objectives that guide educators in
designing effective language learning experiences for students. Let's discuss some of the key aims
and objectives of teaching English:

1. Communication Skills: One of the primary aims of teaching English is to develop students'
communication skills in the language. This includes proficiency in speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. The objective is to enable students to effectively convey their thoughts,
ideas, and emotions, and to comprehend and respond to various forms of communication in
English.
2. Cultural Understanding: Teaching English also aims to foster cultural understanding and
appreciation. By learning English, students gain access to literature, films, music, and art
from English-speaking countries, providing them with insights into diverse cultures and
worldviews.
3. Global Communication: English is often referred to as a global language, and one of the
objectives of teaching English is to equip students with a means of communication that
transcends borders and connects them to people worldwide. Proficiency in English facilitates
international travel, business, and cooperation.
4. Academic and Professional Advancement: Fluency in English is crucial for academic and
professional success in many fields. The aim is to empower students with the language skills
needed to excel in higher education, secure better job opportunities, and advance in their
careers.
5. Critical Thinking and Creativity: Teaching English encourages critical thinking and
creativity. Through analyzing literature, engaging in discussions, and expressing their own
ideas, students develop higher-order thinking skills and creativity in the language.
6. Enhanced Cognitive Abilities: Learning a second language like English has been shown
to enhance cognitive abilities, such as memory, problem-solving, and multitasking. These

9
 cognitive benefits are part of the objectives of teaching English.
7. Empowerment and Confidence: Mastery of a language can boost students' self-confidence
and empower them to express themselves effectively in various social and professional
settings. The aim is to develop students into confident and articulate speakers of English.
8. Digital Literacy: In today's digital age, English is the dominant language of the internet and
digital communication. Teaching English includes developing digital literacy skills, enabling
students to navigate online resources, engage in online discussions, and utilize technology
effectively.

9. Cross-Cultural Communication: English language teaching promotes cross-cultural

communication skills, preparing students to interact with people from diverse linguistic and
cultural backgrounds. This fosters understanding, empathy, and cooperation across cultures.
10. Appreciation of Literature: Another objective of teaching English is to nurture an
appreciation for literature and language arts. By introducing students to classic and
contemporary literary works, educators aim to instill a love for reading and an understanding
of the power of language.
11. Lifelong Learning: Beyond the immediate objectives, teaching English aims to cultivate a
love for learning and motivate students to continue learning the language even after formal
education ends. This encourages lifelong learning and a desire for self-improvement.

The aims and objectives of teaching English encompass a wide range of skills, knowledge, and
personal development. By focusing on effective communication, cultural understanding, global
reach, and cognitive growth, educators can empower students with the tools they need to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected world.

5. Status of English Language in the Global and Philippine Context

5.1 Status of English Language in the Global Context:

A. Global Lingua Franca: English has emerged as the global lingua franca, serving as a
common language of communication across borders, cultures, and diverse linguistic
backgrounds. It is the most widely learned and used language in the world, employed in
international business, diplomacy, academia, and various other fields.
B. Dominance in Science and Technology: English plays a dominant role in the fields of
science, technology, and research. A significant amount of scientific literature, academic
papers, and research studies are published in English, making it essential for scholars and
researchers worldwide.

10
 C. Media and Entertainment: English is a prominent language in the global media and
entertainment industry. Many blockbuster movies, TV shows, and popular music are
produced in English, contributing to its widespread exposure and influence.
D. Economic Significance: English is crucial for international trade and commerce.
Proficiency in English is often considered a competitive advantage for individuals and
businesses engaged in the global market.
E. Education: English is widely used as a medium of instruction in higher education and
research institutes. Many prestigious universities offer courses and programs in English,
attracting international students.
F. Internet and Technology: The internet, as a global platform, is predominantly in English.
Most websites, social media platforms, and online content are in English, making it essential
for digital literacy and communication.
5.2 Status of English Language in the Philippine Context:

1. Official Language: English is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Along with
Filipino (Tagalog), English is used in government, education, business, and media.
2. Medium of Instruction: English is commonly used as the medium of instruction in higher
education, particularly in universities and colleges. This practice is especially prevalent in
academic disciplines such as science, engineering, medicine, and business.
3. Language of Government and Law: English is used in official government documents,
legal proceedings, and laws. It plays a crucial role in facilitating communication and
understanding in the legal and administrative systems.
4. Language of Business and Industry: English is widely used in the business and corporate
sectors in the Philippines. Many multinational companies and industries use English as their
primary language for communication and operations.
5. Bilingual Education: The Philippines follows a bilingual education policy, wherein English
and Filipino are used as the primary languages of instruction in schools.
6. Literacy and Education: English literacy is highly valued and sought after in the
Philippines. Many parents and students view English proficiency as a means to access
better educational opportunities and future career prospects.
7. Cultural Influence: English has influenced Philippine culture through literature, media, and
entertainment. Many Filipino writers and artists create works in English, contributing to the
country's rich literary and artistic heritage.
8. Dialectal Variation: English spoken in the Philippines exhibits dialectal variations and
unique linguistic features due to the influence of Filipino and local languages. This has led to
the development of Philippine English, which is distinct from other varieties of English.

11
 In conclusion, English holds a prominent status both globally and in the Philippines. Its
widespread use as a global lingua franca and its significance in various sectors of society, including
education, government, business, and media, underscores its importance and impact in the
contemporary world. In the Philippines, English is deeply ingrained in the nation's linguistic
landscape and continues to play a pivotal role in shaping education, culture, and economic
development.

6. Teaching English in Bilingual/ Multilingual Contexts- Teaching English as a Second

Language

As per Wikipedia (2017), a second language refers to a language that is not the native
tongue of the speaker but is used in the local setting. In simpler terms, it is a language learned in
addition to the learner's mother tongue to serve practical purposes in daily life and affairs. Thus, the
learner's mother tongue is referred to as the first language or L1, while any language acquired in
addition to it is known as the second language or L2. Languages can also be classified into various
types, such as the third language (L3), foreign language, dead language, classical language, target
language, and others.
In the current context, English has become the second language in the Philippines due to its
national and global significance as a language of knowledge, communication, education, business,
trade, commerce, science, technology, and a window to the modern world. Consequently, Filipinos
use English for practical purposes like social interactions, business dealings, official matters,
education both within the country and abroad, listening to national and global broadcasts, reading
newspapers and books, and for travel purposes.

For an English teacher, it is crucial to equip learners with the proficiency in English that
allows them to express themselves both orally and in writing, as this proficiency is essential in
today's world where English serves as a primary means of communication. Teachers should strive
to achieve the following objectives of teaching English as a second language:

a. Enable learners to understand spoken English effectively.

b. Develop the ability to speak English correctly and fluently.
c. Enhance reading skills in English, enabling comprehension at a reasonable speed for gathering
information and enjoying reading.
d. Foster writing skills in English, ensuring neat and correct expression with proper speed and

12
legibility.
e. Provide knowledge of the elements of English to achieve practical command over the language.
f. Train learners in translation between English and their mother tongue, facilitating seamless
communication between the two languages.

By achieving these objectives, English learners can confidently navigate the modern world where
English serves as a vital tool for communication and access to various opportunities.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

I. Identify the function of language described in each statement. Write your answer before
the number.

____________1. Language used to express personal feelings, emotions, and attitudes.

____________2. Language used to give instructions, commands, or to control behavior

____________3. Language used to convey factual information, knowledge, or descriptions.

____________4. Language used to get things done or to fulfill specific needs and desires.

____________5. Language used to entertain, create art, and engage with imagination.

____________6. Language used to establish social connections, build relationships, and show politeness.

____________7. Language used to persuade, influence, or manipulate others' thoughts or actions.

____________8. Language used to share stories, experiences, and personal narratives.

____________9. Language used to criticize, praise, or evaluate something or someone.

____________10. Language used to ask questions, seek information, or engage in discussions.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. Explain what is meant by the "arbitrary" nature of language. Provide an example to illustrate
this characteristic.
2. What is the current status of the English language as a global lingua franca?
3. How does the dominance of English impact international business and communication?
4. Explain the role of English in Philippine education and its impact on students and graduates.
5. How does teaching English language skills contribute to students' academic and professional
development?

13
 SUMMARY

Language is a vital aspect of human communication, allowing individuals to express thoughts,

emotions, and desires through a system of arbitrary vocal symbols. It is learned, acquired behavior
that enables effective communication within a social group. The characteristics of language include
being vocal, ever-changing, arbitrary, cultural, and based on habits. Language serves various
functions, such as instrumental (giving instructions), regulatory (controlling behavior), informative
(conveying knowledge), expressive (expressing emotions), heuristic (inquiring), imaginative
(engaging creativity), and representational (communicating facts about the world). With its unique
characteristics and diverse functions, language plays a crucial role in human interactions and
cultural expression.

In this unit, the focus was on comprehending the meaning and characteristics of language. It
became evident that language is the differentiating factor between human and animal
communication. Additionally, we explored Halliday's fundamental functions of language, which
illustrate its diverse applications in our daily lives. Moreover, we delved into several principles of
language learning that are crucial for educators to internalize and apply when teaching any
language.

We now understand that the English language possesses a highly dynamic nature, and English
teachers should strive to cultivate the same adaptability within themselves. English language
teaching holds boundless potential in the current era of globalization. Consequently, it is imperative
for English language teachers to be well-versed in the aims and objectives of teaching various
language skills, literary forms, and levels of education, catering to different purposes. With the
promising future of the English language, the role of English teachers becomes equally promising.

14
 REFERENCES

Prsad,D. Vishwa ( 2018). Pedagogy of English. Registrar, Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad
Halliday, M.A.K (1975), Explorations in the functions of language. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Halliday

Jesa, M. (2005). Efficient English Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.

Kumari, A.V (2014). Methods of Teaching English. Guntur: New Era Publications.

Naeem, P. (2010). Characteristics and Features of Language.

Retrieved from https://neoenglish.wordpress.com/2010/12/16/characteristics-and- features-
of-language

National Curriculum Framework (2005). National Council for Educational Research & Training: New
Delhi. Retrieved from http://www.ncert.nic.in/rightside/links/pdf/framework/english/nf2005.pdf

15
 LESSON NO. 2

Different Approaches/ Theories to Language Learning and

Teaching

LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter presents the diverse methods and approaches employed in language teaching,
encompassing traditional techniques such as the Grammar-Translation method and progressing to more
contemporary ones like the Natural approach and Humanistic approaches.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. know the history of English language teaching;
2. understand various approaches and methods comprehensively;
3. understand the method(s)/approach(es) s/he should use in his/her English classroom;
4. comprehend important terms related to English language teaching

LEARNING CONTENTS

2.1 History of English Language

Before delving into the theoretical aspects of English language teaching, it is essential to
have a brief understanding of the history of language teaching.
Latin was once a prominent and significant language widely learned across Europe and the
Middle East for many centuries. However, due to various religious, political, and economic factors,

16
Latin gradually lost its popularity among the general population. During the sixteenth century,
French, Italian, and English gained increasing prominence in Europe.
While Latin eventually faded away, its study became a model for learning foreign languages,
with a focus on grammar analysis and rhetoric, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries.
Grammar schools in England introduced Latin grammar to their learners, who would memorize
rules, declensions, and conjugations through rote learning. As learners achieved the required
proficiency, they progressed to advanced grammar and rhetoric.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, educational reformers like Roger Ascham,
Montaigne, Comenius, and John Locke attempted to revamp the curriculum and teaching methods
for Latin (Kelly, 1969; Howatt, 1984). By the nineteenth century, studying Latin had become an
established practice for learning foreign languages. Textbooks in this period focused on grammar
points, with rules explained through illustrations.
During the nineteenth century, foreign language textbooks emphasized rules concerning
word formation and sentence structure, which teachers explained and learners memorized. Oral
exercises were minimal, and few written exercises were provided to reinforce the rules. Noteworthy
textbooks published during this time by Seidenstucker and Plotz followed a similar pattern. They
presented rules and examples in the first part, followed by translation exercises in the second part
between different languages. This approach to teaching a foreign language became known as the
Grammar-Translation Method or Classical Method.

Regarding language, there are three major views:

 The structural view: Language is seen as a system of structures that carry meaning, such
as grammar.
 The functional view: Language is considered a means to fulfill specific functions, such as
making requests or inquiries.
 The interactive view: Language is viewed as a tool for establishing and maintaining social
relations in society, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in
conversational exchanges. This perspective has gained influence since the 1980s.

Definitions of approach, method, and technique

Anthony (1965) put forth the idea of approach, method, and technique in the following way:
An approach is a set of…assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning.
A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material… and all of which is
based upon, the selected approach.
A technique is that which actually takes place in a classroom. Techniques must be consistent with

17
a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

2.2 Grammar-Translation Method

The Grammar-Translation Method originated in the 1500s when Latin was extensively studied as a
foreign language due to its importance in various fields like academia and business. However, the
use of Latin gradually declined over time, and it was replaced by English and other European
languages. As a result, people began studying Latin more as a subject rather than a language for
communication.

In the 19th century, modern languages were introduced into school curricula, and language
teachers started using the same Grammar-Translation Method to teach these languages. During
this period, grammar-translation textbooks focused on the target language's grammar, providing
separate and disconnected grammar rules for learners to memorize. They also included bilingual
vocabulary lists and sentences for learning and translation.

Principles of the Grammar-Translation Method include:

a. Emphasis on reading and writing.
b. Use of the native language (L1) while teaching.
c. Deductive learning of grammar rules.
d. Encouragement of rote learning.
e. Common use of grammar drills and translation from L1 to L2 (target language).
f. Greater emphasis on "form" rather than "content."
g. Evaluation based on translation of texts.
h. Sole reliance on the textbook as the teaching-learning material.

Efforts were made by Roger Ascham, Montaigne, Comenius, and John Locke to reform the
Grammar-Translation Method. Later, Berlitz, Passy, Viëtor, and Jespersen highlighted its limitations
and advocated for teaching the target language (L2) in the L2 itself, supporting speech and text.

Merits of the Grammar-Translation Method include:

 Both the teacher and the learner use L1, providing clear understanding.
 Translation of new words aids learner comprehension.
 The teacher does not need to focus on accuracy.
 Teaching follows the principle of known to unknown, making it easier for learners to

18
 understand.
 The teacher experiences minimal teaching efforts and can evaluate learner comprehension
easily.

Demerits of the Grammar-Translation Method include:

 It does not improve oral fluency in English.
 Learners find it tedious and uninteresting due to memorization of words and rules.
 It does not build confidence in learners.
 There is no restriction on using L1 in class.
 Language items learned are not applicable to real-life situations.
 Learners struggle to use English in day-to-day communication.
 The method focuses solely on reading and writing, neglecting speaking skills.

2.3 Direct Method

The Direct Method, which emerged in the late nineteenth century, challenged the conventional
Grammar-Translation method by advocating a more scientific approach based on observations of
children's language learning. Franke (1884) proposed that effective monolingual language teaching
could be achieved by linking form and meaning. In this method, the target language is actively used
in the classroom, and grammar rules are not explicitly explained. Learners are expected to acquire
the grammar of the second language (L2) through exposure and induction, similar to how they learn
their native language (L1). The use of textbooks is minimized during the initial stages of learning,
and the teacher decides what to teach. The Direct Method was widely recognized as the first
teaching method for language learning and marked the beginning of the "methods era" in language
teaching.

Principles of Direct Method

a. Teaching is conducted entirely in the target language, and the native language of the
learners is not emphasized.
b. Everyday vocabulary and sentences are given priority in the teaching process.
c. Target language grammar is taught inductively, allowing learners to infer rules from
exposure.
d. Lesson items are introduced to learners orally.
e. Teacher and learners engage in oral communication using question and answer formats.
f. Realia, pictures, or demonstrations are used to teach vocabulary, and association of ideas is

19
 employed for abstract vocabulary.
g. Listening and speaking skills are emphasized in the learning process.
h. Pronunciation and grammar are considered vital aspects of language learning.

Merits of Direct Method

The Direct Method offers several advantages, including:

 L2 is learned in a manner similar to the learner's acquisition of L1.

 Learners are encouraged to avoid relying on their native language and instead think in the
target language.
 Audiovisual teaching aids are utilized to facilitate the learning process.
 Emphasis on spoken language allows for immediate correction of errors.

Demerits of Direct Method

 English teachers must possess native-like fluency in English, which may not always be
feasible.
 Some critics view it as a product of amateurism rather than a rigorously researched method.
 Relying solely on the target language to explain vocabulary can be challenging and may
require complex verbal gymnastics.

2. 4. The Audio-Lingual Method

Due to the significant drawbacks of the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method emerged as an
alternative in the 1960s, particularly gaining popularity in the United States. Another reason for its
development was the growing demand for teaching English to immigrants and foreign learners, as
the United States became a major international power after World War II.
The Audio-Lingual Method emphasized the importance of oral drilling, pronunciation, and
developing a "mastery of the formal properties of language," which focused on developing strong
grammatical habits or structures.
Over time, the Audio-Lingual Method declined as learners found it challenging to apply the skills
learned in real-life situations. The linguist Noam Chomsky argued that languages were generated
from learners' underlying knowledge of abstract rules, which brought theoretical criticism to this
method.

Principles of the Audio-Lingual Method

20
The principles of the Audio-Lingual Method are as follows:
a. Language is primarily for communication.
b. Language learning follows a natural order: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
c. Language is learned in context.
d. Repetition and drilling are common as language learning is seen as forming habits.
e. Substitution drills are used to familiarize learners with language usage.
f. Grammar structures are taught before vocabulary.
g. Rules are taught through examples.
h. Errors are corrected immediately.
i. Teachers serve as role models for language usage.
J. Teachers also teach the culture of the target language.

Merits of the Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method has several advantages:

 It is based on a solid theory of language learning.
 The method is practical and effective for teaching large groups of learners.
 The emphasis on listening and speaking skills is strong.
 Visual aids are utilized for effective vocabulary teaching.
 Correct pronunciation and language structure are emphasized.
Demerits of the Audio-Lingual Method
 ELT practitioners and scholars have criticized this method as it relies on behaviorism.
 Communicative competence is not given adequate importance.
 The four basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) are not equally
emphasized.
 The method prioritizes the form of language over its meaning.
 Pattern practice, drilling, and memorization are mechanical and do not focus on the organic
usage of language.
 The teacher tends to dominate the learning process in this method.

2.5 Structural Approach

This method encourages a learner to master the structures of English. A structure is an

arrangement of phrases in a sentence. This approach presupposes English comprises 'structures'
and they can be taught by systematic selection and gradation of the structures and vocabulary.

21
Grammatical structures are learnt by language drills and repetitions in the early stages. Learners
have to attain mastery in using 275 graded structures and 3000 root words.
This method uses the following for teaching English:

1. Word order: Word order or sentence structure can change the meaning
2. Function words:Function words modify the meaning of a sentence.
3. Inflections: an affix (prefix or suffix) can change the base form of a word.

Principles of Structural Approach

Prof. F.G. French has put forth the following principles:

1. Learners have to fix up habits of the English language patterns;

2. Learners’ activities are more important than those of the teacher;
3. Oral work is the base for the other language skills are built up;
4. The structures of English are mastered – they are to be picked up, practised and fixed in
mind;
5. Meaningful situations are created by dramatization to teach language skills and
6. The teacher teaches one language item at a time.
Selection of Structures
As the structures of English are the basic teaching points in this approach, the teacher selects the
structures based on the following principles:
a. Usefulness: the structures, which are used frequently.
b. Productivity: the structures which entail the other structures.
c. Simplicity: the structures which are simple in terms of form and meaning.
d. Teach-ability: the structures which are easy to teach.
e. Frequency: the structures with a high rate of occurrence.
f. Range:the structures which occur in various contexts.
g. Coverage: the structures which cover a number of meanings
h. Learnability: the structures which are easy to learn.

Gradation of Structure

22
Structures of English are graded based on the following patterns which are taught together or
separately during English language teaching course:
A. Grouping
a. Phonetic grouping: based on sound. For example: cat, rat, mat etc.
b. Lexical grouping: based on words used in the same context.
c. Grammatical grouping:based on similar sentence pattern.
d. Semantic grouping: based on words having a similar meaning.
e. Structure Grouping: based on structures which fit each other.

B. Sequencing
a. Grammatical sequencing they are placed one after the other depending on their context.
b. Semantic sequencing they are sequenced depending on their meaning.
c. Lexical sequencing it depends on the phrases which go together

C. Types of sentence pattern

There are different patterns of sentences. They are:
a. Two-part patterns Birds fly (birds/fly)
b. Three-part patterns She is sleeping (she / is / sleeping )
c. Four-part patterns Kyla went to shop ( Kyla /went/to/shop)
d. Patterns beginning with 'there', There are two chocolates in my bag
'Wh' type question Where is your college?
e. Patterns of command/request Come here, Go there, etc.
f. Formal pattern Good afternoon, Thank you etc.

D. Sentence types
The structures have the following sentence types:
a. Declarative sentence: It makes a statement.
Example: I want to be a good teacher.
b. Imperative sentence: It gives a command or makes a request.
Example: Please write it down.
c. Interrogative sentence:It asks a question.
Example: Where are you going?
d. Exclamatory sentence:It expresses a feeling such as surprise, happiness, etc.
Example: Hurrah! We have won the game.

Merits of Structural Approach

23
  The controlled practice of structures leads to improvement of accuracy over a period
of time;
 Structures are taught based on the principles of selection, gradation, patterns of
sentences and types of sentences. Hence, a lot of time is saved;
 English is taught in meaningful contexts; and
 Speech is given importance.

Demerits of Structural Approach

a. Learners’ LI is not utilized in teaching and learning;

b. Language use is a matter of creativity. Teaching a limited number of structures may restrict
learner's potential to use the language; and
c. Language drills and repetitions are mechanical.
d. In order to teach English using structural approach, teachers should be well-versed with
linguistics, especially syntax.
e. Oral work is overstressed.

2.6 Situational Approach

The situational approach emerged between the 1930s and the 1960s and was developed by
British Applied Linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. These linguists drew inspiration from the
direct method and the works of 19th-century applied linguists like Otto Jesperson and Daniel Jones,
aiming to create a positivist approach to teaching English.
The key focus of the situational approach is to ensure that the language taught is practical and
relevant to real-life situations. Vocabulary and sentences are taught in contexts that either replicate
real situations or simulate them, allowing learners to associate the meaning of words with specific
scenarios. For instance, instead of looking up the word "pencil" in a dictionary, learners grasp its
meaning by hearing sentences like "Write with a pencil!" or "Sharpen the pencil!" The teacher's
innovative techniques help learners understand how to use the language beyond the confines of the
classroom.
The primary objective of teaching English through the situational approach is to enable learners to
use the language in their daily lives. As a result, traditional methods like translation and mechanical
drills are avoided, as they fail to connect the language to real-life situations, leading to boredom and
a lack of practical application. The situational approach emphasizes the importance of meaning,
context, and situation in language teaching. Its strength lies in its principle of providing variety and
simplicity, which effectively engages even slower learners by involving them in classroom activities
and encouraging cooperation among peers. Learners become enthusiastic about learning English

24
when they can use it in imaginary situations, especially during role-playing exercises in class.
However, it is essential to note that the situational approach places significant demands on the
English teacher. The teacher must be fluent in English, possess creativity in designing lessons, be
capable of evaluating learners' comprehension levels, and offer appropriate revisions to support
effective language learning.

Principles of Situational Approach

a. Language learning is habit-formation;
b. Mistakes should be avoided;
c. Language skills are presented orally first, then in written form- to improve the effectiveness
of learning;
d. Examples are better than analysis for language learning;
e. Meanings of the words are presented in linguistic and cultural context;
f. Opportunities are created for learners to associate the meaning of new words with parallel
situations;
g. New words are introduced as and when it comes in the class;
h. Language materials are used to create appropriate situation;
i. Continuous repetition of language items;
j. The teacher raises questions related to created situation and s/he answers them;
k. Revision is important;
m. There is a continuous chain of actions from the teacher; and
n. Teachers’ statements and actions go together continuously.

Merits of Situational Approach

 Meaning well as the structures, are used in an appropriate situation;

 Learning is easy and effective. English is real and interesting; and
 The learner gets good exposure to English, L1 is discouraged.

Demerits of Situational Approach

 Only limited vocabulary and structures are taught;

 It is useful for teaching lower-class learners;
 Drilling makes the class uninteresting and weary; and
 This approach demands highly competent teachers.

25
 II.7 Dr. West's New Method

According to Dr. West, teachers should prioritize teaching silent reading skills to improve reading
comprehension. Thus, more emphasis is placed on developing the habit of silent reading. To
cultivate this habit, he proposed a reading book containing interesting texts and carefully selected
vocabulary. Dr. West recommended an essential vocabulary list of 2,280 words, classified as
general words, essential words, common environmental words, and specific environmental words.

In this method, new words are evenly distributed throughout the lessons. The use of the learners'
mother tongue is allowed when necessary. Supplementary materials are used to arouse interest in
silent reading. Learners' reading comprehension is assessed through tests.

The method views English as a skill subject, where reading English is considered the easiest path
to improving speaking and writing. It also emphasizes the importance of connecting written work
with oral activities. Grammar is approached not as a tedious subject but as a tool to enhance
language proficiency.
Dr. West's method highlights three crucial elements:
a. Reading,
b. Readers with selected and graded vocabulary, and
c. A well-judged use of the learners' native language (L1).

Principles of Dr. West's New Method

The principles of the method include:

 Memorization and imitation are common strategies in language learning.

 New structures are initially explained using the learners' native language (L1).
 Grammar is taught inductively using model sentences.
 Conversation practice is initially provided in a controlled environment.
 Lectures, discussions, and dramatization are used in the intermediate and advanced levels.
Merits of Dr. West's New Method

The merits of Dr. West's method are as follows:

 Learners significantly improve their silent and extensive reading comprehension skills
through various types of questioning – local, global, and inferential.

26
  Any teacher can effectively teach this skill, especially silent reading.
Demerits of Dr. West's New Method
However, the method has some drawbacks:
 Excessive focus on silent reading makes evaluation challenging.
 Reading in the initial stages may be dull and uninteresting for learners.
 Reading has been given an exaggerated importance, potentially overshadowing other
language skills.
 The order of acquiring basic skills has been called into question.
 The method may not effectively help Indian learners achieve the four-fold objectives of
language learning.

II.8 Bilingual Method

C.J. Dodson (1967) was the proponent of the bilingual method. It is used for teaching a foreign
language and it is complementary to the audiovisual method. From the beginning, the sandwich
technique is used to convey the meaning bilingually. The mother tongue is used for bilingual pattern
drills.
The bilingual method follows three stages (presentation, practice and production) while teaching
English but ELT practitioners and scholars have neglected it. Butzkamm & Caldwell (2009) have
taken forward Dodson’s ideas and Hall & Cook (2012: 299) supported it.
Principles of Bilingual Method
1. Meaning of new words, phrases, idioms, sentences and grammatical rules is conveyed
through L1 in the initial stage of the lesson;
2. Pattern practice is given only in English; and
3. L1 is used only by the teacher to explain vocabulary and phrases.

Merits of Bilingual Method

 Learners’ L1 scaffolds L2 learning;
 Learners become functional bilinguals;
 Avoids meaningless and tedious parroting of the learning input;
 Learner comprehends grammar and vocabulary easily with L1. Time is saved; and
 Importance is given to L1 and its culture.
Demerits of Bilingual Method

27
  If the teacher fails to understand this method, there is a danger of making this method into
translation method;
 There is every chance to get confused while differentiating the features of the L1 and foreign
language;
 The teacher must be fluent in L1 and L2 also; and
 Learners may rely more on their L1.

II.9 Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total Physical Response (TPR) was developed by James Asher based on his own experiences.
This method focuses on the coordination of language learning with physical movement. In TPR,
learners respond to commands given by the teacher, and through this process, they can learn
between 12 to 36 words in a single hour of teaching. Teachers are encouraged to treat learners'
mistakes empathetically, similar to how a parent would. TPR lessons make use of a wide range of
realia, posters, and other materials. Initially, teaching aids are not necessary, and as learners
progress in proficiency, teachers may incorporate items found in the classroom.

 Asher proposed three hypotheses based on his observations:

1.Language learning should be stress-free.

2.Language learning engages the right hemisphere of the brain.
3.Language is primarily learned through listening.
4.TPR is often used in combination with other approaches, methods, or techniques. It is particularly
popular among beginners and young learners.

Principles of Total Physical Response

The principles of Total Physical Response are as follows:

28
 1. Listening is emphasized, and speaking is not considered crucial in the early stages of
learning.
2. In the initial stages, learners can respond to the teacher in their native language (L1).
3.Listening comprehension skills are the most effective strategy for developing speaking skills.
4. Learners are given sufficient time to acquire speaking skills through listening.
5. The primary objective of the method is to develop fluency.
6. Lessons are built around grammar, especially focusing on verbs.
7. Grammar is learned through induction, using a code-breaking approach.
8. Meaning is at the heart of a lesson, and learners acquire vocabulary and commands based
on verbs.
9. Teachers are solely responsible for deciding the listening input.
10. Teachers have the flexibility to use other techniques in conjunction with TPR.

Merits of Total Physical Response

The merits of Total Physical Response include:
 TPR is considered suitable primarily for beginner-level learners.
 The teacher does not need extensive preparation to teach the lesson.
 Mixed ability classes benefit more from TPR.
 It adopts a participatory approach to teaching.
 TPR is useful for teaching learners with dyslexia.
Demerits of Total Physical Response
The demerits of Total Physical Response are as follows:
 TPR relies heavily on commands, which may not be sufficient for learning English
comprehensively.
 Learners do not get ample opportunity to use English creatively.
 It takes a considerable amount of time before moving to full communication situations.

2.10 Whole Language

The concept of "whole" language is rooted in the idea of "holism," which emerged as a response to
behaviorism's stimulus-response learning approach. Holists argued against behaviorism,
considering it a reductionist perspective that fails to acknowledge that "the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts." They believed that understanding the human mind and learning required a holistic

29
approach that goes beyond analyzing individual behaviors or learning components. This holistic
perspective forms the foundation of the whole language approach.
The activities employed in Whole Language instruction include dialogue journals, portfolio-writing,
learner-made books, story writing, and writing conferences. The whole language approach gained
popularity in the late 1980s and 1990s, serving as an alternative educational paradigm to various
traditional methods and approaches. While it was admired during this period, some educators who
emphasized the importance of skill instruction and certain language education researchers were
skeptical about the claims made by the approach.

Principles of Whole Language

The principles of the Whole Language approach are as follows:
a.Emphasis is placed on comprehension in reading and the expression of meaning in writing.
b. Knowledge is constructed using constructivist approaches, where learners interpret the text and
freely express their ideas in writing.
c. High-quality culturally diverse literature is prioritized.
d. Literacy is integrated into other domains of the school curriculum.
e.Reading is encouraged through various means such as guided reading, reading aloud, and
independent reading.
f.Reading and writing are undertaken for real purposes.
i. Understanding the meaning-making role of phonics, grammar, spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation in diverse social contexts is emphasized.
j.Learners' attitudes are considered.
k.Cooperative learning among learners is supported.
l.The approach primarily relies on learners' cognitive reading skills, which include two main types:
a. Sub-lexical reading: Associating characters or groups of characters with sounds.
b. Lexical reading: Acquiring words or phrases without giving attention to the characters or
groups of characters that form them.

 Ken Goodman's 1967 article proposed four "cueing systems" that help learners guess what
comes next in the reading process. These cueing systems are:

a. Graphophonemic: Relates to the shapes of letters, sounds, and what would come next.
b. Semantic: Relates to the expected word based on the meaning of the sentence.
c. Syntactic: Relates to the word class that would make sense based on grammar.
d. Pragmatic: Relates to how the text works, the purpose for reading, and predicting meaning as
learners read.
Merits of Whole Language

30
The merits of the Whole Language approach include:
 Learners have the freedom to construct their own meaning of what they read.
 Exposure to English culture through native English literature helps learners grasp the
language quickly.
 Language integration across various disciplines accelerates English language learning.
 Cooperative learning among learners promotes collaborative learning.
Demerits of Whole Language
 A possible demerit of the Whole Language approach is the extensive use of reading
activities.

2.11 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

It accentuates interaction as the means and the definitive objective of learning. Language learners
in CLT learn and practice English through interaction with one another and the teacher. Learners
talk about personal experiences with peers, and teachers teach topics which encourages language
skills related to various situations. The most important goal of CLT is to enable the learners to
communicate in the target language. This approach does not use a textbook to teach English but
develops oral skills before moving to reading and writing.In addition, teachers select classroom oral
activities which are effective for developing communicative abilities and fluency in the target
language. These activities include active conversations and creative responses from learners.
Language activities differ depending on the level of language class.
Six kinds of activities are used commonly in communicative language teaching classrooms. They
are: group work, role-play, interviews, information gap, opinion sharing scavenger hunt, etc.One of
the prominent aspects of this approach is the role the teacher assumes in the classroom.
 Breen and Candlin put forth the roles teacher assume in a CLT class. They are as follows:
Facilitator: facilitates the communication process among learners in the
classroom.
Independent participant: act as an independent participant in the classroom to promote
teaching
and learning.
Needs analyst: teacher decides and takes initiatives to address language needs of
learners.
Counselor: the teacher is a model communicator and coordinates speaker’s
intentions and listener’s comprehension.
Group process manager: Teacher sets the classroom as a place for communication and
communicative tasks.

31
Initially, language teaching was regarded as a cognitive task, which involves memorization.
Afterwards, it was considered to be socio-cognitive, which involves both the cognitive abilities and
language associated with social customs, tradition and circumstances. During the 1960s, Noam
Chomsky focused on competence and performance in language learning, which gave birth to CLT.
In the 1970s, linguists, Michael Halliday and Dell Hymes laid down the conceptual foundation for
CLT. Communicative language teaching sprang to popularity in the 1970s due to the failure of
conventional language teaching methods, and rise in demand from society for effective language
learning.
Prior to CLT, the major language teaching method/approach was situational language teaching.
This method gave less importance to direct communication. Applied linguists in Britain, were
skeptical about the efficacy of situational language teaching and Chomsky challenged the structural
theories of language and stated that those theories were unable to explain diversity that exists in
actual communication. Candlin and Widdowson too observed that the other language learning
methods/approaches were ineffective in language classrooms.
Dell Hymes’ concept of communicative competence originated from Chomsky's idea of the
linguistic competence of a native speaker. Subsequent scholars, particularly Michael Canale,
developed the concept fully.
Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of four components:

 grammatical competence: competence of learners related to rules of language –

grammatical and lexical.
 sociolinguistic competence: competence of learners related to understanding the social
context in which communication takes place.
 strategic competence: competence of learners related to strategies that interlocutors
make use of, to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair and redirect
communication.
 discourse competence: competence of learners related to the interpretation of
individual message elements - cohesion and coherence.

Principles of CLT
The principles of CLT are as follows:
1. Fluency and accuracy are essential;
2. Along with listening comprehension and speaking, reading and writing can also be taught;
3. Contextualization of language and meaning are important;
4. The learner should be able to communicate;

32
5. L1 is used judiciously; and
6. The class is made lively and interactive with pair and group work.
Merits of CLT
 Learners acquire fluency and accuracy;
 Pair and group work build learners’ confidence and learning is interesting;
 Learners get sufficient opportunities to practice language through tasks; and
 Learning is motivating and meaningful.
Demerits of CLT
 Teacher’s involvement in teaching is less.
 This approach may not work well with large classes; and
 This approach will be successful only with those teachers, who are fluent and accurate in
English.

2.12 Natural Approach

Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell developed this approach during the late 1970s. After its
formulation, they further developed the theoretical basis of this method. Terrell and Krashen
published the results of their work in, The Natural Approach in 1983. It was mainly intended for
learners at basic / beginers level.The main objective of the approach is to promote language
acquisition in a classroom in a natural way. Therefore, it gives more importance to vocabulary,
creating intrinsically motivating
situations, communication, exposure to English input, reducing learners' anxiety than on grammar-
learning and error-correction of learners. The learning environment is made comfortable. The
learner’s produce language as when they feel comfortable after receiving sufficient comprehensible
language input. This approach has been linked with Krashen's monitor model.

 The approach uses activities which promote subconscious language acquisition. Some of
them are:
a.content activities: these activities help learners to learn a culture, a new
subject, reading in English.
b.affective-humanistic activities: these activities help learners to learners'
own ideas, opinions, experiences about something.

c.personalized language activities: these activities help learners to use English

while
playing language games.

33
 d.problem-solving activities. these activities help learners to communicate with
each other while finding solutions to a problem.
Principles of Natural Approach
 Terrell puts forth three principles:
a. The focus of teaching is on communication. The form is not given importance.
b. Speech develops slowly and it is never forced.
c. The early speech follows natural steps (yes/no response, one-word answers,
list of words, short phrases, complete sentences.)

 Terrell states that there are stages for the emergence of language

Early speech stage: Learners’ speechwill come out after enough

communicative input. Learners give answers to simple questions, using single words
and phrases in English.
Speech emergence stage: learners do activities, which need advanced English,
such as role-plays, problem-solving activities, etc.
 The natural approach is often regarded as a language teaching application of Krashen's
monitor model. Krashen proposed five hypotheses in monitor model:
a. Acquisition-learning hypothesis: there is a clear distinction between Learning
(conscious) and acquisition (subconscious) of language. Only acquisition leads to
fluency.
b. Monitor hypothesis: consciously learnt language is used only to monitor
output.
c. Input hypothesis: comprehensible input given should be one step higher
than (+1) that of the learner’s present level of
knowledge ( i ). Only then, language is acquired. It is known as
comprehensible input, "i+1".
d. Natural order hypothesis: learners acquire grammar of English in set
order,
and it is unaffected by teaching.
e. The affective filter hypothesis:learners acquire English, with little or no
effort, when they are relaxed and open to
learning.
Merits of Natural Approach
 It is simple to understand
 It coincides with the knowledge about the L2 acquisition.

34
  It could be tried along with the prevailing English classroom practices.
Demerits of Natural Approach
 It may take a lot of time before language emerges naturally; and
 In language acquisition, the grammar may not be picked up in the order of difficulty level.

2.13 Other Methods and Approaches in Brief

Deductive Method

It is one of the methods to teach grammar. It is used with learners who have acquired
some English. In this method, the teacher explains the rule first and then gives
examples. Later, the teacher helps learners to apply the rule showing pictures,
asking them to do some tasks, etc. Attention is paid to subject and predicate
agreement. There are no activities to practice the grammar item.
Inductive Method

It is one of the methods to teach grammar. In this method, the teacher provides
examples first, and then, formulates rules based on the examples given. Teaching
and learning are made interesting using contextualized situation. Plenty of practice is
given. Teachers must be accurate in English and competent in teaching.

Multilingual Education (MLE)

It refers to "first-language-first" education. Learners must study in their mother

tongue first and learn other languages later, during schooling. Proponents of MLE
state that the second language acquisition is like a "two-way" bridge. The learners
know how to move back and forth between their L1 and L2 or other languages. They
take their socio-cultural experiences to the classroom and connect them to second
foreign language learning. Multilingual Education thrives on the foundations of
Freire’s critical pedagogy, Lev Vygotsky's scaffolding, Piaget’s theory of cognition
and Gramscian theory on education. MLE involves the community to create their
curriculum and restrict the theoretical hegemony.

Multilingual Pedagogical Approach

35
 It is a set of principles used to different degrees in various approaches or methods
depending on learners, curriculum and teaching context. In this approach, firstly,
teachers help learners utilize their present knowledge. Secondly, learners use
previous language learning experiences while learning a new one. Finally, learners
evaluate and transfer previously employed learning strategies, to the extent useful, to
a new language learning context.
This approach needs competent teachers to:
1. understand learners’ cognitive and affective differences.
2. know how to advance learners’ multilingualism
3. team up with other language teachers to improve learners’ multilingualism.
4. be multilingual and be an example for their learners.
5. be aware of cross-linguistic and metalinguistic aspects.
Constructive Approach
This approach represents the move from education based on behaviourism to
education based on cognitive theory. Constructivism enables active learning and
learners make their own meaning and construct their own knowledge regarding a
concept in a lesson.
One of the main objectives of constructivist teaching is that learners are taught how
to take initiative for their own learning experiences. It is learner-centred and supports
individualization of learning and autonomy. Action-oriented constructivist language
learning is encouraged through collaboration, creation, projects and self-teaching. It
develops awareness regarding learning, about language and intercultural aspects. It
is holistic with content-oriented perspective, authentic and complex learning
environment.

Thematic Learning

It is a method, which lays emphasis on selecting a precise theme for teaching one or
more concepts. In this, information is integrated and it is used for demonstrating the
topic. This method enables learners to recognize how language is used across
various subjects in terms of vocabulary, tense, structure, etc.
Thematic learning assists learners to acquire knowledge contextually and holistically
and they could associate their classroom tasks to their real-life situations. It is an
experiential learning.
Thematic learning empathizes with the interests of learners and their talent. It
promotes teamwork in the heterogeneous group.

36
 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Very Short-answer type questions

1. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who tried to reform curriculum?

2. “Form” is more important than in grammar-translation method

3. In structural approach are graded.

4. What is semantics? .

5. What is syntax?

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Short-answer type questions

1. Write down the principles of Grammar-Translation Method

37
2. What were the reasons for the decline of direct method?

3. What are the sub-categories of communicative competence? Explain.

4. How does Constructive Approach help learners acquire language?

5. Why does Dr. West’s New Method lay more emphasis on “reading”?

6. What is the importance of “Natural Approach” in English Language Teaching?

Long-answer type questions

1.If you have to use the Bilingual method in your English classroom, what could be the reasons for using it?

2.What is your understanding regarding the Whole Language Approach?

3.Critically analyze the Communicative Approach.

4.What are the principals and merits of Natural Approach?

SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined the principles, advantages, and disadvantages of various significant
methods and approaches. It is evident that each method or approach is rooted in specific theoretical
principles and practical experiences. However, it is essential to recognize that we cannot simply
choose any method or approach at our discretion while teaching English to our learners. The
selection of a method or approach depends on the learners themselves. The teacher must consider
their unique needs, prior knowledge, social background, mother tongue, parental and societal
expectations, and job requirements.

Hence, a teacher must carefully select a method, approach, or even adopt an eclectic approach that
combines elements from different methods, based on the learners' characteristics and
circumstances. It is vital to tailor the teaching approach to suit the learners' individualities for

38
effective language acquisition. Furthermore, if the existing methods or approaches do not yield
satisfactory results, teachers should feel empowered to create their own methodologies,
demonstrating innovation and creativity in their teaching practices.

REFERENCES

Bax, Stephen. (2003). "The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching". ELT
Journal. 57 (3): 278–287.
Bell, David. (2003). Method and Post-method: Are They Really
So Incompatible? TESOL Quarterly. 37(2): 315–328.
Bonilla Carvajal, C. A. (2013) "Grammar-Translation Method": A linguistic historic error of
perspective: Origins, dynamics and inconsistencies. Praxis & Saber, 4(8).
Brandl, Klaus. (2007). Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Phil Miller. pp. 284–29

LESSON 5

Acquisition of Language Skills

LESSON OVERVIEW

Language acquisition refers to the natural and unconscious process by which individuals,
especially children, learn a language through exposure and interaction with their environment.
When it comes to acquiring English, children typically begin this journey in early childhood, but it
can also occur at later stages of life, especially in multilingual or multicultural contexts.
In this process, both nature and nurture play pivotal roles. Biological factors, such as a
child's innate language acquisition device, contribute to their ability to pick up language naturally.
Meanwhile, the environment, including family, school, and community, significantly impacts a child's
exposure to English, shaping their language skills and vocabulary.
This module focuses on the theories, methodologies, and factors influencing the acquisition
of English language skills. From understanding the critical periods for language learning to

39
examining the impact of technology and cultural influences, we will tackle the various aspects that
shape the journey of becoming proficient in English.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Know the sub-skills of listening

• Determine the sub-skills of speaking and different strategies to improve speaking skills
• Identify the various stages and process of writing along with reference skills
• Familiarize with the basics of English Phonetics

LEARNING CONTENTS

English language acquisition is a multifaceted and dynamic process through which individuals
develop the ability to understand, speak, read, and write in the English language. As one of the
most widely spoken and influential languages worldwide, mastering English opens doors to global
communication, education, business opportunities, and cross-cultural understanding.

Language acquisition is a remarkable human capacity, especially during early childhood when
children effortlessly absorb language from their surroundings through exposure and interaction.
Infants begin this journey by producing babbling sounds, gradually progressing to their first words,
and eventually constructing more complex sentences as they explore the world of language.

The acquisition of English, like any language, is shaped by both nature and nurture. Biologically,
humans are equipped with a language acquisition device—a cognitive capacity proposed by linguist
Noam Chomsky—making language learning a natural and inherent aspect of our development.
Socially and culturally, the environment in which individuals grow up, including family, peers, school,
and media, significantly influences their exposure to English and the language models they
encounter.

3.1 Listening and Speaking Skills

Listening and speaking are two fundamental language skills that form the backbone of effective
communication. They are interconnected and often develop simultaneously during the language
acquisition process

A. Listening:

Listening is the ability to receive and comprehend spoken language. It is a receptive skill that
involves paying attention to verbal cues, understanding the meaning behind the words, and
processing the information conveyed by the speaker. Active listening is essential for effective
communication, as it enables individuals to respond appropriately and engage in meaningful
interactions.

In language acquisition, listening plays a crucial role in the early stages of language development.
Infants and young children naturally focus on listening to their caregivers and the people around
them, imitating the sounds and words they hear. As language learners progress, their listening skills

40
become more sophisticated, allowing them to understand longer and more complex utterances,
identify emotions conveyed through intonation, and grasp the nuances of spoken language.

In language learning settings, developing listening skills involves exposure to authentic audio
materials, conversations, and interactive exercises. Practicing active listening helps learners
improve comprehension, vocabulary, and pronunciation, enhancing their overall communication
abilities.

 Sub Skills of Listening: The real-life communication provides several supplementary skills
for listening; some of the widely used listening skills are described here.

1. Intensive listening

It is a listening activity with a particular purpose/objective. In this listening activity, in order to

get specific information, a listener fully concentrates to receive the text/materials. For example,
classroom listening activity by the learners for examination purpose; instructions given by the
guardians at home; or given by the coach at the playground, etc. is the process of intensive
listening.

2. Extensive Listening

It is a listening activity which is casually performed by the listeners with a low level of
concentration, motivation and without specific objectives. A listening activity which is long and
exhaustive is considered as extensive listening. For example, routine classroom listening
activity, listening in the day to day communication, simple chat while walking, etc. are the
process of extensive listening.
3. Critical Listening

It is intensive listening along with judging the listening materials with a positive and
negative aspect of listening materials. Many textbooks refer critical listening as a part of
intensive listening, but the evaluation of listening material beyond the level of mere intensive
listening makes it critical listening. For example, after intensive listening the class teacher,
playground coach or the guardians, an analysis of what is right or wrong to be judged by the
listener based on the previous readings and experiences can be considered as the process of
critical listening

3.2 Tasks, Materials, and Resources for Listening Skills

A. Tasks in Listening Skills:

In the context of listening skills, a task refers to a purposeful activity designed to engage
learners in the process of listening and understanding spoken language. Tasks are an integral
part of language learning, as they provide learners with opportunities to practice their listening
comprehension, develop critical thinking skills, and enhance their ability to extract meaning from
spoken texts. Tasks can range from simple listening exercises, such as identifying specific
information, to more complex activities like making inferences or evaluating arguments
presented in a speech.
 Some common types of listening tasks include:

a. Gap-fill exercises: Learners listen to a dialogue or passage with missing words or phrases
and complete the gaps based on what they hear.
b. Multiple-choice questions: Learners listen to a recording and select the correct answer
from a set of options.
c. Note-taking: Learners listen to a lecture or presentation and take notes to summarize key
points or main ideas.

41
d. Sequencing: Learners listen to a series of events or instructions and arrange them in the
correct order.
e. Role-plays: Learners engage in simulated conversations or dialogues to practice their
listening and speaking skills.

 Materials for Listening Skills:

Effective materials are essential for developing listening skills. These materials can vary in
format and complexity, catering to learners' proficiency levels and language goals. High-quality
listening materials should be authentic, engaging, and relevant to learners' interests.

 Here are some common types of listening materials used in language learning:

a. Audio recordings: These can include dialogues, interviews, podcasts, speeches, and
more. Authentic recordings from native speakers offer exposure to natural language usage
and diverse accents.

b. Video clips: Visual context in videos aids comprehension and enhances the learning
experience. Videos can range from short clips to longer presentations or documentaries.

c. Songs and music: Listening to songs helps learners practice listening to rhythm, intonation,
and pronunciation. Song lyrics can also serve as reading materials for language practice.

d. Listening apps and software: Interactive language learning apps and software often
incorporate audio exercises, providing learners with a convenient way to practice listening
skills on digital platforms.

 Resources for Listening Skills:

To facilitate effective listening skill development, educators and learners can utilize a variety of
resources. These resources help create a supportive and immersive learning environment,
encouraging learners to engage with authentic language materials.

 Here are some valuable resources for listening skills:

a. Language learning websites: Numerous websites offer free listening activities, podcasts,
and audio lessons for learners of all levels.

b. Online language platforms: Platforms dedicated to language learning often provide a wide
range of listening materials and interactive exercises.

c. Audiobooks and podcasts: These resources allow learners to listen to stories, interviews,
and discussions in their target language.
d. Language exchange groups: Participating in language exchange sessions with native
speakers offers valuable listening practice in real-life conversations.

e. News broadcasts and radio programs: Listening to news reports and radio shows in the
target language exposes learners to current events and varied speech patterns.

f. Educational YouTube channels: Educational content on YouTube provides a wealth of

listening materials, covering diverse topics and interests.

B. Speaking:

42
Speaking is the expressive counterpart to listening, encompassing the production of verbal
language. It involves formulating thoughts and ideas into coherent sentences, using appropriate
vocabulary and grammar, and conveying messages effectively to an audience.

For language learners, speaking can be a challenging skill to develop, as it requires combining
linguistic knowledge with fluency and confidence. In the early stages of language acquisition,
learners may start with single words and short phrases, gradually progressing to more extended
and complex sentences as they gain confidence and proficiency.

Oral communication is vital for everyday interactions, social connections, and professional settings.
Fluency in speaking allows individuals to participate actively in conversations, share their thoughts
and experiences, and build meaningful relationships.

In language learning classrooms, speaking skills are honed through role-plays, group discussions,
debates, and oral presentations. Creating a supportive and interactive environment encourages
learners to practice speaking, make mistakes, and receive constructive feedback, leading to
improved communication abilities.

 There are several sub-skills used for effective oral communication and some of these are
discussed here as an activity for speaking skills.

1. Story-Telling

Story telling is an activity in which a speaker narrates the story before the listeners in an efficient
way so that listeners understand up to a maximum extent. There are some strategies for good
storytelling, such as keeping listeners motivated and concentrated on speakers and speaking. For
example, the style adopted by the teacher of English literature class can be the most suitable to
comprehend this subskill.

2. Role Play

Roleplay is again an essential activity of speaking skill in which, a learner acts and behaves like
another person with the help of dialogue and speech mimicry. This is so effective that one act of
role play for five minutes can transact the text and communication of fifty minutes as well. Role play
is practised in the literature as well as language classroom, in order to make learners understand
better communication.

3. Speech and Conversation

The formal speech is one of the most popular forms of standard oral communication. It is widely
used across the classes in school education to familiarise the learners with the formal and standard
use of English language. On the other hand, the formal conversation between two or more learners
based on certain topics/ objectives helps learners to learn the delicacies and nuances of oral
communication. It also helps learners to learn effective and convincing ways of speaking in the
English language.

3.3 Tasks, Materials and Resources for Speaking Skills

1. Tasks for Speaking Skills:

43
Tasks designed to develop speaking skills are interactive activities that prompt learners to engage
in oral communication. These tasks encourage learners to express their thoughts, ideas, and
opinions, fostering fluency and confidence in speaking. Some common types of speaking tasks
include:

a. Role-plays: Learners take on different roles in simulated scenarios, such as ordering

food at a restaurant, conducting a job interview, or resolving a conflict.

b. Discussions: Group or pair discussions on various topics, allowing learners to share

their perspectives and engage in meaningful exchanges of ideas.

c. Presentations: Learners prepare and deliver speeches or presentations on specific

topics, practicing public speaking and organizing their thoughts effectively.

d. Debates: Learners engage in structured debates, defending their viewpoints on

contentious issues and engaging in persuasive speaking.

e. Storytelling: Learners tell stories or anecdotes, developing narrative skills and capturing
the audience's attention.

2. Materials for Speaking Skills:

Effective materials for speaking skills should stimulate learners' interests, provide authentic
language input, and cater to different proficiency levels. These materials help learners practice
speaking in various contexts and situations. Some materials commonly used for developing
speaking skills include:

a. Picture prompts: Images or photographs that serve as discussion starters, inspiring

learners to describe, narrate, or speculate based on what they see.

b. Conversation cards: Cards with discussion prompts or questions that encourage learners
to engage in spontaneous conversations with their peers.

c. Audio recordings: Authentic recordings of conversations, interviews, or speeches,

providing learners exposure to natural spoken language.

d. Video clips: Engaging videos with accompanying discussion questions, helping learners
practice listening and speaking simultaneously.

e. Topic-based articles: Reading materials that learners can use as a basis for presentations
or discussions on specific subjects.

3. Resources for Speaking Skills:

To facilitate the development of speaking skills, a range of resources can be utilized, both in
physical and digital formats. These resources support learners in practicing speaking in diverse
contexts and building confidence in expressing themselves. Some valuable resources for speaking
skills include:
Language learning apps: Mobile apps with speaking exercises, interactive conversations, and
language exchange features that allow learners to practice speaking with native speakers.

a. Language learning websites: Online platforms that offer speaking activities, role-plays, and
speaking challenges for learners to participate in.

44
 b. Language exchange groups: Virtual or in-person groups where learners can interact with
native speakers of the target language and engage in language exchange.

c. Pronunciation and speaking software: Tools that provide instant feedback on

pronunciation and speaking clarity, assisting learners in refining their oral communication.

d. Virtual language classrooms: Online platforms that enable learners to practice speaking
with teachers and peers through video conferencing.

e. Language meetup events: Local language meetup groups where learners can participate
in language-related activities and practice speaking with fellow learners and native speakers.

3.2 READING SKILLS

Reading skills encompass a range of cognitive processes that enable individuals to

comprehend and interpret written texts. Proficient reading is crucial for academic success,
information acquisition, and critical thinking.

1. Phonemic Awareness:
Phonemic awareness is a sub-skill of reading that focuses on the ability to identify and manipulate
individual phonemes, which are the smallest units of sound in language. Readers with strong
phonemic awareness can isolate, blend, segment, and manipulate sounds, helping them decode
and read words accurately.

2. Word Recognition:
Word recognition is the ability to quickly and automatically identify familiar words in print. Skilled
readers have a vast sight word vocabulary, enabling them to recognize common words without
having to decode them.

3. Vocabulary Acquisition:
Vocabulary acquisition involves learning and understanding the meanings of words. Skilled readers
continually expand their vocabulary through exposure to diverse texts and explicit instruction, which
enhances their comprehension and ability to infer word meanings from context.

4. Reading Fluency:
Reading fluency is the sub-skill that pertains to the reader's ability to read with speed, accuracy, and
expression. Fluent readers read smoothly and at an appropriate pace, allowing them to focus on
understanding the content rather than struggling with word recognition.

5. Comprehension Strategies:
Comprehension strategies are the cognitive processes readers employ to understand and retain the
meaning of the text. Skilled readers use various strategies, such as predicting, summarizing,
making connections, questioning, and visualizing, to enhance their understanding of the content.

6. Text Structure Recognition:

Text structure recognition involves understanding how a written text is organized. Different types of
texts have specific structures, such as cause and effect, compare and contrast, problem-solution, or
chronological order. Recognizing text structures helps readers comprehend and analyze the
information more effectively.

7. Inference:

45
Inference is the ability to draw logical conclusions and make educated guesses based on clues and
evidence provided in the text. Skilled readers use inference to read between the lines, understand
implied information, and fill in gaps in the text.

8. Critical Reading:
Critical reading involves evaluating and analyzing the content and credibility of the text. Skilled
readers engage in critical thinking, question the author's intent, consider alternative viewpoints, and
identify any biases or logical fallacies present in the text.

9. Skimming and Scanning:

Skimming and scanning are sub-skills that aid in quickly locating specific information in a text.
Skimming involves reading quickly to get a general overview of the content, while scanning involves
searching for specific keywords or information within the text.

10. Metacognition in Reading:

Metacognition refers to the reader's awareness and control of their own reading processes. Skilled
readers use metacognitive strategies, such as self-monitoring and self-regulation, to assess their
understanding, adjust their reading pace, and apply appropriate reading strategies when faced with
challenging texts.

3 .3 WRITING SKILLS

Writing is one of the most important productive skills in language teaching and learning.
Popularly, writing and speaking are considered as a final product, but writing is also an essential
part of the process of language production. Therefore, the successful production of language in
terms of writing can only be conceived with good command over the process and background work
for a final piece of writing.

 Stages of Writing

Pre-Writing: Pre-writing is the first stage of writing which begins with planning.
This stage requires thorough background knowledge about the topic and a proper direction towards
the execution of writing plans.

Writing: This is the actual stage of putting the ideas into the paper with the help of topic
planning, using adequate vocabularies and grammatical arrangements. It also requires a proper
combination of coverage of topic with an introduction, central theme and concluding the topic. The
last stage of writing consists of editing and proofreading before coming to the final draft of the
writing.

Publishing: Publishing is the final stage of writing which is done after an

edited version of written texts. It requires consultation with the publishing house/agency and
bringing out with the printed version of written texts for public use.
 Process of Writing

Writing is considered as a process as well as product in the expression of language. A leaner has to
follow the steps given below before completing a writing task.

Conceive the idea: Conceiving the idea is the first process to begin the writing where
previous knowledge of the writer and proposed topic for writing is amalgamated.

Planning to execute writing: This is the process under which the writer plans to describe the
different parts of writing. It includes the structure for introduction, the main body of the theme of
topic and conclusion which are done in paragraphs and stepwise.

46
Actual writing: This is the phase of the drafting under which the writer actually
writes with the help of adequate use of vocabulary and grammar. It requires thematic clubbing of
ideas into an essay or article form. This phase is a rough draft of the writing subject to revision in
the next part.

Reviewing and Editing: This is the process of writing considered as most important
because it applies proofreading, language and content editing and finalisation of the draft as well.
It can also be considered as the pre-stage for publication.

Final draft: This is the process of providing finishing touch, modification and
beautification stage of an article or essay to be sent for publication.

3.3 Note-Taking and Note-Making

Note taking: Note taking is a writing activity based on listening or reading stages. It is brief and
pointed in nature which helps the writer to jot down important items for future use. This is an
important activity but mostly considered incomplete without note making activity.

Note Making: Note making is another important activity in the process of writing.
It requires the writer to revise the points taken during note-taking with the help of other related
resources. It can also be considered as a revised activity of important points made while reading or
listening.

Formal and Informal Writing

Formal writing: Formal writing is performed for structured and professional

purposes. Writing letters to the authority for official purposes is considered as formal letter writing. A
letter to the Principal, Vice Chancellor, Head of the Department, etc. is an example of formal writing.

Informal writing: Informal writing is performed as writing for casual purposes. It can
be considered as a written form of spoken conversation language. For example: letters written to
parents and friend.

Poetry: It is a part of literature, it helps in creative poem writing.

Short Story: It is also a part of literature which engages learners in writing limited narratives.

Diary: It is a very creative and real-life expression activity which people do to documents one’s
experiences.

Notices: It is a short intimation used in the offices for formal communication purposes.

Articles: It is a detail writing on some particular idea or thought relevant to the stakeholders of
a particular discipline.
Report: It is a written a document of any formal meeting, seminar, conference, etc.
Dialogues: It is a communicative activity between two or more people.

Speech: It is an oral as well as written activity meant to address the public of defined
audience.
Advertisement: It is a promotional activity in which a written or visual piece of information is spread
to the mass.

3.4 Higher Order Skills

47
 1. Creative thinking-writing: Writing a piece of paper with divergent ideas which include
imagination, fantasy, creativity, etc. is considered as creative thinking or writing.
2. Questioning: Questioning is again considered a higher order skill because it
engaged the individual or group to think over, understand, comprehend and then make some query
in terms of oral or written form.
3. Critical writing: Critical writing is considered as higher order activity because it
demands creative writing regarding bias-free, negative, positive and neutral ideas related to a
particular topic/subject.

3.5 BASIC CONCEPTS ON PHONICS

Phonics is a method of teaching and learning to read that emphasizes the relationship between
letters and sounds. It is an essential aspect of early literacy instruction and plays a crucial role in
helping children develop decoding skills, spelling abilities, and overall reading proficiency. Here are
some key concepts related to phonics:

 Letter-Sound Correspondence:
Phonics focuses on teaching the connection between letters (graphemes) and the sounds they
represent (phonemes). Children learn to associate individual letters or letter combinations with
specific speech sounds, forming the basis for decoding words.

 Phonemic Awareness:
Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify, manipulate, and work with individual phonemes in
spoken words. Before learning to read, children need to develop phonemic awareness, which helps
them understand that words are made up of distinct sounds.

 Blending and Segmenting:

Blending is the process of combining individual phonemes to form words. For example, blending the
sounds /c/, /a/, and /t/ produces the word "cat." Segmenting is the opposite process, where children
break words into their component sounds. These skills are fundamental for reading and spelling.

 Systematic Phonics Instruction:

Phonics instruction is most effective when it follows a systematic and structured approach.
Systematic phonics involves introducing letter-sound relationships in a logical sequence, gradually
building upon previously learned skills.

 Phonics Rules and Patterns:

English has various phonics rules and patterns that govern the pronunciation of letters in different
positions within words. Examples include silent letters, consonant blends, digraphs (two letters
representing one sound), and vowel patterns (e.g., long and short vowel sounds).

 Decodable Texts:
Decodable texts are reading materials that contain words with phonics patterns that children have
learned. These texts allow students to apply their phonics knowledge to decode words and practice
reading in a controlled and supportive context.

 High-Frequency Words:
High-frequency words are commonly used words that appear frequently in written texts but may not
fully follow regular phonics rules. Students need to learn these sight words by memorization to
develop fluency in reading.

 Multisensory Approach:

48
Phonics instruction often employs a multisensory approach, engaging multiple senses, such as
seeing, hearing, and touching, to reinforce letter-sound associations. This approach caters to
various learning styles and enhances retention.

 Explicit and Implicit Phonics Instruction:

Explicit phonics instruction involves direct teaching of phonics rules and strategies. Implicit phonics
instruction integrates phonics learning within reading and writing activities, allowing students to
apply phonics skills naturally.

 Assessment and Differentiation:

Assessment is essential to monitor students' progress in phonics. Teachers can use various
assessments to identify students' strengths and areas for improvement, allowing for targeted
instruction and differentiation to meet individual learning needs.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1: Answer the following questions.

1. What are the strategies for good reading comprehension?

2. Differentiate the extensive, intensive and critical listening.

3. What do you understand by listening comprehension?

4. What are the characteristics of good listeners?

5. Why is reading considered as a basic skill to language learning?

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2: Do the following enriching activities.

Create a Story Chain

Start a story by writing the opening paragraph. Pass the story to a classmate, who will add the next
paragraph. Continue passing the story around until everyone has contributed. Read the complete
story aloud, and see how the plot and characters developed collaboratively.

Book Club

Form a book club with friends or classmates. Choose a book to read together, and set a schedule
for reading specific chapters or sections. After each reading session, hold discussions to share
insights, favorite parts, and opinions about the book. Encourage each member to write a short book
review or summary after completing the book.

Picture Prompts

Find or draw intriguing pictures or photographs. Use them as writing prompts to inspire creative
stories, poems, or descriptive paragraphs. Share your writing with others to receive feedback and
appreciation for your creativity.

49
SUMMARY

Effective listening skills are essential for successful communication and learning. By actively
engaging in listening activities and practicing attentive listening, learners can improve their
comprehension, critical thinking, and language acquisition. Developing good listening habits, such
as maintaining eye contact, asking clarifying questions, and showing empathy, contributes to
stronger interpersonal relationships and effective information processing. As learners become
proficient listeners, they enhance their ability to understand diverse perspectives, adapt to various
contexts, and participate more confidently in conversations and discussions.

Mastering speaking skills empowers learners to express themselves clearly and confidently.
Through practice, learners can refine their pronunciation, intonation, and vocabulary, enabling them
to communicate effectively with others. Public speaking and presentation skills are valuable assets
that boost self-confidence and professional opportunities. Active participation in discussions and
collaborative speaking activities nurtures critical thinking and persuasive abilities. Cultivating
effective speaking skills opens doors to meaningful connections and successful communication in
both personal and professional realms.

Reading skills serve as the foundation for acquiring knowledge and information. By honing their
reading abilities, learners can comprehend complex texts, extract essential information, and develop
critical analysis skills. Regular reading enhances vocabulary, improves language fluency, and
stimulates imagination and creativity. Exploring a diverse range of texts exposes learners to
different cultures, perspectives, and ideas. With strong reading skills, individuals can navigate
academic and professional challenges with confidence and become lifelong learners who find joy
and enrichment in the world of literature.

Proficient writing skills empower learners to convey their thoughts, ideas, and emotions effectively.
By cultivating their writing abilities, learners can organize their thoughts coherently, refine their
language usage, and develop a unique writing voice. Clear and persuasive writing facilitates
effective communication in various contexts, such as academic essays, business emails, and
creative pieces. Through revision and editing, writers improve the quality of their work and
showcase attention to detail. Embracing writing as a means of self-expression fosters personal
growth and helps learners develop into effective communicators and critical thinkers.

The development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills is a dynamic and interconnected
process. Cultivating these language competencies enhances learners' ability to understand and
express themselves confidently and intelligently. Active engagement, consistent practice, and a
willingness to learn from diverse sources contribute to the mastery of these vital skills. By
continuously honing their language abilities, learners can build meaningful connections, access
knowledge, and succeed in academic, professional, and personal pursuits.

REFERENCES

50
M L Tickoo. 2003. Teaching and Learning English. Orient Longman Publication. Hyderabad
Oxford Advanced English Language Dictionary (2015) Oxford Publication

Percy, R. (2012) Teaching of English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications

Sadanand, K & Punitha, S. (2015) Spoken English: A foundation Course. Hyderabad: Orient
Blackswan
Habeeb, Gulfishaan. (2013) English for Speakers of Urdu. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan

LESSON 4

Developing Integrated Skills and Use of ICT in ELT

51
LESSON OVERVIEW

The advancement of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has revolutionized

the field of English Language Teaching (ELT). The integration of ICT tools and resources in ELT
has opened up new avenues for language learning and teaching, making the process more
interactive, engaging, and accessible.
This chapter presents the use of Multimedia in English Language Teaching and Online
Resources for ELT.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Familiarize with the use of multimedia in ELT

• Acquire knowledge about online resources in ELT and social networking sites

LEARNING CONTENTS

4.1 Developing Integrated Skills in ELT:

The traditional approach to language teaching often involved isolating language skills into separate
compartments, with separate lessons for listening, speaking, reading, and writing. However,
research and pedagogical practices have shown that this compartmentalized approach may not fully
prepare learners for real-life language use. As a result, the concept of developing integrated skills in
English Language Teaching (ELT) has gained prominence.

1. Contextualized Communication: Integrated skills instruction encourages learners to use

language in real-life contexts, just as they would in authentic communication. For example,
learners might engage in a role-play activity where they listen, speak, read, and write as part
of a cohesive interaction, simulating a real-world conversation.

2. Enhanced Language Fluency: Integrating language skills allows learners to practice using
language more fluently and naturally. When learners engage in conversations, they need to
listen carefully to understand, respond appropriately, and articulate their thoughts effectively.

3. Meaningful Language Use: Integrating skills promotes meaningful language use. Learners
see how the language they read or listen to connects to the language they use in speaking
and writing. This interconnection fosters a deeper understanding of how language functions.

4. Cross-Skills Transfer: Integrating skills can lead to cross-skills transfer. For example,
improving reading comprehension can also enhance listening comprehension since both
skills involve understanding meaning from context.

5. Task-Based Learning: Integrating skills often involves task-based learning, where learners
engage in purposeful and authentic tasks that require the use of multiple language skills.
These tasks reflect real-life language use and provide learners with a sense of
accomplishment.

4.2 The Use of ICT in ELT:

52
 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has transformed how we access
information, communicate, and interact with the world. In the field of English Language Teaching
(ELT), the integration of ICT has opened up new possibilities for language learning and teaching.

1. Access to Authentic Materials: ICT provides access to a vast array of authentic materials,
such as online articles, videos, podcasts, and social media, which expose learners to real-
world language use and cultural aspects.

2. Interactive Learning: Interactive language learning apps, language learning websites, and
multimedia resources engage learners in interactive and dynamic activities that cater to
different learning styles and preferences.

3. Autonomous Learning: ICT tools promote learner autonomy, enabling learners to set their
own pace and direction of learning. With online language resources, learners can practice
independently, enhancing self-directed learning.

4. Collaborative Learning: ICT facilitates collaborative learning opportunities, allowing

learners to interact with peers and native speakers from around the world through virtual
classrooms, online forums, and language exchange platforms.

5. Immediate Feedback: Many ICT resources provide immediate feedback on language

exercises and activities, helping learners identify areas for improvement and promoting
continuous learning.

6. Blended Learning: ICT complements traditional classroom instruction, creating a blended

learning environment where learners benefit from face-to-face interaction with teachers and
peers while also accessing online resources for extended practice.

4.3 Online Resources for ELT:

Online resources for English Language Teaching (ELT) refer to digital tools, materials, and
platforms that educators and learners use to enhance language learning and teaching experiences.
These resources are accessible through the internet and offer a wide range of language learning
activities, interactive exercises, multimedia content, and language-related information.

Online resources for ELT can encompass various types of materials, including language learning
apps, e-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, language learning websites, online dictionaries,
podcasts, video-sharing platforms, language exchange platforms, and more. These resources are
designed to cater to different language proficiency levels and learning styles, providing learners with
opportunities for self-paced learning, collaborative practice, and authentic language use.

Below are some concepts on Online Resources for ELT

 Language Learning Apps: Language learning apps provide interactive exercises,

vocabulary practice, and language games. They cater to different proficiency levels and offer
opportunities for self-paced learning.

 E-Learning Platforms: E-learning platforms offer comprehensive language courses with

multimedia content, quizzes, and assessments. Learners can access course materials and
track their progress online.

53
  Language Learning Websites: Language learning websites provide a wealth of resources,
including grammar explanations, vocabulary lists, audio recordings, and reading materials
for learners to practice various language skills.

 Virtual Classrooms: Virtual classrooms enable learners to participate in live online classes
with teachers and peers from around the world. Interactive features like video conferencing,
chat, and shared whiteboards facilitate real-time communication and collaboration.

 Language Exchange Platforms: Language exchange platforms connect learners with

native speakers of the target language. Learners can engage in language exchange
partnerships to practice speaking and gain cultural insights.

 Online Dictionaries: Online dictionaries offer instant access to word definitions,

translations, and pronunciation guides. Learners can quickly look up unfamiliar words and
improve their vocabulary.

 Podcasts and Audiobooks: Podcasts and audiobooks provide authentic listening materials
on various topics, allowing learners to practice listening comprehension while familiarizing
themselves with natural spoken language.

 Video Sharing Platforms: Video sharing platforms like YouTube offer a wide range of
educational content, including language lessons, interviews, and documentaries, which can
supplement language learning.

 Language Learning Communities: Online language learning communities, such as forums

and social media groups, allow learners to connect with others, seek advice, share
resources, and discuss language-related topics.

 Language Assessment Tools: Online language assessment tools offer placement tests,
proficiency tests, and language level evaluations to help learners determine their language
proficiency and set learning goals.

 Online Writing Tools: Writing tools and platforms facilitate collaborative writing, provide
grammar and spell-checking assistance, and offer feedback on writing tasks.

 Cultural and News Websites: Cultural and news websites from countries where the target
language is spoken provide valuable insights into the culture, current events, and societal
issues related to the language being learned.

4.4 ELT and Social Networking Websites

The social media is the fastest growing network in the world. They play an important role in every
learner's life. It is easier and convenient to access information, provide information and
communicate through social media. Teachers and learners are connected to each other and can
make good use of these platforms.

Social networking is a powerful tool for the teachers and the learners for personal and educational
purpose, Social networking sites connect the people all over the world. It helps teachers and
learners to maintain good interpersonal relations by useful chatting with one another.

54
Professionally, social networking sites act as a resume, where people can contact the needy person
for help. We can exchange our views; share our ideas, knowledge and information with members on
social networking. We can comment on their views even.

 Definition of Social Networking

The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships
between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies. The term is used to describe a
social structure determined by such interactions. The ties through which any given social unit
connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit.

Social networking is also known as social media. Web 2.0 is a free open online site which requires a
user account. It was first used in 1957 by J.A Barnes.

 The following are the social networking sites:

Social Networking Sites

• Facebook is the biggest and arguably most powerful social network in the world with
1.55
active monthly users.
• Twitter is the ‘‘in the moment'' platform and boasts a respectable 255 million active monthly
users.
• Instagram is a visual platform, designed for people to post, share, and comment and
engage.
• LinkedIn is a professional social networking site.
• Whats App, Google +, YouTube, Foursquare, Pinterest, Snap chat, wikis, and blogs

 Importance of Social Networking in Education

Learners are surrounded by technology. They are aware of various implications of technology.
Hence there is a need to use this technology in a constructive manner because it assists in the
following way:
• Social networking sites promote authentic, independent, autonomous and free learning;
• It is fun for learners and motivates informal learning;
• They promote meaningful interaction between the teacher and the learners;
• Huge amount of information is available in the form of videos, audios, online data which the
learners and teachers can make use of;
• They support informal learning;
• They help the learners to clarify their doubts if they do not attend the class;
• Learners can share notes and information related to the instruction;
• Information is shared in the group quickly;
• The learners who are shy can also participate in discussions and conversations;
• The learners who are hesitant to open their mouth in the class may become active on social
networking sites;
• They develop good communication between teacher and learners;
• The teacher can respond to the questions of the learners online beyond the classroom
forum;
and
• The teacher can help the learners to post their resume for a job.

55
English Language Teaching and Social Networking Sites

Social networking in language learning makes language learning more interesting, which is highly
difficult through teaching methods. With the help of social networking sites, the teacher can make
language learning more meaningful by posting various activities on social networking sites. The
teacher can:

• assign homework through social networking sites;

• send songs, videos, stories, images, online exercises lessons instructions through social
networking;
• engage learners in practising English language skills;
• provide more authentic input;
• develop critical thinking skills;
• personalize learning;

• Role of the Teacher in Social Networking

The teacher can:
• create a Facebook page for the class and keep posting updates on a time line;
• give assignments to translate the content using in-line big translation tool and gauge its
accuracy;
• create a twitter account and tweet in English to encourage learner-conversations;
• insist learners use English in conversation;
• create a YouTube account and ask learners to record video of their hobbies, thoughts,
opinions, etc. and upload them;
• create a Pinterest account and pin some information related to English.

LEARNING ACTIVITY : Do the following activities.

1. List down the multimedia you use in daily life?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Define social media.
3. List out various social media available for education?
4. How can a teacher make use of social media?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of social media?

SUMMARY

56
The concept of developing integrated skills in English Language Teaching (ELT) emphasizes the
interconnected nature of language abilities. Instead of isolating language skills, integrated skills
instruction encourages learners to use language in real-life contexts, mirroring authentic
communication. By engaging in tasks that involve listening, speaking, reading, and writing, learners
gain a deeper understanding of language functions and become more competent communicators.

In parallel, the integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in ELT has
revolutionized language learning and teaching. Online resources such as language learning apps,
e-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, and language exchange platforms offer diverse and
accessible tools to enhance language proficiency. ICT facilitates interactive learning, autonomous
learning, collaborative learning, and immediate feedback for learners. It complements traditional
classroom instruction, creating blended learning environments that cater to diverse learning styles.

By adopting these approaches, educators can create dynamic and learner-centered environments,
preparing learners for real-life language use and fostering lifelong language proficiency. ICT and
integrated skills instruction together enhance language learning experiences, making them
interactive, engaging, and effective in the digital age.

The integration of technology in education helps educators to address the diverse needs of students
in the classroom. Teaching is not a uniform approach since learners possess individual variations. It
is essential for teachers to recognize these distinctions and effectively utilize technology to tailor
instruction according to their unique educational requirements. However, teachers must be mindful
of potential drawbacks associated with excessive reliance on technology and must also instill in
students an understanding of the ethical aspects of its use. Learners should grasp the significance
of social networking in their learning journey.

REFERENCES

Schwartz, M. (n.d.). Self-evaluation of teaching. Learning & Teaching Office, Ryerson University.
Retrieved
Swain, M. (2007). The output hypothesis: Its history and its future. Retrieved from
http://www.celea.org.cn/2007/keynote/ppt/Merrill%20Swain.pdf Greenhow, C.
The Use of Multimedia in English Language Teaching, Journal of Technology for ELT An open
access Journal Volume-2 April (2017)
Understanding prose. Retrieved from
http://164.100.133.129:81/eCONTENT/Uploads/Understanding_prose.pd by RAI Technology
University –Engineering minds –Uploads
Wade C. Jacobsen and Renata Forste. Cyber psychology, Behaviour, and Social Networking. May
2011, 14(5): 275-280. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0135.

LESSON 6

Planning for Teaching English

LESSON OVERVIEW

Effective planning is a cornerstone of successful English language teaching. As an English

language teacher, having a well-thought-out and comprehensive plan is crucial for creating

57
engaging, purposeful, and structured lessons that cater to the needs and abilities of learners.
Planning for teaching English involves careful consideration of learning objectives, content
selection, instructional strategies, assessment methods, and classroom management techniques.
This chapter focuses on the importance of Instructional Planning, format of the Unit plan and
discuss the concept of micro-teaching.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the importance of planning for teaching

• Learn how to prepare unit plan and lesson plan
• Understand the concept of micro teaching
• Execute demo-teaching

LEARNING CONTENTS

Importance of Planning for Teaching English

Teaching is an integral part of the process of education. It is a system of actions intended to induce
learning. Its special function is to impart knowledge, develop understanding and skill. In teaching,
interaction occurs between the teacher and the learners by which the learners are diverted towards
the goal. Thus the sole element of teaching is the mutual relationship or the interaction
between the teacher and the learners which advances the learners towards the goal.
Planning for teaching-learning process is known as Instructional planning. Instructional Planning is
the ability of the teacher to visualize and forecast into the future of what, why and how of the
teaching-learning process.

Instructional Planning

1. Provides logical sequencing and pacing of lessons.

2. Economizes cost, time and energy
3. Provides for a variety of instructional objectives.
4. Creates the opportunity for higher level of questioning
5. Provides guidance for the teachers
6. Correlates instructional events. Develops a sequence of well-organized learning
experiences.
7. Presents a comprehensive, integrated and meaningful content at an appropriate level.
8. Prepares pupil learners for the day’s activities.

Instructional planning depends on the teacher expertise in the subject, their knowledge, and
attitudes, beliefs, orientations and the teacher’s social background. There are a number of factors
which effect Instructional planning. They are Learner’s interests, age, class, motivational levels,
their previous knowledge, textbook, type of content and instructional material, resources and the
time available etc. Instructional planning is essential to plan the course content.

Teaching is a complex task. For performing this task, a systematic planning is needed. Teaching is
to be considered in terms of various steps and the different steps constituting the process are called
the phases of teaching.

Phases of Teaching

1. Pre-active Phase of Teaching

58
This phase includes all those activities the teacher does before entering into the class. The teacher
plans for the lesson in this phase. Planning includes identifying the objectives to be achieved and
content to be taught, organizing the content, finding out the methods, techniques for teaching and
the audiovisual aids to be used in the classroom.

2. Interactive Phase of Teaching

This second phase of teaching includes the execution of the plan. In this stage, the teacher after
entering the classroom perceives the size of the class, looks at the learners, and try to understand
the learners, their group dynamics and then initiates the class through verbal interaction.

The teacher finds out the previous knowledge of the learners by providing stimulus, gets the
feedback and starts deployment of strategies through positive or negative reinforcement.

3. Post-Active Phase of Teaching

This is the stage to analyze and evaluate learner’s performance and learners learning by preparing
various tools and techniques.

Stages of Preparation and Planning for Teaching

There are four stages of preparation and planning for the teaching process.

1. Preparation stage 1

The very first thing to consider while planning for a learning experience is considering the aims and
objectives of the subject, an approach for learner learning, content organization, teaching approach,
assessment techniques, resources and evaluation techniques.

1. Preparation stage 2
It involves content details organizational details and teaching details of the lesson for execution of
the lesson.

2. Preparation stage 3
It involves the rehearsal of whatever preparation the teacher did in the first and second stage
related to lesson plan, materials, illustrations, learner activities, imagining the situation in the
classroom and having a rehearsal.

3. Preparation stage 4
It deals with teachers self-evaluation through reflective journals, learner evaluation, or evaluation by
the colleagues.

Year Plan, Unit Plan and Period Plan

Before the start of the academic year, teachers plan for the year. A yearlong plan is intended to give
an overview of our curriculum at a glance. Year plan helps us to stay on track each month in
meeting the curriculum goals that we have set for the year. Yearlong planning enables us to see the
big picture. It helps us to align our standards, our assessments, our holidays and themes, as well as
our larger units. If our year plan is ready we can focus on implementation. It deals with our
capabilities and cognitive load.

59
 Format of Year plan

Subject:

Month Total Working Unit Sub Assignments Projects Activities tests Remarks
days days number Unit
June 30
July 31
August 31

Unit Plan

Like year plan the teacher has to prepare a unit plan in their subject. The process of Unit plan
preparation forces the teacher to reflect on what the teacher wants to accomplish in each unit and in
each class and how best they can do so. It helps the teacher to utilize the time in a productive
manner. It gives a clear idea of content or the unit to complete in that particular month, the activities
to be taken up, and the assignment to be given to the learners and the projects to be assigned to
the learners. In most of the graded textbooks of state and NCERT books Unit plan is already
mentioned for the convenience of the teacher. However, the teacher has to prepare Unit plan
keeping in view the chapter to be completed within that month.

Successful unit plans help you to organize individual lessons into a coherent structure. Careful
attention to advance planning will provide important benefits for both teachers and learners.

Unit Plan Format

Name of the month: Name of the Teacher Subject:

Class:

Unit Number Title of the Unit SubUnit Activities to be

taken up
Projects to be
given

Period Plan

A period plan is also known as lesson plan of the teacher which the teacher is going to execute in
the classroom. It helps the teacher to plan the lesson beforehand keeping the mental age and
chronological age and needs of the children.

60
It builds up the confidence of the teacher and assists the teacher to plan for a method of teaching,
techniques of teaching, organize content in a systematic manner, and plan for TLM and Audiovisual
aids to be used in the classroom to support the lesson based upon the laid objectives. It assists the
teacher to frame

The relevant question, such as comprehension question, reflective questions beforehand and
through this question the teacher can evaluate the effectiveness of their lesson. Self-introspection
and evaluation helps the teacher to improve the teaching in future.

Lesson Planning - Herbertian Steps versus Constructivist Approach

The lesson plan is the teacher’s detailed description of instruction for the lesson. It is prepared by
the teacher to guide class learning. Preparation of lesson plan depends on the subject, needs of the
learners, their mental and chronological age etc. It helps to organize the content in an organized
manner to achieve intended learning outcomes.

German Educator Johann Friedrich Herbert (1776-1841) gave his ideas on teaching and instruction
which is known as Herbertianism. He has presented five steps of Instruction.

Herbertian Steps of Lesson Plan

1. Preparation
It is the stage where the new material or content learnt will be related to past to motivate and
establish connection with past experiences of the learners
2. Presentation
It is the way of presenting the concepts following various methods, techniques and strategies.
3. Association
Through assimilation of new ideas association or link is developed in learning.
4. Generalization
Leading mind beyond the level of perception and concrete
5. Application
Using acquired knowledge in a utilitarian way

The Steps for Teaching of Prose:

1. Motivation/Testing previous knowledge

2. Declaration of the topic/announcement of the topic
3. Teaching vocabulary
4. Teaching structure
5. Teaching Grammar items (synonyms, antonyms, idioms, phrases)
6. Dividing the text into smaller units
7. Model reading by the teacher
8. Second reading by the teacher
9. Explaining the content(setting, character, themes, plot, style)
10. Loud reading by the learners
11. Silent reading by the learners
12. Testing comprehension through questioning
13. Recapitulation
14. Home assignment

Constructivist Approach

61
Constructivism is basically a theory based on observation and scientific study about how people
learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we
have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or
maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own
knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching
practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging learners to use active
techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect
on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing.

A contrast between the traditional classroom and the constructivist classroom is illustrated below.

In a traditional classroom:

1. teaching begins with parts of the whole–emphasizes basic skills;

2. the curriculum is fixed;
3. textbooks and workbooks are given importance;
4. teacher gives/learners receives;
5. the teacher assumes directive and authoritative role;
6. assessment is through testing;
7. knowledge is inert; and
8. learners work individually.

In a constructivist classroom

1. teaching begins with the whole – expanding to parts;

2. learner interests are pursued;
3. teachers use primary sources or manipulative materials;
4. learning is interaction – building on what learners already know;

5. the teacher interacts and negotiates with learners;

6. assessment is through learner works, observations, points of view, tests. Process is as
important as product;
7. knowledge is dynamic – it changes with experiences; and
8. learners work in groups.
In a constructivist classroom, the teacher's role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teacher's main focus should be on guiding learners by asking questions that will lead them to
develop their own conclusions on the subject.

Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)

The CCE system was introduced by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in
2009 with the enactment of the Right to Education (RTE) Act to bring about a holistic development
among learners. The main aim of CCE is to evaluate every aspect of the learner during their
presence at school. This is believed to help reduce the pressure on the child during/before
examinations as the learner will have to sit for multiple tests throughout the year, of which no test or
the syllabus covered will be repeated at the end of the year. The CCE method is claimed to bring
enormous changes from the traditional chalk and talk method of teaching. As a part of this new
system, learner's marks will be replaced by grades which will be evaluated through a series of
curricular and extra-curricular evaluations along with academic activities. The aim is to decrease the
workload on the learner by means of continuous evaluation by taking a number of small tests

62
throughout the year in place of a single test at the end of the academic program. Only Grades are
awarded to learners based on work experience skills, dexterity, innovation, steadiness, teamwork,
public speaking, behaviour, etc. to evaluate and present an

overall measure of the learner's ability. This helps the learners who are not good in academics to
show their talent in other fields such as arts, humanities, sports, music, athletics, and also helps to
motivate the learners who have a thirst for knowledge.

Importance of CCE

1. CCE reduces stress and anxiety of children and adolescents during the examination period.
2. It reduces dropout rate as there will be less fear and anxiety related to performance.

3. The syllabus will be covered systematically giving importance to learning rather than
teaching.
4. Learners develop concept clarity.

5. It promotes holistic development of the personality of learners.

6. It focuses on the co-scholastic areas also.

7. It is expected to prepare the learners for life by making learners physically fit, mentally alert
and emotionally balanced.
8. The learners will have more time on their hands to develop their interests, hobbies
and personalities.
9. It will enable the learners, parents and teachers to make an informed choice about
subjects in Class XI.
10. It will motivate learning in a friendly environment rather than in a fearful situation.

11. It will equip learners with Life Skills especially Creative and Critical thinking skills,
social skills and coping skills which will keep them in a good stead when they enter into a highly
competitive environment later on.

Formative and Summative Assessment Formative Evaluation

It is the tool used by the teacher to continuously monitor the learner's progress in a fearless and
supportive environment. It involves regular descriptive feedback by providing a chance to the
learners to reflect on their performance and improve upon it. A regular formative test raises the self-
confidence and self-esteem of the learners and improves their performance tremendously.
Formative tests focus on the process of teaching and learning. It helps the teacher to modify the
methods, techniques and strategies of teaching. it is conducted several times throughout the year.

Summative Evaluation

Summative assessments are used to evaluate learner learning, skill acquisition, and academic
achievement at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, program, or school year. It is a graded
test and marked according to the grads or scale. It certifies the level of achievement at a given point
of time.

Definition of Micro teaching

Micro teaching is a teacher training technique that involves breaking down the process of teaching
into smaller, manageable segments for practice and feedback. In micro teaching, prospective

63
teachers or novice educators deliver short, focused lessons to a small group of peers or students.
These lessons typically last for a few minutes and concentrate on specific teaching skills or
objectives.

The purpose of micro teaching is to provide a controlled and supportive environment for teachers to
refine their instructional techniques and classroom management skills. It allows educators to
experiment with various teaching strategies, receive constructive feedback, and make necessary
adjustments to improve their teaching effectiveness. Micro teaching is widely used in teacher
education programs as a valuable tool to build confidence, enhance teaching competencies, and
promote reflective practice among aspiring teachers.

 Merits of Micro teaching

1. It helps to develop and master important teaching skills.

2. It helps to accomplish specific teacher competencies.
3. It caters to the need of individual differences in the teacher training.
4. It is more effective in modifying teacher behaviour.
5. It is an individualized training technique.
6. It employs real teaching situation for developing skills.
7. It reduces the complexity of teaching process as it is a scaled down teaching.
8. It helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching.

 Demerits of Micro teaching

1. It is skill oriented training not content.

2. A large number of trainees cannot be given an opportunity for re-teaching and re- planning.
3. It is time-consuming technique
4. It requires special classroom settings.
5. It covers only a few specific skills.
6. It deviates from normal classroom teaching.
7. It gives rise to administrative problems while arranging.

LEARNING ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions.

1. Want is instructional planning?

2. What is pre-teaching?
3. What is the unit plan?
4. What is the constructive approach?
5. What are the phases of teaching?
7. What is lesson planning
6. What is the importance of lesson planning?
7. Define constructive approach?
8. What are the merits of constitutive approach?
9. What are the academic standards?
10. What do you mean by competencies?
11. Define formative assessment?
12. Define summative assessment?
13. Explain micro teaching cycle?
14. Explain micro teaching skills?

64
SUMMARY

A lesson plan is comparable to a roadmap for teachers, providing guidance on the why, what, and
how of teaching. An effective lesson plan encompasses three vital elements of teaching and
learning: clear objectives, engaging teaching-learning activities, and appropriate materials and
strategies. A well-crafted lesson plan should prioritize the learners, fostering interaction, curiosity,
and critical and creative thinking. It must encourage students to raise questions and promote
reflective learning.

To be successful, a lesson plan should incorporate relevant teaching aids and utilize effective
communication techniques. It should leverage students' prior knowledge, encouraging them to
construct their understanding actively. By creating a friendly and supportive environment, the
teacher can accommodate individual differences among students, facilitating the achievement of
learning objectives in a pleasant atmosphere. A comprehensive lesson plan empowers teachers to
facilitate meaningful and impactful learning experiences for their students.

REFERENCES

Gary, K., Annabelle, L., & Kennedy, G. (2010). Medical learners’ use of Facebook to support
learninHew, K. F. (2011). Learners’ and teachers’ use of Facebook. Computers in Human
Behaviour, 27, pp. 662-676. Leier, V. (2012) “Facebook used in a German film project”. The
EUROCALL Review. Proceedings of the EUROCALL 2011 Conference. Vol. 20, pp. 95-99.

65