CVG/EVG 5301

Soil and Water Conservation

Engineering

STORMWATER QUALITY

Professor Chris Kinsley

Office: A-514
Email: ckinsley@uottawa.ca
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Learning Objectives

Course Objective 3: Understanding the main contaminants found

in urban stormwater and their sources.
• Learning Outcome 1: Understand the factors and methods of
quantifying stormwater quality.
• Learning Outcome 2: Describe the principal stormwater quality
parameters and related water quality guidelines
• Learning Outcome 3: Describe stormwater contaminant sources
• Learning Outcome 4: Apply regression equations for Road
Pollution
• Learning Outcome 5: Describe and Apply Stoke’s Law for
discrete particle settling

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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INTRODUCTION
Quality of Urban Runoff
• Storm water may contain significant
concentrations of sediment and other
pollutants. Classes of pollutants
typically monitored in storm water
quality include: suspended solids,
heavy metals, nutrients, oxygen-
demanding substances, and bacteria.
• Road systems can contribute
hydrocarbons, sand and salt.
• Parkland can contribute fertilizers,
herbicides and pesticides.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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INTRODUCTION
• To fully understand issues in water quality requires an
understanding of the physical processes that control
runoff. This includes:
– the generation of pollutants:
• intensity, duration, frequency of ppt events
• surfaces (roofs, roads, grass, forest, farmland
etc.)
– the transport of the pollutants:
• sheet flow, concentrated flow, pipe flow
– the treatment of stormwater:
• direct discharge, settling, filtration, microbial
degradation, adsorption, precipitation, plant
uptake, volatilization.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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INTRODUCTION
• Because of the variability and unpredictability in the magnitude
and frequency of runoff flows, sampling of runoff to investigate
quality can be difficult.
– Knowledge of concentrations entering a receiving water are
of importance in evaluating acute toxicity and immediate
water quality concerns in a water during a precipitation
event.
– Long-term pollutant inputs, however, are best quantified
using mass loads. Load calculations require detailed
knowledge of both pollutant concentrations and runoff flow
rates as a function of each storm event.
– The magnitude and duration of runoff quantity will influence
the water quality response of a treatment practice.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Grab Sampling
• The simplest water quality
measurements are grab samples
taken at various times during a storm
event. The sample is collected in an
appropriately prepared container and
evaluated either directly in the field or
after it is taken to a laboratory.
• The grab samples only represent an
instantaneous measurement of what
is happening at that point in time and
space.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Composite Sample Measurements

• To fully understand the pollutant levels transported in stormwater runoff,
composite measurements must be completed.
– Time averaged composite samples (i.e. subsample collected every 1 hr for
24-hrs)
– Flow proportional composite samples (i.e. subsample every 1000 m3 of flow)
– Discrete samples either by time or flow (i.e. discrete sample collected every
hr)

Composite Sampler with Area-Velocity Flow Sensor

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Composite Sample Measurements

• Collecting many samples during an event, along with
information on the flow rates can allow the calculation of a much
more useful composite concentration known as the event mean
concentration, or EMC.
• The EMC is a flow-weighted average of the concentration and is
representative of the pollutant concentration over an entire
event. The event mean concentration is computed by:

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Trash
• One of the most visible pollution problems is trash or floatables.
Paper and plastic materials such as cups, bottles, and wrappers
are discarded along roadsides. This trash is carried into
receiving streams, where it is a major eyesore and can affect
wildlife.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Suspended Solids
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are primarily small particles of
soil (clay, silt, sand) or vegetation. Large loadings of solids can
be picked up by a fast-moving overland flow of water during a
storm event and eventually settle on stream and lake bottoms.
• Suspended solids can block light and can transport other
materials that can cause water quality problems including:
organic matter, heavy metals, nutrients, pesticides and
pathogens.
• Because of the importance of suspended solids in determining
water quality, even the most basic stormwater treatment device
will usually address suspended solids.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Suspended Solids
Parameter Values CWQG for Protection of Aquatic Life
(Freshwater)
TSS A wide range of suspended solids Maximum increase of 25 mg⋅L-1 from
concentrations have been background levels at any time when
measured, from less than 1 to over background levels are between 25 and
700 mg/L. 250 mg⋅L-1. (CWQG)

Many of the results show TSS Should not increase more than
values over 100 mg/L. 10% of background levels when
background is >250 mg⋅L-1.
(CWQG)

80% TSS removal is often a requirement

for Stormwater systems in Ontario
Note: Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (CWQG)

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Particulates in Stormwater Runoff

• Particle size will control the particle settling velocity, and
accordingly, the trap efficiency in a treatment practice. Several
investigations have evaluated particle size distributions in urban
stormwater runoff.

Source: Characterization of Particle Size

Distributions of Runoff from High Impervious
Urban Catchments in the Greater Toronto Area,
Toronto and Region Conservation, 2012

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stokes Law
The situation of a solid particle free falling through a liquid arises
frequently in engineering applications. This is the case for a
sediment particle suspended in water. Three forces act on the
particle: gravity, buoyancy, and drag. The first force acts downward
and the latter two forces act upward. Since the drag force is a
function of settling velocity, at some point the settling velocity
becomes high enough so that the vector sum of the three forces is
equal to zero:

in which Fb is the buoyant force, FD is the drag force, and W is the

weight (gravitational force).

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Stokes Law
For a sphere, these forces are computed by the following:

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Stokes Law

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Stokes Law

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Stokes Law
• Stokes Law has several inherent assumptions:
1. the particle is not influenced by other particles or nearby
objects and surfaces;
2. the particles are spherical; and
3. the specific gravity of the soil particle and the viscosity of the
fluid are known exactly.
• These assumptions, especially the first two, do not usually hold
but Stokes Law is commonly used in spite of these problems.
For materials that are falling in water and that have a specific
weight near that of soil grains, Stokes Law applies for particles
that have diameters between 0.0002 mm and 0.2 mm.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stokes Law
• Sedimentation is a very important mechanism in the removal of
suspended solids from stormwater runoff. Detention ponds and
wetlands are specifically designed to promote sedimentation of
particulates. As well, when runoff flows are slowed, such as in
filter strips or swales, time for sedimentation is increased.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stokes Law
Example: Runoff into a small stream transports sediment with a
mean diameter of 0.05 mm at 15°C. The stream enters a wetland
with an average depth of 0.75 m. If the horizontal velocity in the
wetland is 0.1 m/sec, how far will the particle move before settling?
Note: Assume density of particle is 2000 kg/m3.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stokes Law
Example:

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Stormwater Quality
Oxygen Demand
• Most organic substances in waters can be metabolized by
aerobic microorganisms, primarily bacteria. This decomposition
process also requires the consumption of oxygen. This process
can be symbolized as:

• There are three analytical methods to describe oxygen demand:

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
• Sources of organic matter in stormwater include animal feces
and dead plant materials

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Oxygen Demand
Parameter Concentrations CWQG for Protection of Aquatic
Life (Freshwater)
BOD Organic carbon is usually a minor Note: Oxygen Demand can impact
pollutant concern for urban runoff. DO concentrations in receiving water
The values for BOD are generally bodies
less than 30 mg/L.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Nitrogen
• Nitrogen is a macronutrient required for all life.
• Nitrogen (3 forms in water):
1. Organic Nitrogen (Org N) – N in organic matter (mostly particulate)
2. Total Ammoniacal Nitrogen (TAN) (NH3 + NH4+) (mostly soluble)
3. Nitrate (NO3- + NO2-) (mostly soluble)
Total Nitrogen is the sum of Org N, TAN and Nitrate
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = TAN + Org N

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CVG/EVG 5301
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NITROGEN CYCLE

http://www.biology-pages.info/N/NitrogenCycle.html

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NITROGEN CYCLE - AMMONIFICATION
• Organic N released from dead organisms is hydrolyzed biologically to become
ammonia in a process called ammonification:
Organic N  NH3/NH4+

NITROGEN CYCLE - NITRIFICATION

• Nitrification - under aerobic conditions, specialized bacteria species convert
ammonium to NO2- and NO3-

NH4+ + 3/2 O2  NO2- + 2H+ + H2O (Nitrosomonas) (1)

NO2- +1/2 O2 +  NO3- (Nitrobacter) (2)
NH4+ + 2 O2  NO3- + 2H+ + H2O (3)

• 4.3 mg O2 / mg NH4+-N transformed to nitrate

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CVG/EVG 5301
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NITROGEN CYCLE - DENITRIFICATION
• Several groups of bacteria are able to transform nitrates into N2 gas.
These include: Achromobacter, Aerobacter, Alcalignees, Bacillus,
Brevibacterium, Flavobacterium, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus,
Proteus, Pseudomonas, and Spirillum.

NO3-  NO2-  NO  N2O  N2

• The presence of dissolved oxygen will remove the enzymes needed

for denitrification.
• A nitrogen-to-carbon ratio of 2:1 (total organic carbon : total
nitrogen) is required to achieve complete denitrification.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Nitrogen
Parameter Values CWQG for Protection of Aquatic Life
(Freshwater)
N Ammonia-nitrogen concentrations NH3 – 0.019 mg⋅L-1
range from 0.2 to 3 mg/L.

Oxidized nitrogen (nitrite + nitrate) NO3–N - 3.0 mg⋅L-1 (long term

range from 0.1 to over 2 mg/L. exposure)

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Phosphorus
• Phosphorus (2 forms in water)
1. Organic Phosphorus (Org P) - P in organic matter (generally
particulate)
2. Inorganic Phosphorus or Orthophosphate (OPO43-) (generally
soluble)
Total Phosphorus (TP) is the sum of Org and Inorganic P

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CVG/EVG 5301
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PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE
• Phosphorous is a macronutrient required for all life.

• No gas phase of phosphorous in the phosphorous cycle.

• Without anthropogenic sources phosphorous will exist in waters in

very small quantities.

• In aquatic environments, phosphorous is often the growth-limiting

nutrient (no fixation from atmosphere is possible).

• Orthophosphates (PO43-) are the soluble form of inorganic

phosphorous that is readily used by organisms.

• Organisms use phosphorous to synthesize new cells.

• Decomposition of dead organisms returns organic phosphorous to the

inorganic orthophosphate form.

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PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

Source: Suez Water Handbook

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Stormwater Quality
Phosphorus
Parameter Values PWQO (to avoid nuisance
concentrations of algae)
P Both ortho-P and total P range from TP – 10 µg⋅L-1 for high level of
0.1 to 3.0 mg/L. protection
- 20 µg⋅L-1 for lakes
- 30 µg⋅L-1 for rivers
(PWQO)

PWQO – Ontario Provincial Water Quality Objectives

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Microbial Pathogens
• Pathogens are disease-causing organisms and include various
bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Common waterborne diseases
caused by pathogens include cholera, typhoid, and
cryptosporidiosis.
• E.coli is the common pathogen indicator used.
• Animal feces deposited on land can be washed off by rainfall
and runoff to receiving streams.

C. Kinsley E.coli. Source: CDC

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Stormwater Quality
Microbial Pathogens

Parameter Values PWQO (for recreational use)

Pathogens The data that are available indicate E.Coli - 100 CFU/100 mL
high coliform levels.

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Stormwater Quality
Heavy Metals
• Many heavy metals are toxic at high concentrations to humans
and other flora and fauna. These metals include cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc.
• Metals are often associated with solid particles. When solids
settle or are removed via treatment, metals can be removed with
them.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Heavy Metals
Parameter Concentrations WQ Guideline

Metals Heavy metals are toxic to either Cu – 5 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO)

humans or some plant and animal
species.
Concentration ranges for these
metals are wide. In some cases
they are low, but in others,
reported levels are very high and
exceed typical fresh water quality
criteria.
Pb - 1-5 µg⋅L-1 (Interim PWQO)
Cd – 0.09 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Inorg. Hg – 26 ng⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Ni – 25 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO)
Cr (VI) – 1 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Cr (III) – 8.9 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG Interim)
As - 5 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Zn – 7 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Oils and Grease
• Oils, grease, and other fluids leak from automobiles onto
roadways and parking lots.
Parameter Values Water Quality Guideline
Oil and Oil and grease measurements Benzene: 370 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Grease ranged over an order of Toluene: 2 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
magnitude, from about 0.4 to 4 Ethylbenzene: 90 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
mg/L. Xylene, m-: 2 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO interim)
Xylene, o-: 40 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO interim)
Xylene, p-: 30 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO interim)
Should not be detected as a visible film,
sheen, or discolouration on the surface or
detected as an odour (PWQO) (CWQG)

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Toxic Organic Compounds
• A variety of different organic
compounds are toxic, with a wide range
of properties that control their transport
in runoff and their ultimate fate in the
environment.
• Pesticides and Herbicides: Chemicals
specifically designed to kill or somehow
alter the growth or reproductive
characteristics of a plant or animal
species. Pesticides or herbicides can
be washed into a water body during the
runoff process. Severe toxicity to fish,
plants, or other species can result.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Toxic Organic Compounds
Parameter Values CWQG for Protection of Aquatic
Life (Freshwater)

Pesticides Lindane and chlordane are Lindane – 0.01 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO)

and common pesticides. A high fraction
Herbicides of lawns or other managed grass
areas (such as golf courses) will
generally show high pesticide
levels.
Chlordane – 0.06 µg⋅L-1 (PWQO)
Glyphosate - 800 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)
Atrazine -1.8 µg⋅L-1 (CWQG)

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Toxic Organic Compounds
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH): PAHs are compounds
with two or more common aromatic rings. Multiple-ring PAH have
very low water solubilities and tend to adsorb to sediments and
soils rather than to be dissolved in water. Larger PAH also tend
to be quite stable in the environment.
• Very heavy, thick petroleum products, such as asphalts contain
high levels of PAH. Therefore, PAH will result in runoff from
parking areas and roadways where fuels and oils are leaked.
Trace levels may leach from asphalt paving, especially when it is
new. Runoff from asphalt roofs can also be a source.

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Road Salt
• Every winter, 190,000 tonnes of road salt is used by the City
of Ottawa.
• Chloride based de-icers (NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2) are by far the
most common material used to treat road surfaces.
• Cl does not adsorb to soil and is highly mobile. Highest
concentrations are found 2-3 m from the road edge.
• Long-term accumulation of chloride can result in reduced soil
permeability and fertility and can release of heavy metals in
soil.

Source. Minnesota Stormwater Manual

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Stormwater Quality
Road Salt
• Roadside vegetation can be
negatively impacted by
absorption of chloride through
the plant roots, or from
accumulating on the foliage and
branches
• Chloride can enter shallow
groundwater and surface water
bodies, causing toxicity to
aquatic species

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CVG/EVG 5301
 Slide 42
Parameter Values CWQG for Protection of Aquatic
Life (Freshwater)

Chloride Average Cl- concentrations in Cl- - 120 mg⋅L-1 (long-term exposure)

Ottawa Creeks ranged from 725 to Cl- - 640 mg/L (short-term exposure)
1326 mg/L with maximum values
of 980-3454 mg/L. (Ottawa River
Keepers, 2020)

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Pollutant Sources
Data collected from 81 Sites in 22 Cities

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Pollutant Sources
Vehicle Use
• Tire tread contains a high concentration of zinc
• The brake wear material contains metals such as copper, iron,
lead, and zinc
• Fluid leakage (motor oil, fuel, gear fluids, and coolants)
• Combustion emissions
Buildings
• Heavy metals from paints and coatings
• Zinc and copper from roofing and flashing materials
Landscaping
• N, P, herbicides, insecticides

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CVG/EVG 5301
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Road Pollution Regression Equations

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First Flush
• A first flush is an initial high level of pollutants that is carried in
the first flow of the runoff.
– Pollutants build up on land areas during the antecedent dry days through
atmospheric deposition, dripping of automobile fluids, discharges from
vehicle brakes, pesticide and fertilizer applications, and so forth.
– These pollutants are easily dislodged and transported by first contact with
the runoff. Therefore, high pollutant concentrations are observed in the
initial part of a runoff event.

• When a first flush occurs, a significant fraction of the overall

pollutant mass is carried in the initial small volume of water.
Thus, designing and constructing a system to intercept and treat
just this small volume can have a major impact on water quality
improvement.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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First Flush
• One of the most common definitions of First Flush is when at
least 60% of a pollutant mass is washed off by only 30% of the
initial runoff volume.
• Multiple studies have shown a trend of strong first flush
correlating to high intensity storms, with higher intensity rainfall
dislodging large quantities of accumulated particulate matter in a
short time.
• Small drainage areas tend to have a more defined first flush. In
small areas, the wash-off occurs and is carried rapidly to the
discharge point.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Improvements to Stormwater Quality

• Traditionally, stormwater quality improvement has been
managed in the same way as wastewater discharges,
specifically, to design and construct some type of treatment or
management structure at the point of discharge into the
receiving waters. Several different technologies have been
developed as end-of-pipe treatment practices, such as
retention ponds and sand filters.
• Low Impact Development take a more holistic and sustainable
approach to water quality improvement. Technologies including
green roofs, porous pavement and infiltration systems reduce
stormwater production, which can significantly improve water
quality.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301
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Improvements to Stormwater Quality

• Physical devices that are designed to be put in-line to improve
runoff quality are primarily based on the treatment principle of
gravity separation. A summary of pollutant removal efficiencies
of several common stormwater management devices is
presented below.

C. Kinsley
CVG/EVG 5301