Introduction

Statement of Problem
Research Question
Hypothesis
Objective
Rationale of Medium
Rationale of Study
Introduction
O mankind! We have created you from a male and female and made you into nations
and tribes that you may know one another. Verily the most honorable of you with Allah
is that who is the most “Muttaqi”. Verily, Allah is All-Knowing and Well-Acquainted.
(Verse 13, Surah Al-Hujurat)

You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or
to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion
or caste or creed - that has nothing to do with the business of the State.
(Mohammad Ali Jinnah)
Caste system is a division of society based upon differences of wealth, rank, or
occupation (The Britannica Dictionary). This system is believed to be nearly 3,000 years
old. (1) A caste system represents a social structure that categorizes individuals into
distinct groups based on their societal standing, occupation, and hereditary attributes.
Those within a caste system typically inherit their caste at birth, and their social and
economic opportunities are frequently dictated by this inherited caste. Caste systems
manifest in diverse forms across various cultures and societies, each governed by its
unique set of regulations and traditions. Although some societies have transitioned
away from explicit caste frameworks, the enduring effects of discrimination and
inequality based on caste can persist in certain regions in one form or the other.
Caste System - Genesis
Social stratification is the ordering of social differences with the help of a set of criteria
or just a single criterion which ties the differentiated strata into a system (Gupta 2000).
(2) The social fabric and identities within a community are intricate and diverse,
reflecting the multifaceted nature of human connections. Individuals often navigate a
complex tapestry of identities, encompassing linguistic, regional, and religious
affiliations that collectively shape their sense of self. This intricate interplay underscores
the dynamic nature of social structures, where people draw from various aspects of their
identity to forge a unique and nuanced sense of belonging.
The establishment of caste systems represents a multifaceted social phenomenon that
has historically occurred in diverse societies, shaped by cultural, historical, and
geographical influences. Several international human rights organizations insist that
worldwide over 260 million people suffer from discrimination based on caste (or ‘work
and descent’, the UN terminology for such systems of inherited status), that caste is ‘‘a
fundamental determinant [of] social exclusion and development”, and affects some 20-
25 percent of the world’s population – including (but not restricted to) the peoples of
South Asian nations and their diasporas. (7) Caste formation is underpinned by various
factors, and its basis can differ significantly. Several common elements as elaborated in
succeeding paras contribute to the emergence of castes:-
Occupational Specialization. The whole basis of diversity of caste is diversity of
occupation, (26) where unique groups were deliberately assigned specific trades or
professions. This intentional association closely intertwined social status with an
individual's chosen vocation. As the passage of time unfolded, these occupational
distinctions not only endured but also underwent a transformative process, ultimately
solidifying into enduring and hereditary caste identities. Therefore, in its economic
dimension caste is a division of occupations with ascribed status, perhaps within an
agrarian village system. (16)
Endogamy. Endogamy is the marriage practice within one’s social group, tribe, or
caste, and it is one of the oldest social regulations of marriage (Sofroniou, 2015). (8)
Being an integral facet within caste systems, endogamy emphasizes matrimonial unions
within one's specific social group. This tradition serves a dual purpose by safeguarding
the purity of caste lines and fortifying societal distinctions. The preference for intra-caste
marriages is not solely rooted in the preservation of social boundaries; it extends to the
maintenance of intricate connections across realms such as social dynamics, cultural
traditions, and economic networks. In status group in general and castes in particular,
there is a strong tendency towards endogamy and marriage of the equals. Dumont
summarizes these as follows: ” a man of caste X marriage a woman of caste X and the
children belong to caste X” (Dumont 1980: 112). (5) This principal of endogamy is a
dominant aspect of caste society and is regarded as "the essence of caste system
(Westermarck citing Ghurye1964: 18)". (6) The typical caste-based endogamous
marriages in Pakistan are borrowed from traditional Indian culture, and both countries
practice rigid caste-based endogamy (Schwimmer 2003). (9)
Hierarchical Social Structure. Society is divided into caste groups, which are allocated
differential social status (positive or negative) in accordance with the group’s position
within the social hierarchy. (12) Castes invariably take shape within a structured social
hierarchy, delineating certain groups as superior or inferior based on criteria such as
perceived purity, societal standing, or occupation. This entrenched hierarchy forms a
framework of social stratification, entailing restricted mobility between castes. The
stratified system not only defines the positions of various groups but also dictates the
boundaries of interaction and opportunities within this intricate societal order.
Religious and Cultural Practices. Religious and cultural beliefs wield substantial
influence in shaping and perpetuating caste structures. Certain caste systems derive
religious justifications, ascribing social status to perceived spiritual purity or impurity,
thereby intertwining the societal order with spiritual convictions. Caste is unique to
Hinduism which deems it a sacred institution, and is found among the majority in two
states, India and Nepal, and among minority Hindu populations in South Asia. It has its
origin in the Vedas, the ancient Hindu texts. (3) Similarly, Sayyeds in Pakistan and India
trace their origin in the highest religious personality of Islam. In addition to religious
underpinnings, cultural practices, intricate rituals, and age-old traditions contribute
significantly to delineating and reinforcing caste identities, weaving a tapestry of social
distinction deeply rooted in both faith and cultural heritage.
Ancestral Lineage and Descent. The formation of castes intricately intertwines with
ancestral lineage and descent, creating a profound connection to one's family roots.
Membership in a particular caste frequently hinges on the intricate tapestry of one's
familial background, and the hereditary transmission of caste status emerges as a
prevailing and enduring characteristic. This hereditary linkage not only solidifies the ties
between individuals and their caste identity but also underscores the profound influence
that familial heritage exerts in shaping the intricate social fabric associated with caste
systems. The Vedas, the sacred books of the Hindus, have been in existence since
1500 BC, which makes the caste system at least 3,500 years old. It is the ‘longest living
social hierarchy in the world’, (4) the first and oldest known form of systematic
discrimination on the basis of birth, which in modern times has been labelled ‘racial
discrimination’.
Social Norms and Customs. Some modelled caste in terms of three key effects: social
separation, graded status and occupational specialization (Dumont, 1980). (17) Social
interactions within and between castes are intricately governed by a complex web of
social norms and customs. These deeply ingrained norms wield considerable influence,
shaping not only individual behaviors but also the dynamics of relationships and
everyday practices. In doing so, they serve to fortify the delineations between various
caste groups, contributing to the maintenance and reinforcement of boundaries that
define the societal landscape. These norms become a lens through which individuals
navigate their social world, influencing the manner in which they engage with others and
perpetuating the distinct character of each caste within the broader social tapestry.
Political Power and Governance. In many scholarly works it is uncritically assumed
that the political fortunes of parties depend primarily upon the caste composition of
constituencies (Frankel 1989, pp. 823–101). (13) Further, the predominance of a certain
caste in a defined region is not because it has superior numbers that can carry it
through elections but rather because it is better organized. (14) The caste system, as a
system, worked primarily because it was enforced by power and not by ideological
acquiescence. (15) Therefore, caste systems is susceptible to the influence of political
power structures and governance. Throughout history, ruling elites have wielded their
influence to institutionalize caste divisions, strategically employing them as tools to
uphold social order and maintain control over the populace. The intricate interplay of
political decisions and policies plays a pivotal role, capable of either bolstering the
existing caste-based systems or challenging their established norms. As political
dynamics evolve, so too does the potential for shifts in the delicate balance of power
within caste hierarchies, signaling a continuous interplay between political authority and
the enduring structures of societal stratification.
Economic Factors. Economic factors, encompassing access to resources, land, and
opportunities, significantly contribute to the intricate process of caste formation.
Throughout history, specific castes have been subjected to distinct economic
circumstances, resulting in either advantages or disadvantages that become deeply
ingrained in the social fabric. These economic disparities play a pivotal role in
consolidating both social and economic hierarchies within the caste system, influencing
the trajectory of individuals and entire communities within the broader context of societal
stratification wherein lower castes were established to serve an economic purpose.
Writing about the genesis of caste system in economic factor, Gupta (2000) posits that
they were initially occupational guilds, tracing their emergence to the feudal period (7th
to 12th century). (18)
Geographical Factors. Geographical conditions exert a profound influence on the
evolution of caste systems, giving rise to unique variations across different regions. The
interplay of historical events and environmental factors becomes a crucible in which
distinct caste systems crystallize, ultimately shaping diverse social structures. As
landscapes change and civilizations develop, the intricate tapestry of caste dynamics
reflects the nuanced interplay between local histories, geographical features, and the
prevailing environmental contexts, engendering a rich diversity of societal configurations
across various regions.
South Asia is home to more than 1.5 billion humans representing many diverse
ethnicities, linguistic and religious groups and representing almost one-quarter of
humanity. Modern humans arrived here soon after their departure from Africa 50 000^70
000 years before present (YBP) and several subsequent human migrations and
invasions, as well as the unique social structure of the region, have helped shape the
pattern of genetic diversity currently observed in these populations. During the past few
decades molecular geneticists and anthropologists have analyzed DNA variation among
human populations in order to catalog their genetic relationships and to glean
information about recent human evolution. Several such studies have been carried out
in populations from South Asia, especially Pakistan, which is well-represented in the
Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP), and more recently India, in order to study
their origins, their susceptibility, and influence of geographic, linguistic and religious
patterns on population diversity in this region. (30)
Changes with Changing Times. We should not think that the caste system is like it
used to be even today. Many characteristics of the caste system have changed, and the
process of change continues. (31) The ebb and flow of economic, political, and social
transformations serve as catalysts, inducing shifts in the complex web of caste relations.
Such transformations have the potential to not only reshape existing caste dynamics but
also give rise to the emergence of novel caste identities. As societies evolve and
undergo paradigm shifts, the malleability of caste systems becomes evident, reflecting
the ever-changing interplay between societal forces and the complex fabric of caste-
based structures. The market-driven new economy, rise of caste identity, access to
quality education, social media and empowerment schemes of governments have made
the change possible.
Psychological Impact of Caste Based Social Stratification
The psychological ramifications of social stratification are far-reaching, intricately
interwoven with various facets of individuals' lives and overall well-being. The impacts
extend beyond mere placement within a societal hierarchy, influencing self-perception,
aspirations, and the quality of interpersonal relationships. Dovidio et al. (2000) are
correct in highlighting the manifold consequences of stigmatization; caste-based stigma
can threaten psychological, social and even physical wellbeing among the stigmatized
Scheduled Castes groups. (11) A comprehensive exploration of these psychological
effects sheds light on the nuanced dynamics at play.
Self-Esteem and Identity. Caste group members position themselves, psychologically,
in relation to the caste system (consisting of their caste in-group and caste out-groups).
(20) There is a connection between social stratification and its impact on self-esteem
and identity. People in lower social strata often face societal judgments and
stereotypes, leading to a noticeable decline in self-esteem and diminished self-worth.
They struggle to reconcile their true value with negative societal narratives. Crocker,
Major and Steele (1998, p. 504) highlight that ‘a person who is stigmatized is a person
whose social identity, or membership in some social category, calls into question his or
her full humanity – the person is devalued, spoiled, or flawed in the eyes of others’.
Accordingly, members of the SC are, in many cases, regarded with contempt by
members of High Caste Groups due primarily to their membership in a ‘devalued,
spoiled or flawed’ social category. (23) Conversely, individuals in higher strata
experience psychological challenges like imposter syndrome and fear of appearing less
competent. The pressure to meet elevated expectations and scrutiny of their privileged
status can create a sense of inadequacy.
Social Identity and Belonging. Social identity approaches indicate that individuals
may come to regard themselves as interchangeable exemplars of their social groups by
viewing themselves and others primarily in terms of their caste group memberships
(Turner et al., 1987). The phenomenological importance of caste as a social identity
among many South Asians has led researchers working on the ethnography of other
social identities (e.g. gender and ethnicity) to regard caste identity as a potentially
important and influential variable (e.g. Gayer, 2000; Mand, 2006). (21)
There is a profound relationship between social stratification and social identity. Social
stratification significantly influences an individual's sense of belonging and social
identity. Discrimination based on factors like social class or race can create a condition
of isolation for those in lower strata, leading to a profound sense of alienation. Social
biases and exclusions create barriers to genuine connection, leaving individuals
struggling with detachment. Challenges associated with social mobility further
complicate matters, creating a dissonance that affects both lower and upper strata. The
elusive pursuit of upward mobility, hindered by systemic barriers, may result in
individuals feeling disconnected from both social echelons. This dual detachment
makes it challenging for individuals to establish a clear and cohesive social identity. The
amalgamation of discrimination, exclusion, and mobility challenges weaves a complex
tapestry that shapes how individuals perceive themselves in societal structures.
Educational Opportunities. Limited access to quality education for those in lower
strata hampers cognitive development and future prospects. The enrollment (in school)
gap between children from "high caste" households over those from "low-caste"
households is nearly as large as the difference between their caste groups. (32) The
frustration and powerlessness arising from these disparities can impact an individual's
confidence, hindering their ability to pursue opportunities and achieve their full potential.
The disparities in educational opportunities significantly impact individuals in low caste
groups, extending beyond the classroom. Limited access to quality education hinders
cognitive development and serves as a critical factor in determining their future
prospects. The lack of educational resources acts as a formidable barrier, impeding the
acquisition of essential skills necessary for upward mobility. This educational inequality
breeds frustration and powerlessness as individuals in lower strata face a system that
restricts their growth and intellectual advancement. The inaccessibility of quality
education perpetuates a cycle of limited opportunities, intensifying the challenges for
those seeking to overcome socio-economic circumstances. Ultimately, the unequal
distribution of educational resources not only impedes cognitive development but also
plays a pivotal role in shaping one's life trajectory, contributing significantly to the
interplay of frustration and powerlessness within lower strata communities.
Relationships and Social Interactions. Traditionally, caste has been linked with the
concepts of “purity” and “pollution” (24), i.e. members of a particular caste would share
neither bed nor meal with someone outside their caste group in order to avoid polluting
contact or diluting genetic purity. (25) Interpersonal relationships are influenced by
social stratification, with perceived differences in social status contributing to strained
connections. Fear of judgment may impede authentic social interactions, fostering an
environment where individuals feel compelled to conform to societal expectations rather
than expressing their true selves.
The caste system exerts a profound impact on relationships and social interactions in
societies where it prevails. This hierarchical social structure introduces a complex layer
to interpersonal dynamics, with individuals navigating a landscape fraught with
challenges and introducing complexity to human connections. The stratification based
on caste engenders strained relationships, as perceived disparities in social status
become a silent yet influential force. The fear of judgment, rooted in centuries-old social
norms, acts as a palpable barrier, impeding the authenticity of social interactions.
Individuals may find themselves censoring thoughts and actions, driven by concerns
about how their caste identity will be perceived by others. This self-censorship
diminishes the richness of genuine connection, as the emphasis on social standing can
override authentic understanding. The caste system creates a social environment where
relationships are often influenced more by external perceptions than true empathy,
making it a delicate balancing act for individuals to navigate a nuanced terrain where
the impact of caste looms large over the intricate dance of social interactions.
Aspirations and Life Goals. The consciousness of social stratification significantly
influences an individual's aspirations and life goals, particularly for those from
disadvantaged backgrounds. This awareness acts as a lens through which opportunities
are perceived, revealing systemic barriers that hinder the pursuit of certain ambitions.
The realization that societal structures may limit equal pathways to success becomes a
shaping force for personal and professional goals. This awareness goes beyond
acknowledging existing disparities; it becomes a factor in crafting aspirations. In
navigating a stratified society, individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds face
external hurdles and internalized limitations from societal expectations. This may
inadvertently restrict the scope of their aspirations, creating a climate where dreams are
constrained by the stratified order. Consequently, the impact of social stratification on
aspirations extends beyond the individual, influencing the collective consciousness and
contributing to the complex interplay between societal structures and the shaping of
personal destinies.
Perceptions of Justice and Fairness. The perception that social standing is
predetermined by factors beyond one's control can lead to a sense of injustice, giving
rise to feelings of resentment and frustration that challenge societal principles of justice
and fairness. When individuals believe that their social standing is dictated by arbitrary
and systemic forces, a profound sense of injustice takes root, fostering resentment and
frustration. The connection between social standing and justice becomes crucial in
shaping individuals' understanding of the fairness within the social fabric. When societal
position seems determined by factors unrelated to personal merit or effort, a
disheartening sense of inequity emerges, not only affecting individuals but also
contributing to broader societal discontent where foundational principles of justice are
questioned. As individuals grapple with the implications of a seemingly unfair system,
feelings of resentment and frustration may lead to an internalized call for a more
equitable distribution of opportunities, emphasizing the pivotal juncture where social
stratification intersects with perceptions of justice and fairness within the intricate
relationship between individuals and societal frameworks.
Social Comparison and Envy. It is clear that theoretical strands from social identity
theory (Tajfel, 1982) are useful in understanding the psychological connection of the
individual to their caste group and indeed how members of one caste group will interact
with members of another. (22) Caste based social stratification often fuels social
comparison, prompting individuals to measure themselves against others in different
strata. This can breed feelings of inadequacy, envy, and an unrelenting desire for
upward mobility, perpetuating a cycle of discontent. Within the stratified layers of
society, individuals engage in the subtle yet potent act of measuring their own standing
against those in different strata, leading to a cascade of emotions beyond recognizing
differences. This includes profound feelings of inadequacy, underlying envy, and an
unyielding desire for upward mobility. The process of sizing oneself up against others in
disparate social strata becomes a crucible where personal worth undergoes relentless
scrutiny from societal hierarchies. Rather than fostering healthy competition, this often
results in a deep sense of inadequacy, triggering a complex interplay of self-doubt and
self-evaluation as individuals compare their achievements and status with those in more
advantaged strata. Envy, as the emotional resonance of social comparison, becomes a
pervasive element for those navigating a stratified society. Visible disparities in social
standing serve as persistent reminders of unfulfilled aspirations, fueling the desire for
upward mobility. This perpetual yearning for a higher societal rung acts as both a
motivator for self-improvement and a source of lingering discontent, creating a delicate
balance between ambition and dissatisfaction.
Stress and Mental Health. Caste is a complex social and psychological construct. (19)
The nexus between caste based social stratification and mental health is a complex
interplay marked by profound implications, particularly for individuals in lower strata.
The backdrop of economic disparities and constrained access to resources creates a
fertile ground for the cultivation of chronic stress, laying the groundwork for potential
mental health adversities such as anxiety and depression. The palpable weight of
financial instability and the struggle for basic necessities can cast a pervasive shadow
over the mental well-being of those in lower strata, leaving them susceptible to the
insidious toll of prolonged stress.
Moreover, the unrelenting pressure to either sustain or elevate one's social standing
within the stratified hierarchy can act as a catalyst for stress-related disorders and
further exacerbate mental health challenges. The perpetual pursuit of societal approval,
coupled with the fear of social descent, creates a stressful environment wherein
individuals grapple with an ongoing internal struggle to meet societal expectations. This
psychological burden not only shapes their daily experiences but can also manifest in
physical and mental health consequences, underscoring the intricate link between
social stratification, stress, and the well-being of individuals navigating the complexities
of societal hierarchies. Therefore, Dovidio et al. (2000) are correct in highlighting the
manifold consequences of stigmatization; caste-based stigma can threaten
psychological, social and even physical wellbeing among the stigmatized Scheduled
Castes groups. (27)
In essence, caste based social division is not confined to external structures but
extends its influence into the inner realms of human psyche. The intricate dance of
social comparison and envy becomes a defining feature of the psychological landscape,
shaping individuals' self-perception and fueling the ceaseless pursuit of advancement
within the complex tapestry of a stratified social order.
Mitigating the psychological impact of social stratification requires concerted efforts
aimed at fostering a more just and inclusive societal landscape. Central to this endeavor
is the promotion of social justice and the reduction of inequality through thoughtful,
systemic reforms. In tandem, the creation of inclusive social policies becomes a crucial
cornerstone in dismantling the barriers that contribute to the negative psychological
consequences associated with social stratification.
Efforts to address these challenges necessitate initiatives that actively provide equal
opportunities for all, irrespective of their position within the societal hierarchy. This
involves not only breaking down structural barriers but also challenging deeply ingrained
stereotypes that perpetuate inequity. By dismantling prejudiced narratives and fostering
a more accurate understanding of diverse experiences, societies can work towards
creating an environment that promotes fairness and equal access to opportunities.
Furthermore, initiatives aimed at fostering a sense of community play a pivotal role in
mitigating the isolating effects of social stratification. Building bridges between
individuals from different strata fosters empathy, understanding, and a shared
commitment to a more inclusive society. Community-driven efforts can serve as a
powerful antidote to the divisive nature of stratification, nurturing a collective ethos that
values each individual's inherent worth.
In sum, addressing the psychological impact of social stratification requires multifaceted
interventions that span from systemic changes to individual mindset shifts. By
championing social justice, reducing inequality, and implementing inclusive policies,
societies can pave the way for a more equitable and psychologically resilient collective
experience. Initiatives that actively challenge stereotypes, provide equal opportunities,
and foster a sense of community are essential components of this transformative
journey toward a more harmonious and inclusive coexistence.
Context Pakistan
Caste systems have historically existed in various societies globally, with the most
renowned example being India's caste system. The Indian caste system represents a
intricate social hierarchy with a centuries-long history. This system of social stratification
is birth-based and comprises four primary categories: Brahmins (priests and scholars),
Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras
(laborers and service providers). In addition, there is a group known as Dalits,
historically labeled as "untouchables," who have faced marginalization and
discrimination. The caste system has deeply permeated Indian society over time, with
each class possessing distinct customs, traditions, and beliefs. Its influence extended to
neighboring regions, including present-day Pakistan.
Within Pakistan, the societal landscape is a vibrant tapestry of diversity, with individuals
hailing from a myriad of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Embracing this diversity is
crucial, as it plays a pivotal role in shaping the nation's identity. Unlike certain countries,
such as India, where castes hold formal recognition, Pakistan does not officially endorse
such distinctions. The social framework in Pakistan is structured around various factors,
prominently including ethnicity, religion, and regional affiliations. This multifaceted
approach underscores the unity that emerges from a mosaic of differences.
Pakistan's populace is characterized by a rich assortment of ethnic groups, each
contributing unique hues to the national fabric. The linguistic diversity is equally
remarkable, with people conversing in languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto,
Urdu, and many others. These languages serve not only as modes of communication
but also as vessels of cultural expression, reflecting the historical tapestry of the regions
they represent. The absence of formal caste recognition allows for a more fluid societal
interaction, fostering connections based on shared values, beliefs, and regional ties
rather than predetermined hierarchical structures.
In essence, the social cohesion in Pakistan thrives on the acknowledgment and
celebration of its diverse populace, reinforcing the notion that the nation's strength lies
in the collective tapestry of its people, each thread contributing to the vibrant narrative of
Pakistani society.
Punjabis. Punjabis stand as the largest ethnic group in Pakistan, predominantly
dwelling in the Punjab region. Their linguistic richness in Punjabi resonates across the
nation, and they play pivotal roles in shaping Pakistan's culture, politics, and economy.
Sindhis. Inhabiting the Sindh province, the Sindhi people boast a rich cultural heritage.
Renowned for their contributions to traditional music, art, and literature, they add depth
and diversity to Pakistan's cultural landscape.
Pashtuns. Also known as Pakhtuns or Pathans, the Pashtuns primarily reside in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the tribal areas bordering Afghanistan. Their distinct language
and cultural practices contribute significantly to the nation's social mosaic.
Balochis. In the southwestern province of Balochistan, the Balochis embody a strong
connection to their tribal lifestyle. Their unique culture and traditions enrich Pakistan's
diverse heritage.
Mohajirs. Originating from the Urdu-speaking migrants who arrived during the partition
of India in 1947, the Mohajirs settled in urban areas, particularly Karachi. They bring
linguistic diversity and urban dynamism to the cultural fabric of Pakistan.
Kashmiris. Prominent in the Azad Jammu and Kashmir region, Kashmiris boast a
distinct culture and language, contributing to the varied cultural landscape of Pakistan.
Saraikis. Found in southern Punjab, the Saraikis speak the Saraiki language and have
a unique cultural heritage that adds a layer of diversity to Pakistan's cultural spectrum.
Muhajirs. Similar to the Mohajirs mentioned earlier, this group represents Urdu-
speaking migrants who arrived during the partition and settled predominantly in Karachi,
contributing significantly to the city's urban vibrancy.
Hazaras. Residing primarily in Quetta, Balochistan, the Hazara community brings forth
a unique language and culture, enriching the cultural mosaic of this region.
Baltis. In the mountainous region of Gilgit-Baltistan, the Baltis maintain their distinct
culture and language, contributing to the cultural richness of this breathtaking part of
Pakistan.
Within this diverse framework, the contours of Pakistani society are shaped by the
myriad languages spoken, the unique regional expressions, and the wealth of cultural
traditions. This multifaceted composition fosters a sense of unity through the shared
appreciation of differences, emphasizing the importance of respect and celebration for
the diverse elements that define the nation.
In Pakistan, the prevalence and formal recognition of the caste system differ
significantly from that observed in certain other South Asian countries, notably India.
Unlike the rigid and deeply ingrained caste divisions in India, Pakistan exhibits a social
structure that is primarily organized along linguistic, regional, and religious lines. The
intricate tapestry of Pakistani society is woven with a rich diversity of ethnicities,
languages, and religious affiliations, contributing to a complex and dynamic cultural
landscape. While certain communities may hold historical or occupational distinctions,
the significance of caste identity is not as pronounced or institutionalized as in other
parts of the region. Instead, individuals in Pakistan often identify themselves based on
linguistic ties, regional origins, and religious beliefs, reflecting a multifaceted social
structure that emphasizes unity in diversity.
Social Stratification / Castes System as Available in Pakistan
The social structure in the Punjab region of Pakistan reflects diversity and complexity,
shaped by a myriad of communities, tribes, and ethnic groups. While the caste system
in this region is not as rigid as in some other areas, its influence remains palpable in
shaping social dynamics. It is crucial to recognize that identities and classifications in
the Punjab region are multifaceted, with individuals often identifying with a multitude of
factors such as ethnicity, language, and religion, in addition to any caste affiliations they
may hold. In this intricate social landscape, several prominent groups contribute to the
region's rich diversity:
Syeds and Sayyids. Descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, Syeds command
significant respect and are often actively involved in religious and scholarly pursuits.
Their historical lineage imbues them with a revered status within the community.
Rajputs. Traditionally associated with a warrior status, Rajputs are prevalent in military
and agricultural occupations. Their historical legacy contributes to a distinctive social
role, reflecting both strength and resilience.
Jats. Commonly linked with agriculture, Jats play a pivotal role in farming and are
distributed across both rural and urban settings. Their contributions to agriculture
significantly influence the economic landscape.
Arains. Traditionally associated with agriculture and trade, Arains engage in various
professions, including farming and business. Their multifaceted roles contribute to the
economic and commercial vibrancy of the region.
Gujjars. Primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, Gujjars are
predominantly found in rural areas. Their involvement in these traditional occupations
reflects a deep connection to the region's agrarian roots.
Sheikhs. Associated with trade and business, Sheikhs are present in both urban and
rural settings. Their diverse roles in commerce contribute to the economic dynamism of
the region.
Mochis (Cobblers). Engaged in the traditional occupation of shoemaking, Mochis form
a distinct group with a specialized skill set that contributes to the region's craftsmanship.
Tarkhans (Carpenters). Traditionally associated with carpentry, Tarkhans have a
specific occupational identity, contributing to the region's architectural and construction
sectors.
Mirasis. Historically associated with music and entertainment, Mirasis form a distinct
cultural group, enriching the region's artistic heritage.
Bhattis. Historically associated with military service, Bhattis may also be engaged in
agriculture, showcasing a diverse range of contributions to various sectors.
Scheduled Castes. Marginalized communities, including those historically referred to
as "Dalits" or "untouchables," face societal challenges and discrimination. Initiatives for
social justice and inclusivity are essential to address historical inequities and promote a
more equitable society.
Context Gujranwala
In the heart of Pakistan, Gujranwala stands as a testament to cultural richness and
diversity, embodying a harmonious convergence of major ethnic groups that collectively
contribute to the city's vibrancy. The Jat, Rajput, Arain, Gujar, and Awan communities
form integral components of this rich mosaic, each infusing a unique essence into
Gujranwala's multifaceted landscape.
Linguistically, the city resonates with the cadence of Punjabi, the dominant language
that serves as a unifying thread weaving through the diverse cultural tapestry. This
linguistic dominance fosters a seamless blend of cultures, where individuals from
various ethnic backgrounds converge, contributing to the symphony of Gujranwala's
social life.
Crucially, Gujranwala's social identity is intricately interwoven with cultural, linguistic,
and regional affiliations rather than rigid adherence to a formal /rigid caste system as in
vogue in India. This inclusive approach fosters a sense of shared identity, emphasizing
the importance of cultural harmony and mutual respect among the various communities
that call Gujranwala home. In essence, Gujranwala emerges not just as a geographical
location but as a living testament to the beauty that unfolds when diverse ethnicities
converge, contributing collectively to the city's dynamic and inclusive social landscape.
The Jatts, Rajputs, and Muhajirs, each with their distinct histories and traditions, play a
vital and dynamic role in shaping the city's identity. Their presence contributes to a
complex interplay of cultural influences that transcends generations, creating a living
tapestry where the past resonates in the present. The significance of these tribes
extends beyond mere social constructs; they are living embodiments of Gujranwala's
historical evolution.
Demographic Profile of Gujranwala
Gujranwala forms the fourth most populous city of Punjab with a population density of
1,384 people per square kilometer and a total area of 3,622 square kilometers. The
overall average annual growth rate of population (1998-2017) for the district is 2.06. The
comparison of growth rates of rural and urban population shows that the trend of
urbanization is on the rise. (27) The population of Gujranwala has grown more than 6
times in the past 70 years. The demographic trends clearly reveal a steep rise in the
overall population of the district which is an alarm bell for the administration which has
to provide basic facilities to this fast growing population.
Area Population Growth Rate
 Gujranwala District 5, 014, 196 2.06
 Urban Areas 2, 948, 936 2.40
 Rural Areas 2, 065, 260 1.61

Tribes and Castes

Gujranwala being a densely populated and urbanized city is inhabited by people from
various tribes and castes. The majority of the population in Gujranwala City and Saddar
area belongs to Kashmiri Butts, Mughals, Sheikhs and Ansaris. Tehsil Kamoke is
inhabited with people from Rajput, Jat, Arain, Sheikh, Mughals and Ansari origin. Tehsil
Wazirabad is known for being the home of Cheemas and Chatthas, while Nowshera
Virkan is the home of Jat tribes (most famous being the Virks) and Arain biradari. (28)
An approximate stratification on the basis of tribes (in the whole district) reveals the
following indicators:-
 Tribes / Castes Presence
 Jatt 30%
 Arain 20%
 Rajput 20%
 Gujjar 5%
 Shaikh 5%
 Mughal 5%
 Kashmirir 5%
 Minorities 3%
 Others 7%
Total 100%

There are various other tribes living in Gujranwala, however, information regarding the
most prominent tribes in Gujranwala is given as follows (29):-
Jat. Jat tribe is one of the most primitive tribe in Gujranwala. It is a documented fact that
when the Mughal emperor Babar first entered India, he faced a lot of resistance from
the Jat tribesmen who then stayed in mountainous and forest areas which reflects their
inherent ability in fighting and resisting the foreigners. As per the official gazetteer of
1894, the agricultural tribes of the district at that time were mainly of Jat origin. It is
interesting to note that the Jats constituted 25.5 per cent of the total population of the
district then and held 995 out of 1,225 estates. The major Jat castes in Gujranwala
district are Virk, Varaich, Guraya, Sansi, Bhinder, Gill, Sindhu, Bajwa, Man, Gondal,
Hanjra etc. Jat tribes are residing in every tehsil of district Gujranwala.
In Nowshera Virkan, the people from Virk caste are large in number, that's why the
tehsil is also named as Nowshera Virkan. The original home of the tribe is located by
tradition in the Jammu Hills from where they migrated to Amritsar. It may be noted that
they were among the first to embrace the aggressive ideology propagated by Guru
Govind Singh, and to take advantage of the decay of Mughal power to establish
themselves in the centre of the Doab. Because of their aggressive nature, they mostly
landed in Army in British times. They are historically known as first-rate cultivators,
although their perennial profession being arms selling. Like most Jat Sikhs, they are
quite adventurous people.
Apart from this, famous castes of Cheemas and Chathas also lay their claim to Jat tribe.
Mostly, they occupy a large portion of tehsil Wazirabad. The details of Cheema and
Chattha tribes are given under separate headings.
Kashmiri. Their influence in the socio-cultural dynamics of Gujranwala district
increased after Partition. They originally belong to Kashmir, that's why referred as
Kashmiris. However, the word Kashmiri has itself become a separate identity. Major
castes among Kashmiris are Butt, Dar, Shaikh, Rathore, Lone, Mahar, Meer, Vyne and
Khwaja. Mainly Butt and Shaikh Biradari inhabit the Gujranwala City and Saddar areas
and they are famous traders and industrialists of Gujranwala.
Rajput. Rajputs are present in almost all the tehsils of district Gujranwala. The word
Rajput literally means the "Sons of Rulers" or some litterateurs translate it as "Sons of
the Soil". They claim their lineage to the famous ruler of the Sub- continent Prithvi Raj
Chauhan. The Rajput tribe has ruled the sub-continent for more than five hundred years
from 7th Century A.D. to 15th Century A.D. Major castes among Rajputs are Rana,
Rao, Bhattis, Minhas, Janjuas, and Rajas which are present in Gujranwala district, of
whom Ranas are in majority.
Arain. There are multiple views regarding the origin of Arain tribe. According to some
historians, they are actually from Arian descent which arrived in sub-continent 4,500
years ago. While some historians claim that Arains are basically from Arab origin and
the word Arain is an amended from of Arabic word "Al-Rai" which means a shepherd
reflecting their hardworking nature. They call themselves as Chaudhry, Mian, Mahar,
Rabbanis etc. Mainly, the Arains are engaged in agriculture and are brilliant cultivators.
The Arain tribe of Sohdra in Wazirabad is quite famous for their contribution in Pakistan
movement. There are large number of inhabitants from Arain tribe residing in the
Nowshera Virkan tehsil of district Gujranwala. Moreover, Arains are also excellent rice
cultivators in tehsil Kamoke.
Gujjar. Gujjars are settled in Gujranwala since long. However, the population of Gujjar
tribe increased a lot after partition when different Gujjar tribes migrated from Indian
Punjab and settled in various areas of Punjab in Pakistan. The Gujjar tribe is famous for
its association with agriculture and livestock. It is common for every Gujjar family to
engage in agriculture and cattle farming. Chaudhry, Khattana, Gorsi, etc. are various
castes settled in Gujranwala belonging to Gujjar tribe. Almost every tehsil of the
Gujranwala consists of a significant number of people from Gujjar tribe.
Cheema. The Cheemas occupy various villages mainly in Wazirabad. The eastern half
of the Wazirabad is historically cultivated and inhabited by the primitive Cheema
families. Moreover, they are also present in every tehsil of the district. In every field, be
it agriculture, industry, politics, bureaucracy etc. they are a very important tribe of the
district. They call themselves as a sub tribe /caste of Jats and therefore, they are
commonly known as Jats. However, the anthropological evidence and old history
suggest that Cheemas are also descendants of the Prithvi Raj (Cheema being the 4th
generation descendant of Prithvi Raj Chauhan), which prove their link to Rajput origin.
They mainly migrated from the Amritsar district. They would seem therefore to have all
the elements of prosperity as they inhabit a fertile and highly cultivated tract.
Chattha. Like Cheemas, they are mostly the inhabitants of tehsil Wazirabad.
Historically, they occupy the western part of tehsil Wazirabad and the eastern part of
Hafizabad (which used to be a tehsil of Gujranwala district). However, they are present
in a reasonable number in all tehsils of Gujranwala district. Like Cheemas, they also call
themselves as a sub tribe /caste of Jats and therefore, they are commonly known as
Jats. However, the old history suggests that Chatthas are also descendants of the
Prithvi Raj (Raja Chattha being the 4th generation descendant of Prithvi Raj Chauhan),
which prove their linkage to Rajput origin. Chatthas are known as warriors and very
loyal to their soil. During the 17th century era, they were independent rulers of a large
portion of the district. Their brave struggle against the Sikh Regime has been described
in the previous chapter. Various legends and battle rhymes are associated with
Chatthas in recognition of their valour and military tactics against Sikhs.
Ansari. The Ansaris are settled in the Gujranwala City and Saddar tehsil and represent
the business community of Gujranwala. They are also politically quite vibrant. Ansaris
owe their origin to the Ansars of Medina, who helped the Muhajir Sahabas (R.A.A) after
they migrated with Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) from Makkah to Medina. The
Ansaris in Gujranwala are mainly the descendants of Ansaris from Jalandhar in India.
Mughal. Mughals are also famous businessmen and industrialists of Gujranwala and
inhabit the Gujranwala City and Saddar tehsils mainly. They also participate actively in
politics. They are the descendants of Manghols/ Turks who settled in Indian
subcontinent during the regime of Babar. In Gujranwala, the Mughal biradari mainly
belongs to the Mughals from Eastern Punjab in India who then migrated to Pakistan
after partition.
Caste System - Merits and Demerits
Merits. Engaging in discussions about the merits or disadvantages of the caste system
requires a nuanced understanding, acknowledging the sensitivity of the topic and the
diversity of opinions that it elicits. In the specific context of Pakistan, perspectives on the
traditional social structure can vary widely. While certain individuals argue that the caste
system has certain merits, it is essential to approach these arguments with a critical
lens and consider the broader implications. Here are some perspectives that some
individuals might present regarding the merits of the caste system in Pakistan:-
Proponents argue that the caste system provides a structured social order, helping
maintain stability and a sense of identity within communities. The established hierarchy
might be seen as a way to ensure social cohesion and reduce conflicts by defining roles
and responsibilities. This is ensured because the caste system is deeply embedded in
the cultural heritage of certain communities, contributing to a unique identity and
preserving historical traditions and serves as a repository of cultural practices, rituals,
and customs that have been passed down through generations. Within certain caste-
based communities, there may also be a strong sense of community support and
mutual assistance, as people with shared backgrounds may feel more connected and
obligated to help one another. Since the caste system historically links individuals to
specific occupations, therefore, ensures a diversity of skills within a community,
contributing to economic stability of the community.
In some cases, proponents argue that the caste system facilitates marriage alliances
within similar social and cultural backgrounds, which may be seen as a way to
strengthen familial ties and preserve cultural continuity. Endogamous marriage is used
to preserve the blood purity within a caste by preventing its members from exogamous
marriages (Sharma, 1997). (10)
It's essential to approach discussions about the caste system with cultural sensitivity
and recognize that perspectives on this topic can differ widely. While some may see
merits in certain aspects, it's important to also acknowledge the historical and
contemporary challenges associated with caste-based systems, including social
inequality, discrimination, and restricted opportunities for individuals belonging to lower
castes. Social and cultural evolution often involves questioning and reevaluating
traditional structures to ensure fairness, justice, and equal opportunities for all members
of society.
Demerits. The caste system, while not formally acknowledged by the official institutions
in Pakistan as it is in some other South Asian countries, remains an implicit aspect of
societal dynamics, contributing to a range of disadvantages and challenges. Initiating
conversations about the drawbacks of the caste system requires a thoughtful approach,
considering the sensitivity of the topic. Here are some prevalent criticisms and
disadvantages associated with the caste system in Pakistan:-
Social Inequity and Discrimination. The perpetuation of social inequality within the
caste system is a critical and pervasive concern, marked by the stark reality that
individuals from lower castes frequently encounter systemic discrimination,
marginalization, and a pronounced lack of equitable access to resources and
opportunities. This deeply ingrained social stratification fosters an environment where
individuals are judged and treated based on their caste background rather than their
abilities or potential. As a consequence, those in lower castes may find themselves
confronted with restricted pathways for educational and economic advancement, limiting
their social mobility and perpetuating cycles of disadvantage. Addressing social inequity
requires a comprehensive examination of the structural factors that contribute to
discrimination, emphasizing the need for transformative measures to dismantle these
barriers and foster a society where every individual has an equal opportunity to thrive,
unencumbered by the constraints of their caste identity.
Restricted Social Mobility. The caste system stands as a formidable barrier to social
mobility, creating a formidable challenge for individuals belonging to lower castes who
aspire to transcend their assigned social status. This constriction on social mobility is
particularly insidious, as it operates independently of an individual's talents, capabilities,
or aspirations. Despite inherent potential and qualifications, those from lower castes
often find themselves confronted by systemic impediments that hinder their upward
movement in society. This restriction on social mobility not only curtails personal growth
and development but also perpetuates cycles of inequality, limiting the broader societal
benefits that can arise from a more fluid and meritocratic social structure. Addressing
this critical issue necessitates a concerted effort to dismantle the institutional and
cultural barriers that obstruct the path to social advancement, fostering a society where
merit and potential, rather than caste background, determine an individual's trajectory.
Untouchability and Social Exclusion. Historically, one of the most reprehensible
aspects of the caste system has been the deplorable practice of untouchability, a cruel
phenomenon associated with specific castes that results in their exclusion from
numerous social and religious activities. This deeply ingrained practice exacerbates
social divisions by creating an unjust and discriminatory hierarchy where certain
individuals are deemed impure and subjected to segregation. The concept of
untouchability not only devalues the inherent dignity of those affected but also erects
insurmountable barriers to their full participation in social, religious, and communal life.
This exclusionary practice represents a stark violation of basic human rights and
underscores the urgent need for comprehensive social reforms to dismantle such
deeply entrenched prejudices and foster a society based on principles of equality,
inclusivity, and respect for the inherent worth of every individual.
Occupational Stereotyping. The pervasive issue of occupational stereotyping within
the caste system perpetuates a regressive practice that confines individuals to specific
jobs based solely on their caste background. This form of discrimination not only curtails
personal freedom and professional autonomy but also stifles the pursuit of diverse
career paths. By assigning predetermined occupations based on caste, individuals find
themselves trapped in roles dictated by tradition rather than their skills, interests, or
aspirations. This constriction not only limits personal and professional growth but also
obstructs the development of a more dynamic and adaptable workforce. Breaking free
from the shackles of occupational stereotyping is essential for fostering a society where
every individual has the freedom to pursue diverse career trajectories based on merit,
talent, and personal ambition rather than being constrained by arbitrary caste-based
expectations. Efforts toward dismantling these stereotypes are crucial for nurturing a
more equitable and inclusive work environment.
Barriers to Inter-Caste Marriages. The formidable barriers to inter-caste marriages
underscore a deeply ingrained social resistance that imposes significant constraints on
personal choices. This resistance not only restricts individuals in their pursuit of love
and companionship but also perpetuates social tensions, reinforcing rigid boundaries
between different caste groups. The reluctance or opposition to inter-caste marriages
contributes to a climate where societal norms dictate relationship choices, often
overshadowing individual preferences and compatibility. Consequently, this resistance
not only impacts the happiness and autonomy of those involved but also perpetuates a
divisive atmosphere that hinders social cohesion and unity. Addressing these barriers
requires a concerted effort to challenge and dismantle the entrenched prejudices
against inter-caste marriages, fostering a more inclusive society that values the
principles of love, equality, and the right to personal choice.
Educational Disparities. The profound educational disparities stemming from the
uneven distribution of educational opportunities among different castes create a stark
landscape marked by inequalities in literacy rates, academic achievements, and overall
access to quality education. This systemic imbalance not only perpetuates social
stratification but also undermines the principles of equal opportunity and meritocracy,
hindering the potential for a diverse and skilled workforce. Addressing these disparities
necessitates a comprehensive approach that seeks to rectify historical injustices, bridge
educational gaps, and ensure that every individual, regardless of caste, has equitable
access to quality education.
Stigmatization and Prejudice. Individuals from lower castes bear the heavy burden of
stigmatization and prejudice, exacting a toll on their self-esteem and mental well-being.
This pervasive discrimination not only hampers personal development but also
perpetuates negative stereotypes within society, reinforcing harmful biases. Combatting
stigmatization requires concerted efforts to challenge ingrained prejudices, promote
empathy, and foster an environment where every individual is treated with dignity and
respect, irrespective of their caste background.
Resistance to Social Change. The deeply entrenched nature of the caste system
poses a formidable obstacle to social and cultural evolution, impeding progress toward
a more inclusive and egalitarian society. This resistance stifles the potential for positive
transformations, hindering the dismantling of discriminatory practices and obstructing
the realization of a society where every individual is afforded equal rights and
opportunities. Overcoming this resistance demands persistent advocacy, education, and
a collective commitment to challenge and reform outdated norms.
Social Fragmentation. Caste divisions contribute significantly to social fragmentation,
creating communities that often identify more with their caste than a broader national or
cultural identity. This insular mindset reinforces divisions, hindering the development of
a cohesive society that values diversity and collective progress. Encouraging a broader
sense of identity beyond caste lines is crucial for fostering unity and social cohesion,
promoting a shared vision that transcends narrow affiliations.
Conflict and Violence. In certain instances, tensions arising from caste-related issues
can escalate into conflicts and violence within communities, disrupting social harmony
and fostering animosities. These conflicts not only perpetuate cycles of violence but
also impede the development of peaceful and inclusive societies. Mitigating caste-
related tensions demands comprehensive social reforms, dialogue, and interventions
that address the root causes of these conflicts, fostering a culture of understanding and
Recognizing the intricate nature of these disadvantages is imperative, as they unfold in
a complex and multifaceted manner. Addressing these challenges necessitates a
thorough comprehension of the historical, cultural, and social contexts in which they are
deeply embedded. The roots of these disadvantages often extend into the fabric of
tradition, requiring nuanced solutions that acknowledge the interconnectedness of
historical legacies and contemporary social dynamics.
In recent years, there has been a notable and commendable shift in societal
consciousness, with increasing calls for greater social justice, inclusivity, and a
concerted effort to diminish caste-based discrimination in various regions of Pakistan.
This burgeoning awareness reflects a collective recognition of the need for
transformative change and the creation of a more equitable and harmonious society.
To truly effect positive change, it becomes essential to engage in ongoing dialogue,
drawing on the experiences and perspectives of affected communities. This
collaborative approach, guided by principles of empathy and understanding, is
fundamental to developing comprehensive solutions that address the deep-seated
issues associated with the caste system. Moreover, efforts must extend beyond mere
acknowledgment, translating into concrete measures that dismantle discriminatory
practices and promote a culture of equality.
As the calls for social justice grow louder, it becomes increasingly crucial to channel
these aspirations into tangible actions, such as legislative reforms, educational
initiatives, and community-led interventions. By fostering an environment that values
diversity and actively combats discrimination, society can lay the foundation for a more
inclusive future—one where the shackles of the caste system are progressively
loosened, and every individual is afforded the dignity and opportunities they rightfully
deserve.
Impact of Social Media on Caste Based Social Stratification
Social media presents a dynamic terrain with both affirmative and adverse
repercussions on the consequences of social stratification. It stands as a potential
unifier, connecting individuals across diverse social strata and offering a platform for
marginalized voices. Yet, it can also act as an amplifier of existing inequalities,
reinforcing entrenched social hierarchies. Delving into the multifaceted ways in which
social media influences the effects of social stratification reveals a complex interplay of
positive and negative dynamics.
Access to Information:
Positive Impact. Social media emerges as a democratizing force, acting as a conduit
for the dissemination of information and knowledge. It becomes a virtual space where
individuals from varied social strata can share and access a plethora of diverse
perspectives, fostering a more inclusive dialogue.
Negative Impact. Disparities in access to technology and digital literacy, however,
introduce a counter-narrative. The existence of limited access to the internet or digital
devices amplifies existing inequalities, potentially sidelining those who lack the means
to participate fully in the digital discourse.
Digital Divides:
Positive Impact: Social media platforms transcend geographical barriers, providing a
virtual bridge for people from diverse backgrounds to connect and share their
experiences, fostering a sense of global community.
Negative Impact: Socioeconomic disparities manifest as digital divides, where
individuals with greater financial resources enjoy superior access to advanced
technology, leading to an unequal participation in online discussions.
Social Mobility and Visibility:
Positive Impact: Social media acts as a catalyst for social mobility, offering individuals
from disadvantaged backgrounds a platform to gain visibility, share personal narratives,
and challenge prevailing stereotypes.
Negative Impact: Conversely, these platforms can inadvertently reinforce existing
social hierarchies, concentrating popularity, influence, and visibility among select
individuals or groups, thereby perpetuating social inequality.
Selective Exposure and Filter Bubbles:
Positive Impact: Social media facilitates the curation of content and the formation of
online communities that share common interests, fostering a sense of belonging among
users.
Negative Impact: However, the unintended consequence of this curation process is the
creation of filter bubbles, where individuals are exposed solely to information that aligns
with their existing beliefs, contributing to societal polarization and reinforcing biases.
Online Harassment and Discrimination:
Positive Impact: Social media serves as a powerful platform for activism, empowering
marginalized groups to raise awareness about social issues and advocate for
transformative change.
Negative Impact: Conversely, it becomes a breeding ground for online harassment and
discrimination, disproportionately affecting certain individuals or groups and intensifying
pre-existing inequalities within the online space.
Influence on Social Capital:
Positive Impact: Social media has the potential to augment social capital by facilitating
connections, networking, and collaboration, thereby offering potential benefits to
individuals from diverse social strata.
Negative Impact: The uneven distribution of social capital online mirrors offline
disparities, with certain groups wielding more influence and enjoying more opportunities
for advancement.
Representation and Stereotyping:
Positive Impact: Social media serves as a powerful platform for diverse voices,
allowing for greater representation and challenging traditional stereotypes.
Negative Impact: Despite its potential for inclusivity, social media can also perpetuate
and reinforce stereotypes, contributing to the marginalization of certain groups and
individuals.
In conclusion, the impact of social media on social stratification is a nuanced interplay
influenced by various factors, including access to technology, digital literacy, and the
design of online platforms. Careful consideration of these factors is essential to harness
the positive potential of social media while mitigating its potential negative
consequences on social stratification.
Statement of Problem
The imprint of the caste system on societal structure is profound, establishing a
hierarchical order where higher castes wield a disproportionate share of privileges and
opportunities compared to their lower counterparts. This entrenched hierarchy has
fostered discrimination and marginalized the lower castes, systematically depriving
them of equitable access to education, employment, and various opportunities.
Consequently, this systemic inequality has perpetuated economic marginalization,
rendering the lower castes more vulnerable to poverty and unemployment due to limited
educational and occupational prospects.
The repercussions of this disparity manifest in a widening income gap between the
higher and lower castes. The privileged higher castes find themselves in a more
advantageous position, reaping the benefits of increased economic opportunities and
prosperity. This stark socio-economic divide further exacerbates the challenges faced
by the lower castes, perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage that has enduring implications
for both individual lives and the broader fabric of the society. The interplay of social and
economic factors amplifies these disparities on following lines, underscoring the urgent
need for comprehensive measures to address and rectify the entrenched inequalities
stemming from the caste system.
Impact on Education. The repercussions on education are particularly pronounced for
individuals from lower castes, who frequently encounter constrained access to
educational opportunities. This substantial impact manifests in a pronounced lack of
literacy and skills within the lower castes, creating formidable barriers for them in the
competitive realm of employment and other avenues. The scarcity of educational
resources not only stifles the intellectual growth of these individuals but also
perpetuates a cycle of disadvantage by hindering their ability to contend for
opportunities that could uplift them socioeconomically. Addressing this educational
disparity becomes imperative for dismantling systemic barriers and fostering a more
inclusive and equitable society.
Impact on Health. The health ramifications are particularly pronounced among the
lower castes, who, often lacking in educational opportunities, confront a dearth of
access to healthcare and health education. This paucity has contributed to elevated
rates of infant mortality, malnutrition, compromised hygiene, and a spectrum of other
health issues within the lower caste communities. The confluence of limited education
and inadequate healthcare access forms a detrimental cycle, perpetuating health
disparities and exacerbating vulnerabilities. Tackling these health challenges demands
targeted interventions that not only address immediate healthcare needs but also
encompass initiatives aimed at empowering and educating these communities for long-
term well-being.
Impact on Marriage and Family. The impact on marriage and family dynamics wrought
by the caste system is significant. The prevalence of arranged marriages has become a
norm, wherein individuals are restricted to marrying only within their designated caste.
This practice, while deeply ingrained in tradition, curtails personal autonomy and choice
in marriage, perpetuating a restrictive societal structure. The caste-based limitations on
marital selection reinforce the rigidity of the caste system, creating formidable barriers
for individuals striving to break free from the social and economic constraints imposed
by their predetermined caste affiliations. Addressing this aspect requires a nuanced
understanding of the complex interplay between tradition, societal norms, and individual
agency in reshaping marriage and family dynamics within the context of the caste
system.
Impact on Gender. The ramifications of the caste system on gender dynamics are
stark, particularly in the discrimination faced by women. Women, often relegated to an
inferior status compared to men, confront a dearth of opportunities in various spheres.
This gender-based inequality manifests prominently in limited access to education,
employment, and other avenues, a disparity that is exacerbated for women belonging to
the lower castes. The entrenched gender bias within the caste system not only hampers
individual development but also perpetuates systemic disadvantages, hindering women
from realizing their full potential.
Moreover, the caste system further compounds discrimination against women in matters
of marriage and family. Women from lower castes find themselves denied the right to
marry outside their designated caste, adding an additional layer to the limitations
imposed on their personal autonomy. Addressing these gender-based disparities
necessitates a comprehensive approach that dismantles both caste-related and gender-
specific barriers, fostering a more inclusive and equitable environment for women
across all castes.
Impact on Political Representation. The influence of the caste system on political
representation is substantial. The higher castes, often endowed with greater education
and resources, find themselves disproportionately occupying political positions. This
skewed representation results in an acute lack of political voice and agency for the
lower castes. The consequence is evident in the absence of comprehensive policies
and programs tailored to address the unique needs and concerns of the lower castes.
This underrepresentation perpetuates the marginalization and discrimination faced by
these communities, as their voices are stifled within the corridors of political power.
Achieving a more inclusive political landscape requires dismantling the entrenched
barriers that limit the entry and influence of lower castes in the political sphere, fostering
a governance structure that genuinely reflects the diversity of society.
Impact on Social Mobility. The entrenched rigidity of the caste system has erected
formidable barriers, impeding individuals from ascending the social and economic
hierarchy irrespective of their talents, skills, and qualifications. This stagnation
translates into a dearth of upward mobility, particularly for those belonging to the lower
castes. Trapped in the clutches of poverty and unemployment, these individuals find
themselves ensnared in cycles of disadvantage, perpetuating the intergenerational
transmission of economic and social disparities. The enduring impact of limited social
mobility underscores the imperative for dismantling systemic barriers and fostering a
more equitable society where individual potential is not constrained by the
predetermined constraints of caste affiliations.
Impact on Cultural Identity. The far-reaching influence of the caste system is evident
in the formation of discrete cultural identities for each caste, marked by a unique
tapestry of customs, traditions, and beliefs. This segmentation has engendered a
palpable lack of cultural integration, reinforcing the hierarchical boundaries inherent in
the caste system. The result is a societal landscape where breaking free from the social
and economic constraints imposed by one's caste becomes an intricate challenge. The
crystallization of distinct cultural identities not only accentuates the existing divisions but
also fosters an environment where individuals encounter difficulty in navigating beyond
the predetermined constraints dictated by their caste affiliations. Addressing this aspect
requires a nuanced approach that seeks to promote cultural diversity while
simultaneously dismantling the divisive barriers inherent in the caste system.
Impact on Mental Health. The discrimination and marginalization experienced by the
lower castes can precipitate profound psychological effects, inducing feelings of shame,
worthlessness, and hopelessness. The pervasive lack of opportunities and resources
further amplifies the burden, giving rise to heightened stress, anxiety, and depression.
This cumulative impact contributes to elevated rates of mental health issues within the
lower castes, creating a complex web of challenges that exacerbate the detrimental
effects of the caste system. Addressing the mental health implications necessitates not
only dismantling the structural barriers perpetuating discrimination but also fostering
environments that promote psychological well-being and resilience within these
marginalized communities.
Impact on Business and Employment. The economic repercussions on business and
employment within lower castes are profound, marked by a dearth of entrepreneurial
ventures and economic opportunities. This scarcity further entrenches the cycles of
poverty and discrimination that disproportionately affect these communities. The
absence of robust economic avenues hinders the potential for entrepreneurial initiatives,
exacerbating the already existing challenges related to economic disparity. Addressing
this complex issue requires a multifaceted approach that not only dismantles systemic
barriers limiting economic access but also facilitates the creation of an inclusive
environment conducive to entrepreneurship and sustained economic growth within
lower caste communities.
Impact on Rural Areas. The economic impact on rural areas, where lower castes
predominantly engage in farming and agricultural work, is characterized by a dearth of
economic opportunities that perpetuates persistent poverty. Moreover, the insidious
influence of the caste system extends to discriminatory practices, particularly in
accessing crucial resources like water, land, and credit. These inequalities compound
the socio-economic challenges faced by lower castes in rural settings, creating a
formidable barrier to their ability to break free from the cycles of poverty. Addressing
these issues requires a comprehensive approach that not only dismantles caste-based
discrimination but also ensures equitable access to resources, fostering sustainable
economic development in rural areas.
Impact on Urban Areas. The impact of the caste system extends palpably into urban
areas, where the lower castes, frequently comprising migrants, face disproportionate
challenges marked by limited access to housing, education, and employment
opportunities. This dearth of opportunities perpetuates a cycle of poverty that resonates
within the urban landscape. Furthermore, the insidious influence of the caste system
manifests in discriminatory practices, hindering lower castes from accessing essential
resources like housing, education, and healthcare. These systemic disparities
compound the socio-economic challenges faced by lower castes in urban environments,
emphasizing the imperative for comprehensive interventions that dismantle caste-based
barriers and ensure equitable access to resources for a more inclusive urban society.
Impact on Public Services. The denial of education and employment opportunities for
the lower castes significantly affects their access to essential public services, including
healthcare, transportation, and sanitation. This systemic exclusion creates a palpable
dearth of access to basic necessities, further perpetuating the cycle of poverty within
these communities. The disparities in public service accessibility compound the
challenges faced by the lower castes, exacerbating social and economic inequities.
Addressing this issue necessitates dismantling barriers that restrict educational and
employment opportunities, ensuring a more inclusive and equitable distribution of public
services to uplift the marginalized communities and break the cycle of poverty.
Impact on Cultural Heritage. The enduring influence of the caste system on cultural
heritage is discernible in the formation of unique and disparate cultural identities for
each caste. Each caste possesses its distinct tapestry of customs, traditions, and
beliefs, contributing to a mosaic of diverse cultural expressions. However, this diversity
has inadvertently fostered a lack of cultural integration, reinforcing the entrenched
divisions within the caste system. This cultural compartmentalization poses a formidable
challenge for individuals striving to transcend the social and economic constraints
imposed by their predetermined caste affiliations. Addressing this complex interplay
between cultural identity and societal structures requires a nuanced approach that
preserves the richness of diverse cultural heritage while dismantling the divisive barriers
inherent in the caste system.
Impact on Social Capital. The pervasive influence of the caste system extends notably
to the realm of social capital. The stratification inherent in the caste system has given
rise to the formation of distinct social networks and institutions built around caste
identities, resulting in a discernible fragmentation of social capital. This fragmentation, in
turn, hampers cooperation and trust among diverse castes, creating challenges in the
establishment of a unified social capital that could be mutually beneficial for all
members of society. Overcoming these obstacles requires concerted efforts to bridge
the divides created by caste-based affiliations, fostering an inclusive social capital that
promotes cooperation, trust, and collective well-being across the diverse spectrum of
society.
Literature Review
Mani. The persistent economic gap between the upper and lower caste groups in India
can be typically traced back to caste differences in endowments, unequal access to
public services, and continued economic and social discrimination. In his study, -------
Mani has explored another source that is associated with caste differences in economic
outcomes, namely, caste-based differentials in behavioral preferences and personality
traits. He finds that SCSTs and OBCs fare worse than the upper castes along several
dimensions of behavior and personality that tend to have positive implications for not
only educational attainment and labor market performance, but also life outcomes in
general. Consequently, these differences are likely to exacerbate the already existing
economic as well as social differences between the upper and lower caste groups.
Given the accumulation of cognitive and behavioural disadvantage among these
excluded groups by the time they reach adulthood, his findings suggest the need for
redesigning the current structure of affirmative action policies in India. For example,
given that racial gaps in cognitive and non-cognitive skills emerge early on and tend to
persist, and that the relationship between non-cognitive skills and academic
achievement is robust, there is a strong case for targeting early childhood interventions
to supplement the familial resources—in terms of both financial resources and parental
attention—for young children from disadvantaged backgrounds. This argument is also
supported by Cunha, Heckman, Lochner, and Masterov (2006) who discuss that the
highest returns to low-ability disadvantaged groups accrue based on early childhood
programmes as compared to those only in late adolescence. He further stresses the
importance of following up on early childhood investments with complementary
investments at later ages in order to reap the benefits of the former. In a similar vein,
another policy option would be to invest in programmes that directly target the
development of soft skills among disadvantaged individuals during their childhood and
adolescence.
Moreover, at a broader level, there is also a case for fostering greater inter-caste
contact that can help reduce biases and negative stereotypes, which have negative
repercussions on self-confidence and self-esteem among low castes. More concerted
multi-pronged policy efforts to making public spaces inclusive and facilitating interaction
on equitable terms would be a start in this direction.
Roshin. In this study, they examined the three Governmental classes namely, SC-ST,
OBC, and GC, with respect to their association with academic performance in Indian
adolescent students of grades X and XI while controlling for age, gender, family income,
self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Results based on multilevel regression analysis
showed that lower class was likely to be associated with low academic performance.
The association between social class and academic performance is a consistent finding
in studies with ethnic minorities from low socio-economic status (Battle & Lewis, 2002;
Considine & Zappalà, 2016; Niles, 1981 Oct; Sirin, 2005). For instance, in a meta-
analytic review of research, Sirin (Sirin, 2005) observed that minority students
performed poorly as compared to their non-minority peers on account of important
factors such as low family income, poor parental education and the influence of being in
the neighborhood of low social status. It is interesting to observe that the students’
governmental class predicted their academic performance, while controlling for their
family income. In a study that examined how social and economic disadvantage
influenced school performance, Considine and Zappalà (Considine & Zappalà, 2016)
observed that the ‘social’ and the ‘economic’ components of the socioeconomic status
may have distinct and separate influences on academic performance. Class-caste
affiliation is an important aspect of the socioeconomic status of Indian students. It is a
complex mix of the ‘social’ and the ‘economic’, where the caste is more to do with social
status and the class is to do with economic status. Broadly speaking, the three
governmental classes may correspond to the higher (GC), the middle (OBC), and the
lower social classes (SC-ST).
However, the association between the three classes and family income was rather
complex. More students from the lower classes (especially the SC-ST) reported low
family income (< 5,000 rupees or 5,000 – 20,000 rupees per month) when compared
with the higher class (Table: 3). But, a relatively higher proportion of the lower classes
(especially OBC students), as compared to GC, reported very high family income
(above 100,000 rupees per month). Thus, family income did not seem to correspond to
social hierarchy at least in the case of very high-income families. Also, an increase of
family income may not necessarily correspond to better educational outcomes for the
students of low social class. In other words, the educational disadvantage that we
observe in our results in the lower governmental class, may not be equated with
economic disadvantage.
The factors that influence academic performance may be diverse and complex for all
the numerous subgroups placed under the three governmental classes. Some of the
social subgroups under OBC category have high economic prosperity and respectable
social status in some states/districts of India. In a study (Teena Yadav, 2016) conducted
in the state of Haryana in which students from a socioeconomically advanced
OBC subgroup were included, the academic performance of these OBC students was
found to be on par with the General Class. Hence, the differential influence of
governmental class for students from socially backward families which are economically
advanced needs to be examined in the Indian context.
Another important factor that may have influenced the students’ academic performance
is English as medium of study. Students from the lower classes are much more likely to
come from families with parental lack of education and lack of proficiency in English
language. Findings of this study are based on data from only two Indian states and
three schools from each, where all the students from the randomly selected division of
the X or XI grade participated as a sample cluster. These schools were heterogenous
with respect to the proportion of students from the three governmental classes who
studied in the division of X or XI grade that was sampled. However, it needs to be noted
that our sample points to the actual ground reality of the presence of students from
these three social classes at the level of high school and higher secondary school in the
private sector schools which generally provide better quality education in India.
They examined students from the three governmental classes who study in the same
school environment. We found that students who belong to the lower-class lag behind in
their academic performance when compared to the students from the higher class even
when they study together the same subjects in the same classroom. However, this
pattern was not observed consistently across the individual schools in our study.
(Thomson, 2018) observed that students from lower socioeconomic status are likely to
have a positive influence when they study along with students of higher socioeconomic
status and are likely to perform better academically. This would imply that the gap in
academic performance between students from higher and lower governmental classes
are likely to widen if students from the schools of the governmental sector and from the
rural background are investigated.
In this study, they also examined academic performance of Indian adolescents who
studied in the same school environment but belonged to the three ranks of
governmental class, SC-ST, OBC and GC. Multilevel regression indicated that higher
class predicted better academic performance when controlled for age, sex, income, self-
esteem, and life satisfaction. However, results based on separate student clusters from
the schools were inconsistent. Though they used a sizable overall sample, there must
be caution in generalizing the findings based only on a few schools, especially since the
sample was heterogenous with respect to the representation of the three governmental
classes in each school. Since we controlled school environment by selecting all
students in a class-room, it is likely that other factors of the family and social
environment may have contributed to the outcome, especially those linked to social
status, such as parental education, neighborhood influence, and caste-related
perceptions and experiences. Hence, future studies need to explore the factors and
processes by which social status impacts academic performance.

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