History Optional Notes

By Ashutosh Kulkarni, AIR 44, CSE 2019

WORLD HISTORY
INSTRUCTIONS
1. These notes are only for value addition. They are
NOT a substitute to reading primary sources
2. Read the basic sources first before reading these
notes
3. Some topics may not be covered
4. Some topics are properly covered in sources, hence
rather than typing them here, I have given the
name of the source. (Hemant Jha notes in case of
World History)
Imperialism- Hemant jha 1- chapter 2
Neo-imperialism- Hemant jha 1- chapter 3

Colonialism-

 Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition,

and expansion of colony in one territory by a political power from another
territory. It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power
and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous
population.
 The European colonial period was the era from the 16th century to the
mid-20th century when several European powers (particularly, Portugal,
Spain, Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and France) established colonies in
Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
 It is a logical culmination of mercantilism and industrial as well as financial
capitalism that grew in Europe after 16th century.

Colonialism vs Imperialism-

 Colonialism and imperialism are often used interchangeably, but they have
different meaning.
 Colony comes from the Latin word colonus, which means farmers.
Imperialism also comes from Latin word imperium, which means to
command
 Colonialism is where one nation assumes physical control over the other
and Imperialism refers to political or economic control, either formally or
informally.
 Colonialism can be thought to be a practice and imperialism as the idea
driving the practice.
 Colonialism is a term where in the long run, the traits of the conqueror are
inherited by the conquered.
 In Colonialism, one can see great movement of people to the new territory
and living as permanent settlers. Though they lead the life as permanent
settlers, they still maintain allegiance to their mother country. Eg- Australia
and Canada. Imperialism is just exercising power over the conquered
regions either through sovereignty or indirect mechanisms of control. Eg-
American control over Philippines.
  Imperialism has a longer history than Colonialism. While the history of
colonialism dates back to 15th century, Imperialism has its origins dating
back to the Romans

Neo-colonialism- Hemant Jha 1- Chapter 10

Capitalism and Colonization

 The discovery of new lands and the establishment of colonies had resulted in
unprecedented expansion of trade and accumulation of wealth by merchants.
 The trade included also the trade in human beings, that is, slave trade.
 The colonization was accompanied by the plunder of the wealth of the people
who were colonized. For example, the treasures of the Inca and
the Aztec civilizations were plundered by the Spaniards.
 Mines in the newly conquered areas in the Americas were also exploited for
precious metals like gold and silver. Large numbers of native people were
worked to death in these mines.
 You have also read about the use of slave labour in the plantations in the
Americas. Colonization of Asia caused similar havoc and devastation. During a
few decades of Dutch rule, the population of a province of Java in Indonesia
was reduced to less than one-fourth of its former size.
 The defeat of the Nawab of Bengal by the English in 1757 was followed by
years of naked plunder of the wealth of Bengal. According to estimates of the
English government at that time, the English Company and its officials
received 6,000,000 pounds as gifts during the period of 1757-1766.
 The plunder by the English contributed to a famine in 1769-70 in which about
a quarter of the population of Bengal perished. Thus a lot of wealth was
accumulated in Europe for investment to make more profit.
 In the words of Karl Marx, “The treasures captured outside Europe by
undisguised looting, enslavement, and murder, floated back to the mother
country and were there turned into capital.”
 Lenin has said that the Capitalist system cannot exist without extending their
sphere of domination, without colonizing countries and without drawing them
in the whirporl of world economy.
 Some disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism,
arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state-led development
rather than “corporate” development as historically there has been a closer
 link between colonialism/imperialism and state-led approaches to
development.”

Enlightenment- 17th and 18th century

Based on Latin motto Sapere Aude or Dare to be wise
The Enlightenment is the period in the history of western thought and culture,
stretching roughly from the mid-decades of the seventeenth century through the
eighteenth century, characterized by radical changes in science, philosophy,
society and politics.

 It can be called as a conflict between ideals ; science versus religion,

liberalism vs despotism, etc
 The entire intellectual discourse was now focused on reason and rationale.
 A tradition of critical anaylsis was born wherein the existing beliefs and
customs were re-examined in the light of enlightenment thought.
 The period is also characterized by development in humanistic values like
basic natural rights, right to life, expression, etc
 From earlier ages, when law and morality was based on society as a
consideration, enlightenment marked the beggining of individual focus.
 Science- Copernicus, Galileo and Newton are seen. They are also
instrumental in focusing on scientific spirit.
 Politics – it brought in our current system of democracy and established
rights
 Awareness- 18th century was the age of popularization through
newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, etc. we also find scientific journals.
These media sources made sure enlightenment thought is not restricted in
certain pockets.
 Age of information- D Alembert and Diderot came up with Encyclopedia.
 Kings- From dictatorial monarchs, they became enlightened despots who
were receptive to the needs of their people.
 Economics- Adam Smith and David Ricardo challenged the dominant
economic models. A new theory of Capitalism was born. Francois Quesney
explained the natural law of trade with limited government intervention.
 Music- It was a golden time for classical music. Sebastian Bach was known
for his prolific compositions. Wolfgang Mozart introduced the new style of
Mozart in classical music.
Thus, these ideas fundamentally changed the European society. Coupled with
mercantilism and imperialism, these ideas also spread in the colonies like USA and
in Asia.

English enlightenment- Newton, Kepler, Copernicus, etc

Scottish Enlightenment – Adam Smith, James Watt, David Ricardo
French Enlightenment- Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu
German Enlightenment- Liebniz, Goethe, Immanuel Kant

Rousseau –
 He was the pioneer of romanticism.
 Discourse of Arts and Sciences 1749 – Rousseau has contrasted the
naturalness and goodness of humans in their primitive natural state to the
acquired wickedness when humans became civilized. He said that in the
natural state, all humans were free from ill; there was no restriction on
liberty and no wars.
 Origin of Inequality among Men 1753- here he talks of why men became
wicked. He attributes it to the tyranny of the strong over the weak. He said
the poor were exploited for the benefit of a select few and were made to
accept private property. Thus, Rousseau can be called as a Pre-Marxian
socialist
 Social Contract 1761 – here he talks of an unwritten social contract on the
similar lines of Locke. He says that governments discharge their duties on
the basis of these contracts signed with men.
 Equality:
He formed the critique on unnaturalness of inequality concluding with the
arguments laid out in 'Discourse of inequality' that human inequality as we
know, does not exist in the state of nature. These arguments inspired the
people to thrive for the equality, which takes us to the second idea.
 Liberty:
Although he acknowledged that going back to natural state is not possible,
he believed in certain laws outlined in "Social Contract" which forms the
basis for a legitimate political order with freedom for all citizens. Joining
together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their
claim for natural right, individual can both preserve themselves and remain
free. The idea caught the imagination of masses who tried to break free
into a more liberal order.
  Fraternity
This joining together into civil society would mean submission to the
authority of general will of people as a whole. Sovereign is thus the "rule of
law" authored by people themselves collectively where people are the
ultimate rulers. This would bring a feeling of equality of all people, causing
a sense of belonging. Thus the ideas kindling the sentiment of fraternity.
 Heavily influenced future thinkers. Even napoleon used his concepts in
devising policies.
 'Emilee' was guiding light to the basic education of humans and helped in
devising education policies by kings not only in Europe but around the
world

Immanuel Kant
 He was the most influential German philosopher of his time.
 In his Critique of Pure Reason 1781, Kant said empiricism and reason may
not always lead to good. He said that human experience things from their
perspective and vision which may not always be the truth.
 Kant thus said one should prove that either it exists or not exist. If tboth the
things don't yield anything, then one must think of advantages of believing
in either one of them. He applied this theory to God saying its not possible
to either prove or disprove His exisyence and hence human moral sense
should recognize the existence of transcendental existence of God.
 Even though Kent was not against scientific pursuits, he believed that
science is not enough and human life should be grounded in morality
 Groundwork for Metaphysics of Morals 1785- He thus put forth the
principle of categorical imperative saying that moral values should be
universal and not change or be selectively applied. This was a liberal
element in him.
 In his 1784 essay, what is enlightenment, Kant says it is condition where
one should think on his own, free from any external authority.
 He says Enlightenment is man’s emergence from self imposed immaturity.
This immaturity arises because man doesn’t want to think without the help
of others, thus defeating independence of thought. Thus, when man begins
to think by his own mind, it is Enlightenment according to Kant

Enlightened Despotism-
 “During the later half of 18th century appeared monarchs known as
Enlightened Despots who came to certain reasonable views about their
duties and obligations towards their subjects”- Philip Myers
 “Quarter century after 1763 was the era of benevolent or enlightened or
philosophical despots”- Reddaway
 The 18th century was marked with growth of Enlightenment and
establishing ideas such as humanism and rationalism.
 The philosophy of Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, etc had influenced
many
 It had its impact on the European monarchs who ruled as absolutists till
then. They thought that the purpose of monarchy should be for public
welfare, separated from personal and dynastic welfare.
 Despotic yet Enlightened- The rationalism didn't mean the monarchs made
way for democracy. They still remained despots with the reigns of
government firmly in their hands. Its just that they changed the ways in
which monarchy functioned.
 Thus, Lord Acton calls it the Repentence of Monarchy
 Freidrick II of Prussia- “I am the first servant of state”. His military abilities
made Prussia won crucial wars with Austria for control of Germanic
provinces
 Joseph II of Austria- He brought sweeping domestic changes like abolishing
serfdom, equality before law, freedom of expression, German as national
language. He tried to unite the heterogenous people living in his empire
 Catherine II of Russia- She followed the steps of Peter the Great. She gave
fillip to education and development in Russia. She extended help to
scholars like Diderot. She captured Ukraine, Crimea for Russia.
 Charles III of Spain- he reduced the influence of Church, enabled trade and
land ownership by the poor.
 Drawbacks- Although enlightened, they were still despots. They did not
allow the common people to dictate the policy to the throne. Thus, people
were not sovereign
 Their success depended on one person i.e the king. Once the king was
succeeded by a weakling, the entire apparatus went out of gear
 Their decisions were often hasty and kept certain things untouched. Eg-
Catherine II did continue serfdom in Russia which was abolished in only
1861. The hasty military decisions of Joseph II of Austria caused more harm
  Ultimately, they did not help in dissolving features of old Europe. It took a
massive shake of French Revolution for ushering democratic values.

Spread of Enlightenment in Colonies-

 American enlightenment- (from American revolution note)
 Indian enlightenment
 Japanese enlightenment- Meiji restoration, rise of modern industries,
British utilitarianism introduced by Fukuzawa Yukichi.
 Chinese enlightenment- (from China note)

Industrial Revolution
Sudden spurt in 1750-1850 in production of industrial goods at low cost using
efficient machinery is called Industrial Revolution.

The desire to produce more goods at low cost to make higher profits led to the
Industrial Revolution and further growl h of capitalism. The Industrial Revolution
began in England in about 1750. It was then that machines began to take over
some of the work of men and animals in the production of goods and
commodities. That is why we often say that the Industrial Revolution was the
beginning of a ‘machine age’.

Industrial Revolution as Evolution than Revolution -

 JA Blanqui, a french socialist thinker from 19th century first called it as a
revolution as he felt it marked the beginning of new civilization
 Arnold Toynbee however has called it far from a revolution but a socio-
economic transformation.
 intellectual tradition already set by Renaissance and Reformation
 scientific development already staeted with Newton and Galileo in 17th
century
 mercantilism and capitalism existed before the revolution but got impetus.

Factory System-

 Production was now carried out in a factory (in place of workshops in homes),
with the help of machines (in place of simple tools). Facilities for production
 were owned and managed by capitalists, the people with money to invest in
further production.
 Everything required for production was provided by the capitalists for the
workers who were brought together under one roof.
 Everything belonged to the owner of the factory, including the finished
product, and workers worked for wages.
 This system, known as the factory system, brought on the Industrial
Revolution The early form of capitalism about which you have read before was
now transformed to industrial capitalism.

Why England-
England in the 18th century was in the most favorable position for an industrial
revolution, Because of following reasons
 Through her overseas trade, including trade in slaves, she had accumulated
vast profits which could provide the necessary capital. In the trade rivalries
of European countries, she had emerged as an unrivalled power. She had
acquired colonies which ensured a regular supply of raw materials. Concept
of Capitalism gets a boost during 18th century by book of Adam Smith.
 After the disappearance of serfdom, people were no longer tied to the land
and were free to do to any job they could find. The enclosure
movement had begun in the 18th century. Big land-owners wanted
consolidate their large land-holdings. In is process, small peasants who had
all holdings in land were ousted and large army of landless unemployed
people was created. Thus there was no shortage labour force to work in
the factories.
 As result of the Glorious revolution of the 17 th century, a stable system of
government had been established, which was no longer under the
domination of the feudal classes. Commercial classes had acquired more
political power and there was no danger of government interference.
 England was protestant which according to Tawney was the main reason
for capitalism.
 Scientific pursuit was never impeded in England. Newton, Boyle, Watt,
Hargreaves, etc. Lunar Society as a club of inquisitive men.
 England had plenty of natural resources, such as iron and coal, essential for
industries. The sources of iron and coal existed side by side and this saved
England from many difficulties that other countries faced.
 England developed a large shipping industry and had no problem of
transportation due to coal mines being near the coast as well as the
 number of canals built to carry goods inland in a cheap manner. Harecastle
tunnel is the longest tunnel built on Mersey canal. Raw material to factories
and finished goods to markets.

Textile Industry: The revolution

Power loom
 Hargreaves invented a machine which speeded up spinning. Arkwright
adapted this machine for running with water.
 Crompton, sometime later, combined the advantages of the machines
invented by Hargreaves and Arkwright.
 These three inventions alone made it possible for England to produce
thread that was finer and cheaper than any that could be produced by
others or with older techniques.
 Then in 1785. Cartwright invented a power loom. This machine could be
run by horses or bullocks and later, when factories were set up along rivers
and canals, water power was used to operate it.

Cotton Gin
But enough raw cotton for feeding these machines was still not available because
the process of separating the fibres from the seeds was very slow. A worker could
clean only five or six pounds of cotton clay by hand. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an
American, unvented a ‘cotton gin‘. This machine made it possible to separate the
seeds from cotton three hundred times faster than by hand.

Year Cotton Import by England (kg.)

1760 1 million

1815 50 million

1840 250 million

Steam Engine
Such a tremendous increase in raw cotton imports would not have taken place
but for the invention the steam engine by James Watt in 1769. It was this
machine that made it possible to produce goods on a really big seal Machines run
by the muscles of men animals, or by water power, could not compete with those
driven by the steam engine. This invention revolutionized production. Before
Watt invented steam engine, another one was in use whose use was limited to
coal pitheads. It was used to pump up water from the pitheads.

Blast Furnace
With steam power available, there was a demand for more machinery. England
had plenty of iron and coal to make steel and manufacture machinery, but new
and cheaper ways of processing iron had to be found. The development of
the blast furnace and, later, the method of turning low-grade iron into steel,
enabled the English industries to produce steel cheaply. Thus they could have
more and better machines.

TRANSPORT Revolution
 In 1814, George Stephenson developed steam engine to haul coal
from mines to ports by railways.
 In 1830, the first railway train began to carry passengers and freight
Railwa from Liverpool to Manchester.
ys  These events were followed by a great wave of railroad construction
in England and the United States. As early as 1853 in Lord
Dalhousie’s time, the first railroad was laid in India.

 The need to transport raw materials and manufactured products led

to the improvement of roads and the digging of canals— in England
and other countries.
Roads  Mc Adam devised the method of making pakka or ‘macadamized’
roads.

 To expand facilities for transport by water much cheaper than

Canals overland England began connecting rivers and lakes with canals.
 Canal building spread to Europe and America and was a big help in
 providing cheaper transportation, especially after steam boats came
into use.

Postal Revolution
Improved transportation helped in carrying messages as well as people and
goods. Rawland Hill’s idea of the penny post— fast and cheap communication by
letter—began to operate in England in the early 19th century. Soon it was
adopted in other countries, including India. People could thus send letters to and
from all parts of the country at the same low rate regardless of the distance.
Business concerns took advantage of the penny-post in their buying and selling
transactions far and near.

Agriculture Revolution
Farm Mechanization
 The revolution in agriculture in fact had started before the Industrial
Revolution.
 Naturally, there were changes in farming methods to produce more food,
and more importantly, to produce cash crops for the market and raw
materials for industries.
 New farm machinery included the steel plough and harrow for breaking the
ground, the mechanical drill for seeding and thehorse-drawn cultivator to
replace the hoe.
 There were also machines for reaping and threshing.
Crop Rotation
 Farmers adopted intensive manuring and the practice of crop rotation to
maintain soil fertility. Instead of letting the land lie fallow every third year
as was done in the middle Ages.

Land Consolidation
 Land-owners in England also began to enlarge their farms. They had already
consolidated their holdings through the Enclosure Movement, as you have
read before. The strips of land that lay scattered about the village were so
consolidated that they could hold all their land in one piece. In doing so, the
big land-owner quite unfairly got possession of the peasant’s small holding
 Sometimes big land-holders took over the common meadow in a village
also leaving the small land-owners and tenants with no pasture. But the big
 land-owners controlled Parliament in those days and got laws passed that
enabled them to do these things.
 The result was that the peasants were forced off the land. With no other
means of livelihood, they moved to the new industrial towns and cities
where they got jobs at whatever wage the factory-owner would pay.
Industries thus benefited, but at the small farmer’s expense.

Peak of Industrial revolution in England

 Between 1813 and 1855, for example, her textile exports to India jumped
from 50,000 kilograms to well over 2.5 million.
 During the same period, the amount of coal mined rose from 15 to 64
million tonnes and became an important export.
 Meanwhile, England’s production of pig iron increased from 690,000
tonnes to over 3 million

Why Cotton -
 Eric Hobsbawn - whoever says industrial revolution, says cotton.
 WW Rostow also says that the cotton industry was the leading sector in
the first take off
 Hargreave 1764, Arkwright 1769 and Cromoton 1779 inventions
 Source of raw materials in colonies available. Market for selling in colonies
 Labour intensive and cheap supply of labour available.
 no separate demand needed to be created. Caricos and muslin were
already in demand
 Give numbers about increase in share of cotton.

Second Industrial Revolution -

 Focus of first one was cotton but in second half of 19th century, focus on
capital goods like iron, steel and coal
 Huge amount of capital accumulated through cotton industry but could
not be invested there as it was saturated. New avenues to be found in
capital goods
 Already England was rich in iron and coal. Plus transport.
 Cotton industry was labour intensive while the new industry was capital
intensive
 Inventions like blast furnace and steam engines facilitated mining of iron
and coal
  The industry also created forward and backward linkages.
 A shift was seen especially after 1840. The demand for iron and coal grew
due to expansion in railways, locomotives, engines, construction, etc.
 Between 1830 to 1850, 6000 miles of railway lines constructed in Britain
alone.
 Little Railway Mania from 1835-37 and Gigantic Railway Mania from 1845-
70. The investors also invested in colonies. Coal needed to be used to run
steam engines.
 thus, second IR made iron and coal as the focus.
 Effects - capital now came to be invested in capital intensive sectors, new
transport revolution, capital also flew to colonies which earlier didnt,
England became workshop of entire world, new skilled labpur was made
available.

Industrial Revolution in Other Countries

In the continent of Europe, the Industrial Revolution began to make

someheadway after 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon and the end of 23 years of
war. Then machines were introduced in France, Belgium, Switzerland and
Germany. However, unstable governments and unrest among the people in some
of these countries slowed the growth of industries for some time.

1. France, by 1850, was developing the iron industry though she had to import
both iron ore and coal. Revolution came late because unlike in Britain, the
French monarchy controlled everything right from scientific inventions till
tight control over trade and enterprises. Industrial revolution srarted in France
somewhere between Congrees of Vienna 1815 and February Revolution 1848.
The king Louis Phillipe gave patronage to nascent industries by imposing
tariffs. He patronised French capitalists by neglecting the demands of working
class. It is during his reign in 1837 that railways made an entry. The process
was fastened by Napoleon III. From 1850 to 1870, 10000 miles of railways
were laid. French iron coal developed and trade increased. But no big colonies.
2. Germany had, by 1865, occupied second place as a producer of steel, but with
England far ahead in the lead. After a late start, Germany’s industrial
 development took an amazing leap after 1871 when the German states were
finally welded into one nation. Soon Germany was to become England’s rival.
The main reason being the ownership of Alsase and Lorraine from France in
1871. Participation of German banks in industries management. Keynes has
remarked that german empire grew by the policy of coal and iron. The areas of
Rhineland, Westphalia, Salesia were rich in iron and coal. From 29 MT to 191
MT till 1913. Iron went from 1.5 MT to 19 MT till 1913. Germany thus
outstripped England in iron and was second to US. This made germany
specialise in iron and steel products. The communication lines through
railways increased. Industries like automobile, chemicals and mechanical
increased. Coupled with Herman precision and human respurces, the products
soon captured market. This led to forward and backward linkages and also led
to urbanisation. This also increaded the arms and ammunition industry. The
effect of Zollverein in growth of trade and commerce.
3. Russia was the last of the big European powers to have an industrial
revolution. She was rich in mineral resources but lacked capital and free
labour. Growth of industrialist class can be seen from the fsct that Tsar
Alexander I refused to comply with Continental System due to pressure of
industrial class that depended on trade with Britain. The real development
started after the reign of Tsar Alexander II in 1855. After he freed the serfs in
1861, a lot of industrial labour was created that helped in creation of capital
goods. After 1890, problems of capital shortage arose. The Russian induatries
obtained capital from foreign countries and Russian industry moved ahead.
The Golden Period was 1890-1913. Thus, definite amount of industrialization
happened before Bolshevik Revolution.
4. The United States had introduced machines and started factories before
1800— after gaining independence from England. By 1860 she had well
established textile, steel, and shoe industries. The American industries grew
very rapidly after 1870.
5. Japan was the first country in Asia to industrialize. Traditionally, Japan
produced mainly such articles as silk, porcelain and toys. By the end of the
19th century, Japanese production included steel, machinery, metal goods and
chemicals— and in quantities large enough for export.

Effects of Industrial Revolution -

Tariff barriers - To help keep these low priced products from coming into their
markets many countries introduced protective tariffs. The levy of tariffs to protect
new industries became a wide spread practice.

Imperialism and Race for raw material – It gave rise to Imperialism where
spheres of influence or territories— for economic and political domination by
industrialized countries were sought for.

From Village to City

 Before the Industrial Revolution, most of the population of the world lived in
villages and was dependent on agricultural. Almost all economic needs of man
were met within the village itself. Almost the entire population was, in one
way or the other, connected with land.
 With the growth of industrialization the picture was completely transformed.
The centre of economic life shifted to the cities. The new cities and towns
that grew were important more as centres of industry than as political and
administrative centres.
 A large part of the population now started living in cities where thousands of
people worked in industrial establishments. This population was not
connected with land. Now in some industrialized countries, less than 20 per
cent of the population is connected with land.
 The crowding of people into cities has always produced problems of housing,
health, and sanitation. The quickening pace of industrialization in England
created deplorable living conditions, concentration in smoky industrial towns,
and city slums grew worse.
 Even though the movement of people from village to cities has been going on
since civilization began, it has always aroused sadness. Life for a villager in the
city resulted in many social strains.
 Many social bonds were dissolved. Many moral restraints which life in a
village community imposed broke down.
 On the other hand, men became freer to develop their capabilities.

Industrial Capitalism
 The instruments and the means by which goods are produced are owned
by private individuals and the production is carried out for making profit.
 The workers under this system do not own anything but work for a wage.
  The owners of wealth under capitalism who are called capitalists do not
keep their wealth or consume it or use it for purposes of display but invest
it to make profit.
 Goods are produced for sale in the market with a view to making profit.
 This system is in marked contrast with the feudal system in which goods
were produced for local use and the investment of wealth for making profit
did not take place

Consequences of industrial capitalism were-

1. It resulted in the concentration of economic power in a few hands.

2. A small number of capitalists came to control the lives of not only a large
number of workers whom they employed but also, directly or indirectly, the
economic life of the entire society.
3. The concentration of economic power in a few hands resulted in shocking
social inequalities and created a wide gulf between capitalists and the rest of
the population.These inequalities were so obvious and so great that Disraeli, a
British Prime Minister of the 19th century, spoke of the existence of two
nations in England- the rich and the poor.
4. They had to accept whatever wage the employer offered, for there were
usually more workers than jobs.
5. Women and children were employed even in mines because they could be
hired for less money.
6. Often they had to work from 15 to 18 hours a day with no rest periods. If
perchance they fell asleep on duty, they might be beaten by a heartless
overseer.
7. Working surroundings were unsafe and dirty.

Housing
The houses provided for workers were no better. Whole areas of the industrial
cities where workers lived were crowded slums. Accidents, disease and epidemics
were common. A report on the slums of Manchester in 1837 mentions, among
other things, that almost all inhabitants of many streets perished in cholera.

No Social security
If an employer was displeased with a worker for any reason, he could dismiss the
worker at will. A worker had little choice but to accept an employer’s terms, or be
jobless. If he was ill and unable to work, he got no pay, and he might be
discharged. If he suffered an accident on the job, he got no help from the
employer. When business was slack, a factory-owner regularly dismissed as many
employees as possible leaving them with no means of livelihood. It was the
industrial workers in England who first endured conditions such as those just
described but the workers in other countries fared no better.

Child Laborers
The horrible condition of child labourers is stated in the evidence collected by a
committee of British Parliament in 1816. The report revealed the children used to
work 15 hours a day standing all the time. With no proper working conditions, the
children used to get injured frequently.

Labour Laws

 A few humanitarian reformers and some land-owners who were jealous of big
businessmen combined with English workers to get the first laws to improve
conditions of work.
 In 1802, England passed its first Factory Act, limiting the hours of work for
children to twelve a day.
 In 1819, law forbade the employment of children under nine.
 Later laws regulated the employment of women and children in mines.

Pre- Marx Socialist Ideas-

France was the center of the growth of socialist ideas. Babeuf, the father of
Socialism, advocated compulsory nationalization of wealth, social equality and
abolition of property.

Rise of socialist ideas can be attributed to the rise of middle class and the
aspirations of the lower classes not being met. The middle class replaced the
monarchy in the New Regime. They demanded the rule of law and least
interference in their economic activities. In all of this, the questions of the lower
classes were never taken up. Thus, socialism was the proletariat’s answer to the
restrictions imposed by the middle class rule.
Pre-Marx socialists are called as Utopian Socialists who based their version of
socialism on the book of Sir Thomas More – Utopia.

Saint Simon – 1760-1825

 He condemned the institution of private property
 He said that it is unjust because the wealth is cornered by a select few but
which is created by the laboring class
 He felt that it also leads to inefficiency as wealth is in hands of people who
are least qualified to use it
 Thus he felt that it should be transferred to the government and it should
hand it over to the capable people
 Thus, he was not supporting outright nationalization of property but only
the distribution of it in the hands of capable people

Fourier – 1772-1837
 He was more equalitarian in outlook
 He did not support forced and compulsory nationalization but preferred
voluntary cooperation by people.
 He did not oppose private property but only wanted to give a share to the
wage earners to raise them to the level of property-owner

Proudhon 1809-1865
 He considered property as theft
 He was not opposed to private property but to the abuse of it
 He supported property built by workers through their toil
 But Proudhon also criticized Marxist ideas saying they are inconsistent. He
said if property is exploitation of weak by strong, communism is the
exploitation of the strong by the weak.

Louis Blanc 1811-82

 He attributed all evils of modern society to competition and supported
cooperative efforts through social workshops
 He believed that with passage of time these social workshops would
multiply and thus eliminate private enterprise.

Decline-
 The Utopian socialists proposed very theoretical and idealistic ideas which
failed to gather support from the people
  These were theorists who were dissatisfied with the existing conditions and
went on theorizing in Utopia
 Barring for Owen, no one cared to propose a practical way to implement
these ideas.

A glimpse of socialistic ideas were seen during French Revolution -

 Montesque said that it is the duty of the state to ensure basic subsistence
and a healthy life of its people
 Robespierre in 1794 said that commerce is the source of public wealth and
not just for the lavish live of select few.
 Rousseau in origin of Inequalities Among men 1753- Private property as an
evil that brought wickedness to primitive egalitarian state of men.

Marxism –
Proposed through Das Kapital and Communist Manifesto with Fredrick Engels

Marx felt the source of all problems is the ownership of “surplus value”
 He felt the value is created by the labor class but they don’t have a control
over it.
 It is appropriated by the owners and the laborers get only that much which
is enough for their subsistence
 The surplus is appropriated by the capitalist class
 He said that this is a fundamental injustice in modern society

Marx felt that everything in this world has an economic reason.

Fabian Socialism –
Fabian Society was established in England in 1884
 Unlike Marxian socialism that talked of revolution and inevitability of the
class war, Fabians believed in an evolutionary approach.
 “reorganization of society by emancipation of land and capital from
individual and class ownership and vesting them in community for common
benefit”
 They believed in gradual change and in tactics of delay
 Marxism believed that State will wither away but Fabians considered state
as an important element in ensuring justice and administration.
  They felt that capitalist class is not criminal. They acknowledged its
contribution in organizing the industry but felt that they should be
superseded by the paid employees.
 The Fabians were seen always supporting the candidates of Labor Party
which made them lose support.
 The Fabians worked for shorter work hours, proper wages, safeguards
against unemployment, etc. they advocated taxation on inherited wealth.
 In a way, even Nehru and Lenin can be called as Fabian socialists.

Syndicalists where those believing in revolution through trade unions. They

imagined that the state will wither away and the relations between the trade
unions will exist in form of a federation.

American War of Independence

English Colonies in America

In the 16th century, European countries began to make settlements there. In

North America, colonies were established by France, Holland and Spain as well as
by England.

 By the middle of the 18th century there were 13 English colonies in North
America along the Atlantic Coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious
freedom, traders, and profiteers had settled there. The bulk of the population
consisted of independent farmers. Infant industries had developed in such
products as wool, flax, and leather.
 In the north there were fishing and ship-building. In the south, large
plantations like feudal manors had grown up where tobacco and cotton were
grown with slave labour brought from Africa.
 Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters. These assemblies
enacted laws concerning local matters, and levied taxes. However, they were
under the rule of the mother country.
 By the 18th century, the colonists found the laws which the English
government imposed upon them more and more objectionable. The idea of
being an independent nation grew and developed into the Revolutionary War
in which the colonists gained their independence.

Reasons for American Revolution -

 1 No expansion beyond Appalachian as promised to French and Indians by
British angered the colonies.
2 Navigation act 1651 - it said that no goods produced in Asia, Africa or
America can be imported into England in those ships which did not have a
majority proprietor as English. This restricted the growth of trade in the
Americas
3 Stamp Act, Townshend Act, Quartering Act etc are other acts.
4 Import export restriction and high tariffs for import from other countries.
Goods from other countries came to America through Britain thus raising
their price.
5 Select goods could not be exported from America like woolen textiles, iron
and steel, etc
6 Restrictions on use and circulation of paper Currency that impeded trade.
7 American society was special for its absence of feudal class, although slaves
were owned; farmers were masters of their own land. Overall, weakness of
aristocracy, large body of land owning farmers, absence of indigenous
population, and possibility of acquiring land to west resulted in a strong
Republican character. This was challenged by Britain.
8 Economic slowdown in the decade of 1760s lead to reduction of flow of
credit to Americas but in the same decade taxes were increased.

Views on revolution -
Louis Hacker in his Triumph of American Capitalism has argued that American
Revolution was a economic conflict between American capitalism and British
mercantilism.
 Explain why american capitalism grew.
 The reason can get given that before 1763, the British had practiced
salutary neglect of America's and American colonies grew silently under the
loose control of mother country. Thus, this enabled them to go on a path of
capitalism.
 However, the British mercantilist policies treated the Americas as only a
colony whose goal was to supply the needed raw materials. Thus
restrictions were put on them.
  No Taxation Without Representation.
 So we can call it a conflict of capitalism vs mercantilism.
 However, many political reasons exist too. These reasons include
geographical distance from mother country that made them feel free and
consider themselves as a commonwealth nation with loose association with
their mother country. Plus, having less population, hardly 2 million in 1770,
and infinite land and resources, their freedom was unrestricted.

Bernard Bailyn says that American Revolution was an ideological and

constitutional struggle.
 This can be seen from the Democratic traditions started by writings of
Milton, Locke and Harrington.
 Democratic traditions of mother country also had an effect.
 Plus, the evangelists also left the old world suppression to find the freedom
of the new world.
 Also, the enlightenment thought found a fertile ground in the Americas
which lead to development of democratic traditions. Enlightenment was a
revolt against patriarchy. These are the non economic reasons for the
revolution.

Thomas Paine in his pamphlet common sense in 1776 has called it a thing of
common sense that the colonies severed ties with the mother country due to its
corrupt monarchy. He wrote, ‘there is something absurd in supposing a Continent
to be perpetually governed by an island’.

Joseph Ernst has divided the entire events into two parts -revolutionary
movement from 1762-1773 and freedom movement from 1773 onwards. He
believes that the earlier decade was when colonies were angry on Britain due to
economic oppression through acts but had confidence that they will repeal it. But
after 1773, the confidence was shattered and they began asking for
independence.
H.B Parkes- The middle decades of 18th century was accompanied by a growth of
a new self assurance. The Americans felt they were fully capable of controlling
their destiny and were more than merely transplanted Europeans

Impact of Enlightenment-
 The enlightenment thought found a fertile ground in the Americas which
lead to development of democratic traditions. Enlightenment was a revolt
against patriarchy
 Inspiration from French, Scottish and English enlightenment.
 John Locke’s social contract theory and proposition of right to life, liberty
and property. Plus Hobbes and Hamilton.
 James Logan and Benjamin Franklin were greatly influenced by
enlightenment and worked in Pennysylvenia
 Spread of education- Franklin started the American Philosophical Society
and University of Pennsylvenia and also set up multiple libraries. Today’s
Princeton university, Columbia University in Newyork, etc were started in
18th century.
 Thomas Paine, although from Britain, in his Rights of Man criticized
monarchy and supported the American Revolution.
 James Otis said that it has been the history of kings to be repressive but
that doesnt make repression their right.
 Impact can be seen on bill of rights.
 Connecticut Constitution 1818 negated need for official religion of state.
 Overall, enlightenment ideas made Americans aware of their rights. They
began to assert that monarchy and its diktats went against the free will of
humans. They did not bow down before injustice and repression. The final
result was establishment of a liberal democracy based on enlightened
thought.

Build-up of American Revolution -

 1756-1763 - The seven years war changed everything. The war between
Britain and France was about the control of Caribbean island over the sugar
growing areas. The French lost in Europe and were restricted in India. They
 had to give up Canada. The French and red Indians fought together. French
menace was removed and Westward expansion was cleared. But Britain
agreed that the colonies won’t expand beyond the Appalachian to placate
the French and Indians which angered the colonies
 But Britain incurred heavy debt which it wanted the colonies to bear. The
king George III and his prime minister Lord North created a volatile
situation.
 Grenville measures resulted in a variety of acts and restrictions like Sugar
act 1764, Currency act 1764, Mutiny act 1765, Quartering Act and the
worst of all Stamp Act 1765. It charged 20 shillings on all legal documents
and papers. It was passed in March 1765 but the colonies scorned at it.
 The angered colonists arranged themselves in a group called Sons of Liberty
and criticized the government. No taxation without representation. Finally
in October 1765, stamp act Congress met in New York. No taxation without
representation.
 Threat to boycott British goods made the parliament repeal the act and
diluted the sugar act.
 However, it maintained its right to impose taxes. So in 1767, Townshend
Act imposed import duties on glass, tea, paper, etc. This infuriated the
Americans.
 In March 1770, presence of British troops in Boston created a fluid situation
which lead to firing and killing of 3 citizens. The colonists dubbed it as
Boston massacre. The Townshend act was repealed but the tax on tea was
retained.
 In 1773, the EIC was given monopoly over tea trade through Tea Act 1773.
The colonies used to buy the low cost smuggled tea from agents. But the
EIC managed the agents to such a level that it's official price is lower than
the smuggled tea. This was a threat to merchants who brought in duty free
smuggled tea. In December 1773, Boston tea party when colonists dressed
as Mohawk Indians got onboard the ships and dumped the tea crates in the
sea.
 Quebec Act 1774 upheld French inhabitants right to follow their religion
and legal customs which further angered the colonies.
 September 1774 - first continental Congress at Philadelphia. The decisions
taken were the refusal to form a colonial union under British authority stop
all the trade between colonies and England, put up a statement of
grievances, to start preparing for military operations.
 April 1775 - Governor of Massachusetts tried to destroy the military stores
at Concord. The British soldiers did so but while returning to Boston, they
met with colonial troops and in the firing more than 200 British soldiers
died. Immediately, the second continental Congress met and made George
Washington the commander -in-chief of the forces. They also extended a
petition to the king called as Olive Branch. So basically, even till 1775, the
colonies were ready for negotiations with the king but the king did not
budge. He sent a belligerent reply asking soldiers to suppress all kinds of
rebellion in August 1775.
 June 1775- the war at Bunker Hill where Britain defeated the colonists but
suffered huge losses
 Late 1775- Unsuccessful effort of making Canada the 14th colony by
capturing Quebec in late 1775. Thus, they were in a dismal condition in
front of the might of Britain.
 July 4 1776 - declaration of independence in the second continental
congress. Architect was Thomas Jefferson. It brought out reasons for the
colonies to unite and separate from England. It states the common goal.
This formally started the American war of independence. Sons of Liberty
brought down the statue of King George III to make bullets out of the
metal. It declared that we consider it as self-evident that all men are
created equal, Congress adopted the Declaration of that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these rights are
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’.
 In 1777, the battle of Saratoga was the turning point for Americans. But
they kept on losing till 1778 when France entered the war. France did so to
avenge its defeat in the 7 Years war and it's loss of Canada. Plus it had
fought the 100 years war. It also had stakes in America's because it had
Louisiana under its control. France tried to nullify British naval might with
its own navy. Spain also entered in 1778.
  1781 - Defeat of Lord Cornwallis in York Town where he surrendered and
Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 that gave US independence.

Causes of success
1 British nonchalance about the colonies in America and its ignorance of the
revolutionary pressures building up. This gave Americans the spirit to fight
for their liberation
2 British relied on mercenary troops
3 Ignorance of the American geography
4 Leadership of George Washington
5 International conditions that got them support of France and Holland.
HR Anderson has said that Americans won because of Nature, France and
Washington.

Significance of American Independence

 Lafayette, the French general who fought on the side of American

revolutionaries, was soon to become a hero of the French Revolution.
Thomas Paine also participated in the French Revolution.
 By its example, the American Revolution inspired many revolutionaries in
Europe later in the 19th century. It encouraged Spanish and Portuguese
colonies in Central and South America to rebel and gain their
independence.
 First fight for independence which established a great democracy and a
federal republican country.
 It enshrined the fundamental rights of humans for first time.
 It destroyed the image of invincibility of Great Britain.
 Full written constitution for the first time.

Comparison with French Revolution –

 AR had less impact than FR due to its geographical isolation. France was in
the core area of Europe.
 The thinkers in France like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Kant, Rousseau, etc had
strong intellectual traditions than Jefferson, Washington and Franklin.
  FR was fight within the same country and not in the colonies. This made it
an event more of gumption and courage than AR.
 Similarity- no taxation without representation.

US Constitution -
First Constitution of America came into force from 1787 under the Philadelphia
convention. It had a weak national government with more powers given to states
and Congress had no rights to levy taxes or regulate commerce.
 Rule of Law is the basis.
 Full written constitution for the first time.
 1791 - Substantial change through the Bill of Rights which introduced the
first ten amendments. This was done through ten amendments which
guaranteed many rights to the American people. The most noted of these
are freedom of speech, press and religion, and justice under law.

Us constitution is basically a compromise between federalist vs non-federalist and

the fight over whether the federal government had the right to levy taxes and
take up military expeditions.
 American constitution established the doctrine of separation of power.
 Equal representation to each state in the Senate of 100. The term is 6 years
and every 2 years one third of members retire.
 Principle of a national government and democratically elected House of
Representatives. Election for every two years
 Elections - presidential elections every 4 years. Max 2 terms as president
after FDR.
 The Supreme Court has the power to interpret the constitution. 1 CJI and 8
other judges. Judges are selected for lifetime and step down only by willful
resignation or death. The cases can go to SC only through certiorari. 3 tier
judicial structure.
 Ministers are not the members of the legislative. The president can select
them according to his own choice provided the Senate votes for the person
by majority of 51%.
  mention negatives

Slavery in US-
 Slavery was an institution wherein the social control over the slave was
used for economic exploitation. Though it was exploitative, the owner also
had to take care of the food and health of the slaves to keep him
productive.
 Half a million African slaves existed along with thousands of white servants
who were brought to US on written contracts that bound them there for
years to decades. Strict rules existed for three servants to prevent their
flight.
 It is an irony that Thomas Jefferson who was the advocate of republicanism
was himself a slave owner.
 The American constitution of 1787 also recognized slavery and was in itself
a compromise between north and south states. It has been argued that the
southern states would not have agreed to join the union if slave ownership
was not recognized. This friction between north side south states was also
reason why a strong federal government was not made.
 US Constitution attaches great importance to private property and its
sanctity. Since slaves are also private property, it was not possible to
emancipate them without proper compensation to slave owners.
 Till the 19th century, slavery was not considered to be averse to morality.
It was considered to be a part of property which could be sold, bought or
given away.
 However, with years, the practice of slavery was reducing due to legal
reasons.
 1784 ordinance that no slave in new American territory after 1800.
 1787 ordinance that the new states of Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin etc will
have no slaves. Southern states accepted it because they didn't want these
northern states to get advantage over them in tobacco and indigo
production.
  Finally in 1808, slave trade was abolished but usage of existing slaves was
allowed. Effect of these measures was that slavery was trapped only in the
southern states and was not allowed to expand.
 However, even if America banned slave import, the import flourished in
Brazil and West Indies for coffee and sugarcane plantations.
 The slavery also made the southern states dependent on agriculture thus
impeding their progress as against the northern states.

Civil war -
 A view is that slavery would have ended even without the civil war given
the economics of keeping a slave was unprofitable.
 Barrington Moore has called the US civil war as a capitalist revolution that
speed up its development.
 Rhodes has said that it is a moral conflict that destroyed slavery thus
making it possible for a nation to rise to greatness.
 Abraham Lincoln. -I believe this government cannot endure permanently,
half slave and half free
 Difference between north and south - the north was the capitalist and
commercial center with all the industries indulged in manufacturing
finished products. The shipping industry made sure that the imports and
exports are carried out in all parts of the world. South was leisurely and
relaxed with dependency on agriculture and related activities. I.e plantation
economy. They cultivated rice sugar tobacco indigo, etc for which usage of
slaves was indispensable. The north used to ridicule slavery while the south
considered it as a basic necessity.

Building up –
 Abolitionist party in the north that vehemently attacked slavery which
created ripples in the south. The abolitionists declared that no slave holder
was innocent and that slave holding is a crime. Uncle Tom's Cabin was a
work of fiction that heavily criticized slavery.
  For south, slavery in cotton plantations was important because their
prosperity depended on it. By 1850, seven eighths of the cotton was
cultivated here. The opposition to slavery grew in 1830s.
 Westward movement was also a reason for conflict between north and
south.
 1820 - The ordinance of 1787 that put a limit to the extent of slavery was
modified by the Missouri Compromise in 1820 for inclusion of Missouri in
slave state.
 1831 - William Lloyd Garrison was a demagogue and through his paper
Liberator he spoke of enfranchisement of the slaves
 1850 - Mexican war and capturing of areas in the south west again opened
up the question of allowing slavery in Texas, New Mexico and Columbia.
The Abolitionist were trying to violate the Fugitive Slave Act 1793 by
helping runaway slaves. A compromise of 1850 was arrived at wherein
California was declared a free state while others were allowed to be
regulated by their inhabitants.
 1857 - Dred Scott judgment by Supreme Court made it virtually impossible
for the federal legislature frame laws on slavery. It also negates the
Missouri compromise.

Immediate cause - the prospect of winning of Abraham Lincoln in 1860

presidential elections made the southern states jittery. Lincoln was opposed to
slavery. The rival Democrats under Stephen Douglas couldn't defeat Lincoln.
Finally, the South Carolina convention was called wherein starting from South
Carolina, Southern state started to secede and in February 1861, they formed the
Confederate States of America.

War –
 Lincoln elected in March 1861. The Confederate guns open fire on union
soldiers on 12th April at Fort Sumter. The north was richer, had plenty of
resources and was highly populated than south. Whether war was fought
for abolition of slavery or to prevent secession is not known. The union
army went deep in the Confederate areas right up to Mississippi valley.
  On 1st January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation which
abolished slavery. He asked the slaves to join the union army. 4 million
slaves freed.
 April 1865- war ended and the Confederate general surrendered to the
general of United States of America.

Effect - slavery was abolished but the problem of discrimination remained. The
southern states gradually gained control of their government and sometimes
prevented the slaves to vote. The northern states also lost interest in the
question. The war proved USA was an indestructible union of indestructible
states.

Abraham Lincoln -
 Born in 1809
 Worked as a labourer in railways answer soldiering among the American
Indians
 He studied law and became a lawyer
 Tried to become governor of Illinois. He had a debate on slavery with
Stephen Douglas where he marked his presence and impressed people with
his morality. He lost the election
 In 1861, he won the presidential election and what followed was civil war
 He is the best example of a person from modest background who rose to
such a high level.
 Nathaniel Stephenson says in those dark days of civil war, the history of
America is mainly the history of Lincoln.
 Richard Hoftstadter has criticized Lincoln saying he was a political
opportunist who merely capitalized the burning issue of slavery to get to
the white house.
 Lincoln on slavery - earliest action was when he was a member of a
committee which reported on slavery in 1837. He called slavery unjust and
wrong. In 1854 in a public speech, he criticized slavery and called it a
burning shame on the nation. Another quote of his is that if slavery is not
 wrong, nothing is wrong. At heart, he was an Abolitionist but he also had
the duty of preserving the union. His emancipation proclamation that freed
nearly 4 million slaves.
 During the Civil war, he had the job of meeting the two opposite ends
namely abolishing slavery but preserving the union. He pushed the entire
blame of civil war on the southern states by staying that the secession was
against democracy union and humanity.
 His primary aim was to save the union. He is quoted saying that if the union
is saved without freeing a slave, I will do it. If the union is saved by feeling
all the slaves, I will still do it. Thus, in meeting both the ends, his priority
was to save the union. So Hoftstadter is partially right.
 For Lincoln, union was the utmost important thing. Without union there
would be no democracy send without democracy (free slaves) there could
be no union. Thus, he rose to a great moral stature by equating the union
with democratic rights of the slaves.

Growth of USA

 Early in the 19th century, many new areas were added to the United States.
The vast territory in the middle of the continent, known as Louisiana, was
purchased from France. Florida was acquired from Spain.
 By the 1850’s, after a war with Mexico, the United States had extended its
boundaries to the Pacific Ocean. People had continued to move west. The
westward expansion of the United States was at the expense of the
 American Indians who were driven out of their territories and in the course of
a few decades their population was reduced to an insignificant number.
 Increasing settlements in the west brought about increasing conflicts between
the southern states that wanted to extend slavery to the western territories
and the northern states that objected to a slave economy.
 A change of revolutionary significance came with the Civil War when slave-
owning states of the south seceded from the Union and set up a separate
government. The Civil War raged from 1861 to 1865 and ended in the defeat
of the southern states.
 It was a victory for the capitalistic industrial states of the north over the slave-
owning states of the south. The federal government abolished slavery. The
 abolition of slavery, however, did not end discrimination against the Black
people and their struggle to make equal rights a reality continued.

American Occupation of Philippines-

 Since 1521, it was under the occupation of Spanish people. They spread
their culture and converted many people to Christianity. Even though
control passed to British in 1763 briefly, Spanish retained their control over
Philippines
 But repeated suppressions made Andres Bonofacio start his Kanupunan
secret society. It led to Philippines Rebellion in 1896.
 America’s need to spur its economy due to Long Depression and neo-
imperialism led to Spanish-American War in 1898.
 The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the
latter’s victory in the Spanish-American War. A compensation of 20 million
US dollars was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of
Paris.
 As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the
nascent First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out,
the First Republic was defeated, and the archipelago was administered
under an Insular Government.
 The Americans then suppressed the sub-states the First Republic had
fractured into: mainly, the Sultanate of Sulu, as well as the insurgent
Tagalog Republic, the Cantonal Republic of Negros, in the Visayas, and the
Republic of Zamboanga, in Mindanao.
 During this era, a renaissance in Philippine culture occurred, with the
expansion of Philippine cinema and literature.Daniel Burnham built an
architectural plan for Manila which would have transformed it into a
modern city.
 In 1935, the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel
Quezon as president. He designated a national language and introduced
women’s suffrage and land reform.
 Plans for independence over the next decade were interrupted by World
War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and the Second Philippine
Republic of José P. Laurel was established as a collaborator state. Many
atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war such as the
Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre that culminated during
the Battle of Manila. Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945.
  On October 24, 1945,the Philippines became one of the founding members
of the United Nations and the following year, on July 4, 1946, it became
recognized by the United States as independent

American colonial enterprise- Liberia, founded by the American Colonization

Society of the United States in 1821; declared independence in 1847.

Regarding nature of American overseas expansion-

1. No religious element involved per se. So God absent form 'God, gold and glory'.
2. Was extension of Monroe doctrine. Maintain super power status rather than
only economic Interest.
3. Mostly in from of military control and not entire government set up. Military
control in Japan and Philippines.
4. Not as well structured and extensive as that of European powers.

British Democratic Politics

Glorious Revolution 1688 –
James II overthrown by people and his daughter Mary and son in law Williams
took over. The conflict was mainly Catholicism vs Protestants. Finally, England
could never become catholic. The 1689 year is famous for the passage of Bill of
Rights.

Bill of rights 1689 -

 A frequently summoned Parliament and free elections
 Members should have freedom of speech in Parliament
 No armies should be raised in peacetime
 No taxes could be levied, without the authority of parliament
 Laws should not be dispensed with, or suspended, without the consent of
parliament
 No excessive fines should imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments
inflicted

18th century –
  After the glorious Revolution, the parliament as an institution got more
powerful in Britain and the role of the monarch started reducing. The 18th
century was marked by the industrial revolution which also made way for
economic liberalism.
Problems –
 House of Commons was always overpowered by the House of Lords and the
monarch.
 There were no established political parties but only two groupings like
Whigs and Tories.
 These did not have a proper ideology but only minor differences.
 Gerrymandering was a major problem and seats could be bought to win
elections.
 There was limited adult franchise with only 2% population eligible for
voting. Thus, Westminster had thousands of voters while Old Sarum had
only 7.
 The policies of the British government were biased towards landed
aristocrat who occupied the houses. Thus, laws were made to restrict
movement of labor as well as to manage their wages and prices.

Positive side –
 the people were generally more informed due to public opinion, growth of
newspapers, associations and pressure groups, etc. Eg- Society of
Constitutional Information.
 The Wilkes case of 1757 yet again brought forward the issues of freedom of
press and protection against arbitrary arrest.
 Due to industrial revolution, there was a growth of a new social order of
the middle class which was free from the clutches of the old ways of living.
 The public was infuriated at the liberation of free British colonies of
America and the highhandedness of the monarch.

19th century –
  The effect of French Revolution was expected to be seen on the British
society. This made the British government awry of the radicals and the
reformers. Britain was also on a war with revolutionary France till 1815.
 The government also put restrictions like suspension of Habeas Corpus in
1794, anti combination laws in 1799 and a series of treason trials of the
radicals. In spite of these it could other stop the radicals, reformers and the
working class.
 In 1816, the March of Blanketeers was crushed with brutality. They were
weavers demanding their rights
 In 1819, 60000 people Marched at Peterloo for Democratic rights which
was also crushed. Thus, till 1820, the British, although a democracy, we're
in no mood to grant rights to the people

 Things changed after 1820 after the Lord Liverpool government came to
power. The ministers like Canning and Peel were liberal and brought
changes in finances, tariffs, courts, etc.
 William IV became the monarch and the Whigs came to power after a long
time. Lord Grey's government came to power and chances of parliamentary
reforms brightened.
 Thus, unlike their other counterparts in Europe, the ruling classes
themselves decided to accommodate the aspirations of their people and
change themselves. This is a major reason for the peaceful democratic
reforms.

Other reasons include

1 The rise of middle class and their penchant for the Rule of Law and
everything to be carried out by peaceful means
2 Britain as a society enjoyed more right to than other people. Democracy
had taken a root in democracy, in spite of the drawbacks. Thus, the
reformists and radicals failed to gather public support
3 Capitalist ideology and the policy of economic liberalism were put forth by
Adam Smith and were insisted upon by successive traders and merchants.
 Their pressure worked on the government as they called for least
interference in the market
4 On a philosophical ground, the utilitarian ideology of the greatest good of
greatest number and the principle that a lean but efficient government
machinery working on rational principles took birth. Propounded by
Bentham, Mill, etc.

Reforms Act 1832

With the pasaage of the Bill, the death warrant of the Lords was signed and the
crown itself realised its limits.
The drawbacks of the existing system mentioned above especially about the
constituency and the limited franchise
Provisions -
1 Change in rhetoric boundaries of the constituency for proper
representation. In the different Boroughs, the right to send members in
deserted ones were taken away and given to the populated areas
2 Changes introduced in the voting qualifications. Nearly 5 lakh voters were
now added to the electoral role. But still the number was very less and only
one in twenty two could vote.
Significance -
1 The sovereignty and power was transferred to the middle class from the
aristocrats. Thus, the rising aspirations of ghee middle class found a place
2 This act weakened the House of Lords and raised the status of the HOUSE
of Commons.
3 The landlords were deprived of their control over the parliament and the
steps were taken towards a uniform adult franchise
4 The reformed spirit in the parliament grew and a series of reforms were
passed thereafter.

Further Acts passed-

 Abolition of Slavery 1833
  Factory Act 1833
 New Poor Law Act 1834 followed by Municipal reforms act and Education
Act

Chartist Movement 1832-57

“England has given the world its first broad, mass based and politically clear
proletarian movement” - Lenin

The Victorian Era was characterized by the social movements and the fight by the
deprived sections to gain their rights. Chartist movement was started by the
labour class mainly artisans, peasants and industrial labour. It was a movement
for making the working man equal to his master.

Reasons -
1 Political - Reform act of 1832 did not consider their voting rights. They week
oppressed you their masters and their condition was dismal
2 Economic - they were suffering a lot due to low wages and manipulation of
prices to keep them high for the landed aristocracy. Eg - the Corn Laws of
1815
3 Social - there was owned growing a class conflict between the labour class
and the capitalist class. The new towns were overcrowded and the villages
were getting deserted. The society was experiencing a change.
4 The February Revolution in 1848 gave a new life to Chartists and they
started a campaign to get 50 lakh signatures, albeit forged.
5 1816 and 1819 crushing of revolts.

Demands through the people's 'Charter'

1 Uniform male adult franchise
2 Yearly parliamentary elections
3 Remuneration to the elected representatives
4 Voting through ballot
5 Property qualifications to be abolished
 6 Country be divided into equal electoral districts

Successes were that the government had to take note of the conditions of the
labourers. The wages of the working classes were increased and the conditions at
work were regulated by passing various Factory Acts. Industrialization was
accepted.

In words of David Thompson- “a new and healthier wind blew through the
community, a new national and social conscience about the ills of industrial
England began. “

Failures -
1 Failed to gather popular support from the poor and powerless because of
its spontaneous nature
2 It peaked during the Industrial depression and high corn prices but subsided
later on
3 Agitators used false tactics like forged signatures that reduced their
credibility in 1848. It had signatures of people not in England and even
queen Victoria herself.
4 They lacked good leaders and orators
5 Some employed violent means. Like the Physical Force Chartists.
6 It is due to this failure that Marx came out with his communist manifesto in
1848.

FRENCH REVOLUTION
French Revolution is the uprising in France in 1789 aimed at uprooting the age old
feudal structure, the ancien regime, and ending the system of privilages and
putting in place a bourgeois or capitalist system.

French society was divided into First Estate i.e clergy, Second Estate of Aristocracy
and Third Estate of rest. The growth in trade and commerce in 18th century had
given rise to a new class which was dependent on it. It was called fhe bourgouise
or middle class and was included in the third eatate. This middle class had made
the aristocracy weary.
French Revolution is thus also called Bourgeois revolution.

Causes –
 French believed in Divine Rights Theory and considered king as a
manifestation of God. Thus, the king Louis XIV of Bourbon dynasty tried to
concentrate power in his hand and decided not to summon the Estates
General after 1614.
 Due to such a concentration of power, the officials of the king called
intendants became corrupt slowly in the reign of Louis XV and Louis XVI.
 Failure of judiciary - the king was the highest judicial authority and could
sanction puniahments and imprisonment without trial. The Parlemont was
the highest court of justice, magistrates of which even the king could not
dismiss. This parlemont became a den for protecting vested interests of
the aristocracy. The judicial processes became complex and took time.
 Clergy - they formed only 1% part but took tithe as a tax and lived a
luxurious life. They consisted of Church officials like bishops, cardinals,
archbishops, etc. The king had no power to impose taxes on them and his
laws were not applicable to them. Thus, due to corruption and their
worldly way of life, people lost respect for church.
 Aristocracy formed one third of the population. They owned huge tracts of
land but did not pay the taxes. They lived off the labour of the poor
people.
 The third estate itself was not uniform. On one side were businessmen,
intelectuals and industrialists who were rich and on the other were
labourers and peasants and third was the urban working class called sans-
culottes. Due to the bourgeois class that the rebellion was fomented.
 Peasants - 20 million peasants out of 25 million. They were mostly land
owners but this was of no benefit to them. They paid over burdening taxes
up to four fifth of the income. This made them angry. Restriction on intra
country Trade of grains which lead to hoarding, speculation and inflation
and hurt during famines.
 Working class - The sans-culottes lived in a dismal condition in Paris. Their
numbers were around 6 lakhs in 1789. They suffered from low wages but
inxreasing living costs due to inflation. The labourers were not allowed to
form unions and their strikes were brutally crushed. The casual labour in
 cities was increasing and economic slowdown lead to rise in
unemployment.
 Disparity in taxation. Taine has shown that four fifth of income spent on
paying taxes to the state, church, other religious taxes and dues to the
feudal lords. Indirect taxes like Gabelle and direct taxes like vingtiemes,
capitation, etc and tithe to the church
 Economic burden due to wars of 1756-63 ando American war.
 Depression of 1778 and failure of crops in 1787.
 Contribution of philosophical thinkers like Montesque, Rousseau and
Voltaire.
 Aristocratic Revolt against monarchy to preserve their privilages.
 Morse Stephens- “The causes of French Revolution were economic and
political, not philosophical and social.”

French Revolution as Bourgeois Revolution -

 Bourgeois or those who live in the borough are the ones associated with
the middle class and concerned with the wealth, private possessions and
materialistic values.
 Cobban is of the view rhat the French Revolution is essentially a political
revolution, a struggle waged in France for control over who should
exercise power. Thus this revolt was not of a particular class but of all for
securing political rights
 GV Talor says that pre-rebolutionary France capitalism did not constitute a
major social force and since bourgeois signifies the class created by
capitalism, French Revolution cannot be regarded as bourgeois
 However, these historians try to equate the heterogeneos bourgeois class
of those times with today’s capitalist class of merchants and businessmen.
Looking at the social structure then, the bankers, lawyers, merchantsm etc
did form a heterogeneus group of people who can be called as the
products of capitalism
 People with economic rights can’t be denied political rights for long. The
political interests of the bourgeoise were suppressed due to the system of
privilsges. Thus they revolted. This is the reason the revolt happened in
Paris without any considerable rural discontent.
 They were the most aware people and were liberal due to the effect of
Enlightenment and the thoughts of philosophers.
  The third estate that was elected also had a bourgeois touch. Peasants
formed less than 10% while majority were lawyers and industrialists
 Constitution and declaration of rights also had a bourgeois reflection.
Article 17 made property sacred. It made property as the qualification for
vote; serfdom was abolished but slave trade continued seizure of church
lands and their auction so that only rich coukd buy it.
 According to George Rule, constitution is nothing but a manifesto of the
revolutionary bourgeoise.
 Concluding, bourgeoise we're definitely the leaders of the revolution. But
it could not have sustained without the support of other members of third
estate like sans-culottes.

Debate on economic reasons -

1. Michelet and Labrousse argue that economic reasons were chief reasons
for the revolution. The french economy dwindled after the 1780. Coupled
with oppressive taxation, it caused rebellion
2. Tocqueville howver argues that the rise in economic status of the farmers
made them strong to stand againat the privelages.
3. view - economic reasons were definitly there but the political and social
pressure was also continuously building up. The middle class was capable
of paying taxes. It is not the amount of taxes but the way of biased
taxation that caused rebellion.

Philosophical Thinkers -
 Spirit of enlightenment Age.
 answer start- historians like Taine and Rouston believe that by criticizing
the ancien regime, the thinkers laid the foundation of the revolution and
made the people aware of the solutions
 Montesquieu in his Spirit of Laws in 1734 propounded the theory of
separation of powers. He said unless such a thing happens, the power of
aristocracy will not be curbed. However, he never wanted any revolution.
He was a believer in the English model of constitutional monarchy. He also
didn't attack the privileges of church
 Voltaire criticised the Catholic Church and called it a corrupt institution. He
was a believer but could not stand the corruption in the Church. He
however did not write anything in support of revolution because his ideal
was enlightened despots
  Rousseau. Addition is that his social contract theory propunded direct
democracy with the will of the people being supreme. This neeeded social
equality. According to Napolean, it was Roussesu who was responsible for
French Revolution.
 Physiocrats leae by Quesnay propounded the liberal economic theory
which advocated free trade, reduction in tariff barriers and tax for all those
who earned land
 Streams of knowledge were opener by Diderot and D’Alembert who wrote
the Encyclopaedia
 David Thompson believes that the connection of philosophers and
revolution is somewhat remote and indirect. Even Morse Stephens
believes that the the thoughts of philosophers failed to indluence the
revolution
 There was no unity among philosophers. Even the most radical of them,
Rousseau, abhorred violence.
 Hoewver, Voltarire Rousseau died in 1778, Montesque in 1755 and others
too died early and did not witness the revolution. Thus, they could only
indirrctly affect
 Moreover, if at all philosophical ideas were influencing, it can be argued
that American Revolution and Bill of Rights had greater effect due to
French involvement in USA
 However, their role cannot be undermined hiven the fact that any
revolution cannot grow in an intellectual vacuum.
 Link to moderates and drain of wealth exposition.

Why revolution only in France -

 Economic condition of France was better than its neigubouring states like
Austria, Prussia. Any society where economic wellbeing exists to some
extent, people start thinking of their politics rights
 France was locked in conflict with England and lost in Canada, India, etc.
Resentment abput the monarch was high because of his brazen spending
of treasury money on wars and then burdening the people with taxes.
 Other monarchs were strong and well rooted. Like Francis II of Austria.
Louis XVI was dumb, ignorant and siberal.
 Existence of an aware and enlightened class in Paris in form of bourgeoise.
Large intellectual contri ution by philosophers which was absent in other
countries.
  Ideas of American Revolution penetrated French mind more due to active
involvement.

Aristocratic Revolt
 This signifies the friction betwen the monarchy and the aristocracy
wherein the aristocracy tried to preserve its perks and privilages.
 After Louis XVI took over, he appointed Turgot as the finance minister.
Looking at the dismal condition of the economy, Turgot decided to reduce
the exoenditure by rationalising the salsries, he decided to let go
government control of trade and commerce. He even opposed to the
involvement of France in US war. He met opposition from ariatocracy and
had to go.
 He was replaced by Necker who met the same fate
 He was replaced by Calonne who tried to do thr same. He even proposed
to implement a plocy of equal taxation with taxes beijg levied on
ariatorcrwcy, clergy and all landowners. He even summoned Council of
Notables but the resolution was rejected. In 1787, he resigned.
 He was sucveeded by Briene who imposed taxes like stamp tax and tax on
land.
 3rd May 1788 - Parlement, who was inclined to aristocratic interests, gave
a judgment that no taxes can be imposed by the king without the
permission of the Estates general. The Parlement also said that arrests
without trial, dismissal of magistrates was illegal. Louis XVI tried to banish
the magistrates but had to retract. Riots broke out
 July 1788 - aristocracy and clergy signed an agreement iwith third estate in
Vizille. It demanded for the summoning of the estates general and
parlement be recoevred. It also promised that the third estate would get
representation equal to combination of other two.
 Thus, by pressure from aristocracy and also by the short lived unity of third
estate with other two, the king was forced to withdraw taxes and call for
the Estates general in may 1789.
 This very event by ariatocracy started a chain reaction wherrin the third
estate now became demanding of its rights. Thus aristocratic revolt fueled
the revolution.
 George Rule believes that this was a revolt and acted as a preclude to
revolution.
Events leading to revolution-
 Estates General convened on 5th May 1789 at Versailles after 175 years.
 the relative strength was - Clergy 308, second 285 and third was 621 but all
3 estates sat separate
 Third estate demanded per capita voting and joint session which
aristocracy opposed. Now aristocracy one again united with monarch
 17 june - the king refused to concede and the third estate took the reigns
of revolution and declared themselves as National Assembly. This was
illegal but showed the courage
 20 June - gates of estates general were found closed. Third estate lead by
Mirabau and Seiyes took oath in a tennis court to establish a new
conatitution. This marked the fall of ancien regime.
 Parsians rejoiced the victory of bourgeoise in Versailes. The king called
army in Paris on 12th July and dismissed Necker
 14 July - Storming of empty prison of Bastille and looting of arms. It had a
tremendous impact and resulted in lessening influence of monarchy,
freedom of press and also showed success of uprising.
 Goodwin- “no other event of Revolution had so many sided and far
reaching effects like the fall of Bastille.“
 King restored Necker, gave the charge of Paris to Paris Commune under
mayorship of Bailly. He posted the National Guard to protect property in
Paris and appointed Lafayette as comander in chief. Thus, power passed in
hands of bourgeoise.

Great Fear
 The French revolution was the work of sans-culottes or urban working
class and the bourgeoise. The rural folks had little contrivutuon
 Rural unrest was increasing because of oppressive feudal structure. The
economic slowdown and failure of crops in 1787 also had its effect. Thus
peasant unrest was fueled by fall of bastille
 the peasants attacked the properties and also stopped paying taxes like
tithe and dues to the feudal lords
 National assembly realised that unles it has the supoort of the peasants as
well as urban class, it cannot be truly representative.
 4th august 1789 decree of abolition of feudalism and collapse of ancient
regime.
Constituent Assembly -
 National Assembly was given task of drafting constitution.
 Declaration of Human and Civil Rights in August 1789 incorporated
principles like inalienable right to property, freedom of expression and
speech, prevention from arrest illegally, no discrimination based on birth,
equality before law, etc
 it established constitutional monarchy wherein the sovereign powers rest
with assembly with only veto power to king but he could not nullify
legislations. He could not dissolve the assembly and could not declare wars
or conclude treaties without assembly sanction
 administration - France divided into 83 departments --> districts--
>cantons-->communes
 Direct election for judges and government servants. Separation of powers
and hence judiciary made independent.
 Economic - crisis at large. Taxes like tithe, gabelle, etc abolished and a new
tax structure erected with tax on all classes of landowners and industry.
Efforts were made to increase revenue by nationalisation of property.
Paper currency asignat was issued against seized church property to pay
off debts
 Religious reforms - Protestants given equal opportunities. Civil Cinstitution
of Clergy deckared in 1790 which made ckergy as state servants.
 Flaws invlude - lacked democratic spirit and did not speak on duties and
reaponsibilities of citizens. It created a possible conflict between king and
assembly. Paper currency was so devaluated that no transactions took
place. Church reforms did not go well among the god fearing people.
women, slave trade, franchise.
 Edmund burke, British intellectual, has criticized assembly saying it
destroyed monarchy and created tensions in french society.

1789-1793
 The Constitution was continuously creating tussles between king and the
assembly. Like in the case of usage of suspensive veto against legislation
curbing church powers
 there emerged group of radicals called Jacobians and Girondins who
wanted complete overthrow of monarchy and eatablishment of republic
 21st June 1791 - Flight to Varennes when royal family tried to eacape
France exacerbated the situation
  The aristocrats had fled to Austria and Prussia. These countries also had
the fear that such a revolution might challenge their power too. Thus, on
27th August 1791 Pillnitz Declaration was issued by Austria and Prussia
asking all European monarchs to unite against revolutionaries.
 The new king of Austria Francis II refused to send back french refugees and
also to take back 80000 soldiers from the border. Hence french assembly
declared war on austria on 20th april 1792
 Brunswick Manifesto in 1792 which warned revolutionaries of dire
consequences if anyone from the royal family was harmed. This United
France and induced patriotism and the aggressions were repulsed back.
 Meanwhile, the Jacobians lead by Robespierre led the second French
Revolution as they organised protests against constitutional monarchy.
Finally on 10th August 1792, the king was dethroned. They were helped by
the sans culottes of Paris.
 In September 1792, new elections were held and the new national
assembly came to be known as National Convention.
 There was ideological difference between Jacobians and Girondists. The
Girondists wanted a proper constitution that reflected the values of French
Revolution while Jacobians wanted a more radical constitution that made
the benefits of revolution reach the peasants
 The Jacobians had the supoort of the Sans Culottes and the Paris
Commune. There was no unity between the Gurondists which made the
Jacobians prevail in case of execution of Louis XVI
 He was put to guillotine on 21st January 1793 and the conflict
exacerbated. The Girondists were expelled from convention and the
Jacobians took over

Reign of Terror -1793-94

 To tackle the threat from external aggression and inteenal revolt and to
preserve the revolution, a reign of terror was unleashed wherein all
threats were eliminated
 A committee on public safety was established whose head Maxmillian
Robespierre establiahed a 100 days autocratic rule. The idea was to have
an autocracy to protect the sovereignty of france which was threatened by
war by Prussia
 The law of Suspect was passed in September 1793 that gave right to arrest
only on a mere suspicion that the person is a threat to the revolution.
  thousands were arrested on mere suspicion and as prison capacity fell
short, nearly 20000 were executed
 The Sans Culottes who supported Robespierre now brought him down.
Robespierre was gulliotined in July 1794. The post Robespierre phase is
called Thermidorian Reaction.
 The 1791 and 1793 constitution had failed and had shown that too much
of democracy as well as dictatorship were harmful.
 New Constitution of 1795 and the new system of governance called
Directory. Its drawbacks were that it enfranchised based on wealth. Its
bicameralist structure also leads to weakness. Taking advantage of this
weakness, Napolean took over in 1799

“When France catches cold, entire Europe sneezes” - Metternich based on events
of French Revolution 1789, July revolution 1830 and February Revolution 1848.

NAPOLEON
Rise to power -
 Joined army as second lieutinent
 Rose to ranks of Brigadier General in times of Robespierre as he stopped
English and Spanish invasions
 In 1795, he protected the National Convention from monarch’s supporters
and was promoted to the rank of General.
 During the continuous invasions from European powers, he won many
wars with the final one ending with defeat of Austria and signing of Treaty
of Campo Formio in 1797
 The rule of Directory was crumblimg due to its inefficiency and weakness.
Napoleon staged a coup detat along with Seiyes and firmed the Consulate
Rule with 3 counsuls. The principle was Confidence from Below, Power
from above.
 He became all powerful and finally declared himself as emperor of France
in 1804
 Reasons for rise - Failure of Revolution and radical excesses during the
Reign of Terror, weariness of French to experiment with another
revolution hence they desired order and stability, napoleon’s own mass
appeal and acceptability especially after he received a hero’s welcome
even after a lost war at Egypt, rule of directory.
Napoleon and Revolution -
 Naopleon himself said I am the Revolution but I deatroyed the revolution.
 The entire French Revolution took place to replace the Ancien Regime and
feudal system with first a constitutional monarchy and then by a republic.
It was driven by modern values like liberty, equality and fraternity. It was
expected to have a written constitution which would guide the nation.
 With Napoleon, history turned a full circle and France once again had
monarchy.
 Napoleon himself belonged to aristocratic family and he himself did not try
much to change the feudal mindset. He infact tried to build a new
aristocratic aystem based on merit and not on birth called Legion of
Honour.
 He was awry of the principle of Liberty because he equated liberty with
disorder.
 His attitude towards equality was also not uniform. He did not believe in
equality of genders. He thought of women as inferior to men. His code
Napoleon degraded the status of women
 He establushed the Council of States that was governing body with
centralised power that violated the basic doctrine of separation of powers
 However, he tried to bring social stablity with a stable political structure.
 The Judiciary was made independent. The judges were appointed by the
State but could not be removed till death. This ensured independence of
judiciary
 He tried to focus on economic reforms. Refusal to give economic rights to
the Third Estate was the main reason for revolution. Napoleon brought a
new tax structure, he adopted a mercantile policy and also established the
Bank of France in 1800. He himself ensured the stability of the Franc.
 Religious corruption by Church was the source of revolution. The
Concordat signed between Napoleon and Church in 1801. The high placed
catholic clergymen were now hired as the state employees. The church on
its part had to support the nationalisation of the property. Catholicism
became an organised religion but came increasingly under state control.
The people must have a religion, he said.
 Finally, the Code Napoleon containing 2287 articles was written in 1800. It
was divided into 3 types - civil, criminal and commercial code. It
propounded values like secularism, freedom of speech and expression,
freedom of profession, equality before law, etc. It is said to be a strike of
 balance between laws of revolution and Roman Laws of Old France like
private property, family discipline and social values.

Wars -
 Wars fought in different years with the three coalitiojs of european powers
till the final Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 wherein entire europe came under
napoleon except for England. Russia under Alexander I had promised
under the treaty to help france in continental system
 Peninsular War in Spain from 1808-14 which napoleon called as the
Spanish ulcer where his 3 lakh soldiers died
 war with austria in 1809 was won and treaty of Schonnbrunn signed but
that exposed Napoleon’s weakness.
 Failure of continental System in Russia and devalartion of war with Russia
in 1812. Retreat and lakhs of soldiers lost.
 1813 - Battle of Nations or Leipzig wherein a joint European force of
England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia defeated napoelan and took over his
empire. He was sent to temporary exile at Elba in 1814
 He returned from exile in 1815 and ruled for hundred days. He tried to use
assistance of soldiers but was defeated in Battle of Waterloo by British
commander Wellington. He then lived in exile in St Helena till his death in
1821.

Continental System -
 It was an embargo placed on England by Napoleon to cause economic
blockade of England to achieve complete supremacy in Europe
 The logic was that British economy ran on manufacturing and trade. If the
trade was hampered, it would distress the economy. England would
default on interest payments on its huge national debt. This would cause
England to sue for peace under napoleon.
 Right from invasion of Egypt, Copenhagen till Battle of Trafalgar in 1805,
Napoleon could not defeat England. But he realised that unless England is
defeated, he cannot establish complete supremacy
 Montgaillard Report of 1805 - it was a memorandum submitted to
Napoleon. It's core was - to destroy British commerce is to strike at the
Heart of England.
 Thus system was put in place under which no European port would trade
the British goods. This system was forced on Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain,
Portugal, etc.
 Decrees were issued like that of Berlin Decree in 1806, Milan and Warsaw
decree in 1807 and Fountainebleau decree in 1810.
 Berlin Decree - Blockade of England declared, all trade and commerce
stopped, second was no british wouls be allowed to touch any continental
port belonging to France or allies, third all letters and packages addressed
to England will be confiscated.
 Milan Decree declared any ship trying to sell British goods will be treated
as British property and confiscated.
 The Fountainebleau decree ordered public burning of British Goods.

 Initial success to Naploeon as all countries supported. British Sterling fell

from 25 Francs to 17 Francs.
 It is said this Continental System triggered the defeat of Napoleon.
 Portugal was hesistant in complying due to its relations with Britain.
Napoleon marched through Spain into Portugal and captured Lisbon in
1807
 Already Spanish were angry due to Joseph Bonaparte. This new meddling
in Spain created a new wave of nationalism. Napoleon took the step of war
and the Peninsular war 1808-14 started where 3 lakh French soldiers
perished.
 This inspired Austria and war began there in 1809. Austria was defeated
and Treaty of Schonbrunn was signed. However, this cracked Napoleon’s
image of invincibility.
 Finally, the Treaty of Tilcit in 1807 made Russia comply with Continental
System. But given the domestic pressure of middle class and businessmen
and dependency on British goods, Alexander I opened up ports. The
situation became fluid and France declared war in 1813. Out of 6 lakh
soldiers, only 95000 returned due to bitter cold.
 Even the Pope refused to accept the Continental System. Naploeon
invaded the Papal kimgdom and drew ire of all European catholics.
 The implementation of this syatem also led to strain on french economy.
The middle class, who was the supporter of napoleon, now became
indifferent to his fate due to prolonged depression.
  This set up a chain of events that united all countries and resulted in fall of
Napoleon.

Napoleon reduced the 300 odd kimgdoms to 39 in Germany thus unconsciously

helping German unification and nationalism. Prof Fisher remarked - napoleon had
prepared the way for Bismarck.
Napoleon furthered french colonial enterprise - bought Louisiana from Spain and
sold it to USA.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1815

 Napoleon had changed the social and political contours of entire Europe.
Thus, the pursuants of Ancien Regime, namely Prussua, Austria, England
and Russia met to redistribute the land. The meet is called as the Congress
of Vienna. Thus it symbolises a return to pre-1789 conditions.
 Although the broad principles of division of land was decided in the Treaty
of Paris, the congress was called to give effect to the treaty
 Represented by Metternich of Austria, Lord Castlereagh and Duke of
Wellington of England, Tsar Alexander I of Russia and King Fredrick William
III and minister Humboldt of Prussia. France was represented by Talleyrand
and Rome by Cardinal Salvi.
 3 Princples - Balance of Power, Legitimacy and Compensation.

Under Balance of Power

 Quadruple Alliance formed. Thus, it was made sure no nation becomes too
much powerful over another
 Holland and Belgium united into Netherlands
 Switzerland restored to independence
 Germanic confideration under Austria
 Italy partitioned into states while strengthening of Piedmong Sardinia
 Holy Alliance proposed by Alexander I which Metternich called as loud
sound of nothing

 Under Legitimacy, old monarchies were restored. France came under Louis
XVIII and Spain, Naples went under the rule of Bourbon dynasty.

Under Compensation,
  The principle of legitimacy was compromised due to the principle of
compensation as the land was distributed to Victor's at the cost of
defeated
 Russia got central Poland, Turkish provinces and Finland
 Prussia got hold of Saxony
 England got Malta
 Austria got Lambardy and Venetia, etc.

Criticisms
 No efforts at recognizing the change in people who have now are more
nationalistic, democratic and liberal in attitude. The diplomats coukd not
foresee that the forces of natiinalism and democracy could not be
supprrsed for long by autocracy.
 Nationalism of certain countries was not kept in mind. Thus, germany and
italy were divided, poland dismembered and holland belgium united.
These arrangement came crashing in 19th century itself because it had
seeds of future revolutions.
 The big 4 cornered all the benefits. Smaller states like Venice, Genoa did
not receive anything.
 Heartless System of Statistics wherein populatiin became measure of
defining boundaries
 thus, overall the congrees dealt with dynasty, diplomacy and states but not
in terms of modern nation states and nationalism.
Positive -
 It can be argued that the concept of democracy was a new one and was
under experimental stage. Thus, the dynasties could not take risk and their
diplomats behaved like practical statesmen in bringing back the status quo
 In words of David Thompson- it would be wrong to blame the people for
failing to appreciate the power of nationalism and liberalism which few
understood in 1815.
 The distribution, hosoever heartless, ensured no major war in Europe till
next 40 years
 It also started a process of a common platform for nations to meet. The
powers staeted a Concert of Europe, a predecessor to League of Nations.
 It also abolished slavery.
METTERNICH SYSTEM
Metternich was the Austrian diplomat who was the most important figure in
European politics in first half of 19th century. He claimed to have moral
dictatorship over Europe.

Background - A wave of unrest in Europe due to French revolution. Art and

literature was transformed by new ideas. The intellectuals and middle class were
messengers of tgis new idea. The whole European order based on monarchy,
feudalism, arist9cracy and Catholic religion was subverted by them. This epidemic
was spreading from country to country. Moreover, these revolutionaries believed
in a sudden, violent change rather than a gradual process of evolution. Thus, it
became a necessity for Metternich to suppress them.

 According to Ketelbey, he could swim like a fish in the sparkling whirlpool

of Vienna
 His political values were based on 3 principles - Return to Pre-revolutionary
political order, Suppression of nationalism and all effects of French
Revolution, Protection of Austrian interests in European politics under
Hapsburg empire.
 Thus, he was a status quoist who believed in Doctrine of Immobility and
Divine Rights theory.
 He often said tyat democrafy could often change daylight into darkest
night.
 He was a firm believer in autocracy and it's role in maintaining peace.

The system he put in place in order to acgieve these objectives is called

Metternich System.

External considerations
 During the first half of 19th century, a process of disintegration had set in
Europe due to the cobtinupus wars and goal of suppressing french
revolution. Napoleon defeated in 1815
 Thus, he felt that in order to ensure peace all over Europe, it waw
necessary to crush all the revolutions and bring in the rule of monarchy
 Ideas as international issue to be tackled at international level. Contagious
and know no boundaries.
Internal considerations
 Such kind of revolutions could destabilize Austria and its monarchy.
 Austria itself was not a nation of homogeneity. It consisted of different
races like Slavs, Germans, Croats, Poles, Italians and Czechs with no
common language. Thus, if ideas of nationalism and liberalism were
allowed to prosper, Austria would break into pieces dismantling the
Hapsburg dynasty.

Actions within Austria -

 He reatricted freedom of press and travel to foreign country
 A network of spies and police to keep a strict watch on activities
 A strict control on educational institutions as they were breeding grounds
 Check posts on borders to control infiltration of revolutionaries.
 Catholic church made important in all walks of life as religion can serve as
an effective barrier to revolutionary activities.
 Thus, as Marx said - every old established authority was upheld by
Metternich.

Actions outside Austria -

His influence as a diplomat grew especially from the Congress meet at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1818.
 Germany - Several secret sociwties were being formed. At Wartburg
festival, German students murdered a Russian man mistaking him for a
German spy. In retaliation, Metternich issued Carlsbad Decree 1819 and
crushed the revolt. At convention of Oldmutz, he also got Prussian king F
William IV to give up idea of becoming a German king. Also, article XIII of
Bund constitution which promised to grant democratic rights was
deliberately kept inoperative by Metternich by pressurising the princes as
Austria was the guardian of German Diet.
 Italy - Revolt in Piedmont and Naples in 1820-21 crushed by Metternich
using Quadraple alliance. Already Lombardy and Venice were under
Austria. Metternich tried to bring Central Italy under Hapsburg and south
Italy under Bourbons.
 France - War indemnity and creation of strong states around France.
 Russia - Sided with Tsar Nicholas I and asked him not to support rebel
Greeks as they were crushed by Turkish sultan.
  Spain - tried to stop Ferdinand VII from giving away liberal benefits. But
ultimately failed.

Challenges to Metternich -
Spanish colonies of South American colonies - they were fighting for freedom
since last quarter of 18th xentury. the war of independence under Simon Bolivar
startee in 1816. This was inspired by the american revolution, the oppression of
the natives by the spanish people and by the values of french revolution mainly
liberalism and democracy. Starting from Columbia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, etc
becmae indepedenent and finally Peru was renamed Bolivia in 1825.
Simultaneoualy, Spanish king Ferdinand VII was anxious to get hold of his
monarchy in Spain as it was liberal. He appealed to Cocnert of Europe at congress
of Verona in 1822. However, it was England who realised that Spain mifht try to
take control of its colonies in SA. Similarly, USA declared Monroe doctrine in
1823. Thus, metternich’ s attempts to stop nationalist events in SA fsiled
Similarly, the Greek War of indepedencein 1820s. States of Moldavia and
Wallachia became indepedent from Turkey under treaty of Adrianpole. They were
helped by Emgalnd, France, Russia. These two new Balkan states were neither
interested in Russian or Turkish influence and thus becmae independent. This
shattered the principle of balwnce of power between States and also demolsihed
Metternich system

Evaluation -
 It did prevent wars for 40 years in spite of all the intrigues
 Fundamental weakness of Metternich is that he did not try to fix the faults
but only delay the day of reckoning.
 However, it was not catching up to the times. People were now looking
forward for democracy and liberal values while Metternich took them in
exactly opposite direction.
 Ideally, the way forward for a diplomat would have been to reconcile two
ends namely revolution and monarchy and somehow establish a balance.
He didnt
 The entire system was not based on alliances and cooperation but on his
personal capacity. Hence it weakened as soon as Metternich lost touch.
 Metternich failed to recognise that as he was growing old, the world was
waking up to its youth.
JULY REVOLUTION 1830
 After the Settlement at Vienna, Bourbon dynasty was restored and Louis
XVIII was put on throne. He was a liberal and understood that the ancien
Regime cannot be put back in place completely. He thus issued a charter
on 4th June 1814
 The charter created a constitutuonal monarchy wherein laws will be
passed by a bicameral legislature and ratified by the king, he became the
head of the executive and could concl7de treaties, declare wars and was
head of foreign policy. He also issued freedom of expression and press and
also continued the revolutionary settlement of land. However, property
restrictions were placed on franchise
 In the elections held, the moderates under Decazes and Guizot won. Their
work brought France out of the financial mess. France could pay the war
indemnity, forces were taken out of France and it was given a place in
Concert of Nations
 1820- Nephew of Louis XVIII and son of Count of Artois was killed byba
Republican and tye public mood went against the moderates. They lost in
elections and royalist Villele came to power
 He began the suppression of revolutionary ideals and attempted to go
back to Ancien Regime. He restricted press freedom, civil liberties and trird
to defranchise many bourgeoise. He teied to weaken the struggke in Spain
in 1823
 The monarch Louis XVIII died in 1824 and was replaced by Count of Artois
who took the name Charles X. He was a fanatic and resisted the revolution.
He let Villele continue till 1828
 He passed new orders like indemnity to Emigres as compensation by
reducing interest on government money from 5 to which made the
bankers frown. He gave important to Clergy and made blasphemy and
sacrilege as crimes. In 1827, he disbanded the National Guard, the citizen
militia. He made laws based on principle of promigeniture
 the pressure of people made Villele resign in 1828 to be replaced by Jean
Baptiste Gay. Being a liberal, he was removed from his post in 1829
 He was taken over by Polignac who was desisted by liberals and moderates
alike. A petition for his dismissal was given to king. The king dismissed the
entire Chamber of Deputies and elections were held in March 1830
 Moderates won in 1830. But the king refused to summon the Chamber of
Deputies and issued ordinances on 26 July 1830
  The points were 4- dissolve chamber of Deputies before it could meet, to
silence the press, revise electoral law to defranchise majority of
bourgeoise, to annul the charter of 1814.
 Hell broke loose. Started by Journalists of Le National paper, they were
joined by students and bourgeoise. A near civil war broke. Soon the army
was overpowered. As soon as the situation went out of control, Charles X
fled France.
 A cousin of Louis XVI, Louis XVIii and Charles X was Phillipe Egalite. His son
Louis Phillipe I was put on throne till 1848. He himself was a .iberal and a
member of the French revolution and fall of Bastille in 1789. thus started
the Orleans dynasty
 He was proclaimed as king of France but by the will of the people
 The new constitution put the following restraints - reference to divine right
of kings deleted, article 14 of 1814 charter that gave the king to issue
ordinances discarded. Ekectoral laww relaxed on prpoerty qualifications,
civil liberties guaranteed and personal expenditure of monarch reduced.

Significance -
 It showed the futility of Vienna Congress, Metternich system and also the
agreement of European powers intervening in case of conflicts. Even
though powers intervened and restored the status quo, it showed their
own weakness.
 Rhine becane division of two ideologies - England, France, Spain, Belgium
on one while Russia, Prussia, Austria on other.
 The revolution brought back the power in hands of bourgeoise and also
gave no time to European powers to react.
 From King of France to King of French. Small but meaningful change.
 Cobban ayggests it as a conservative revolution. Only drawbacks of Charter
of 1814 were rectified.
 Robinson and Beard suggest it as a no revolution as it made only a few
innovations.
 Prof Fisher says the sparks of july revolution flew past frwnce and fell on
the unsound timbers of Congress of Europe. It was true since it resulted in
srruggles in Belgium, Germnay, Italy and also paved way for the Reforms
Act 1832.

Revolution inevitable or preventable

  David Thompson and group believe it was preventable.
 Firstly, even if the balance between divine rights and constitutionalism was
maintained by Villele and Charles x, things wouldn't go bad
 The Moderates that won were doing a good job and brougut France out of
war indemnity
 They should have unserstood that the sprirt of revolution and its ideals
have deeply entrwnched in frenxh life and any attempt to return to the
Ancient zregime will be resisted.
 Curtailment of civil liverties, trying to defranchise bourgeoise generated
discontent
 When a liberal like Jean Baptiste Gay was ousted in 1829, it showed the
thinking
 Finally, the need to prevent moderates to come back to power made
Charles X isdue July ordinances that fired the revolution
 Ideally, there is an economic angle to revolution just like in 1789. The
economy was doing good, the slow process of industrialization had started,
there was no rural distress due to failure of crops. It was only the actions
of King that contributed.
 Alfred Cobban and Lipson however believe the revolution was inevitable.
 They say the fault lay in the very Charter of 1814. It did not create a
balance and in fact incressed the gap between the king and the people.
 The unrestrained executive power to king meant that there was conflict
between legislative assembly and the king. There was no check on his
ministers.
 The aeticle 14 of ordinances was present in the charter which made its
misuse an obvious result. The misuse just happened in 1830 but the
provision existed since 1814
 The argument that liberal and moderates were not active or strong is false.
Had they been not axtive, the bourgeoise, studemts and journsliats would
not have gathered. The charter was not acceptable to them and they were
vocal about it.

Effect in other countries -

 Belgium - Belgium was given to king of Holland under Congress of Vienna.
They revolted againat the dutch rule in Brussels and drew out their army. A
constitutionsl assembly was formed. Emgalnd and other countries
recognised it as an independent and neutral country
  Germany - Revolts in Saxony, Hannover, Brunswick, etc and kings too
sccepted to give liberal constitutions. But metternich crushed it.
 Italy- Nationalists in Parma and Modena revolted. Rulers fled but Austrian
army defeated the rebels
 Spain - Revolutionaries forced the king Ferdinand VII to grant a new
xonstitutionsl system based on Constitution of 1812. Acoordingly a
governemnt was formed wherein ministries were responsible to the
parliament.
 England - Reforms bill was passed when presented for third time in house
of Commons but rejected in House of Lords. Riots broke out and terrified,
the Lords passed the bill.
 USA- Blacks and Red Indians revolted for their rights. They got reduction in
working hours at mills, hospitals were opened for labour class, etc.

Effects of 1848 revolution -

 Austria - Revolution in Vienna and Metternich flew to London. The king
had to concede to the demands of revolutionaries. However, after multiple
coup attempts and fleeing of the king, Austrian army managed to subdue
revolutionaries. The Revolution ended in fiasco but there was no
Metternich now. Hazen has said that fleeing of Metternich is the most
astounding piece of news Europe heard since Waterloo.
 Prussia - Revolutionaries marched up to the king’s palace with theid
demands. Although they were driven out, the king became so terrified that
he accepted their demands of liberal administration.
 Hungary - Koussouth tried to overthrow Austrian rule with help of
revplutionaries. But Aistrian king took help from Russia and crushed the
national government. Thus, by 1849, revolution had failed.
 Italy - War against austria by PS alonse as others backed out as Pope called
Austrians as co-religionists.
 Germany - Except for Saxony, Hannover and Bavaria, all states got liberal
administrations. United German Diet with 568 members but king refused
to be the head. It lead to riots and dismissal of parliament.
 England - impetus to Chartist movement and 50 lakh forged signatures.
 Overall, by 1871, men coukd see that almost all of the things they had
fought for in 1848 were won. Italy and Germany united, Hungary
autonomous, England giant leap forward, France a republic, Russia also
acted and abolished serfdom.
  Liberalism of 1815-48 was mainly Romantic and driven by emotions and
sentiments. Since 1848-71, it became practical and pragmatic due to
Bismarck, Cavour, Disraeli, etc.

People belonging to a common linguistic group, culture, traditions and economic

interests should not be divided politically.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Problems in unification -
 Metternich - in italy, provinces are against provinces, towns against towns
and men against men.
 Metternich himself said that Italy is nothing more than a geographical
expression.
 Congress of Vienna divided italy into five provinces - Austrain italy in
Lombardy and Venetia, Papal provinces with center at Rome, kingdom of
Piedmont and Sardinia, Central Italy under Hapsburg family and provinces
of Sicily and Naples under Bourbon kings.
 The foreign control of Italian land made it impossible for them to unite.
The papal states also created a divide as they were sympathetic to
Catholics in Austrai and France. The only legitimate house kept was that of
Piedmont
 Division in Italy can be seen from the fact that there existed eight different
currency systems, different weights and measures and also varied civil and
criminal laws.
 Over that, the enlightened did not have a concerted plan to unite italy.
First credit for stirring nationalist sentiment in Italy goes to Napoleon because he
brought the small kingdoms into a single rule. Kingdoms like Sicily, Tuscany,
Lombardy, Venetia, Naples always used to quarrel. The impact of foreign
domination was that ot created a spirit of nationalism amongst them.

Carbonari Movement
Underground societies were formed with enlightened people aiming at a united
Italy. One such society was led by Carbonari. Carbonaries were revolutionaries
indulging in armed uprisings to overthrow the rule of Austria. They had mass base
and drew support from all over Italy. In 1820s, armed uprisings broke out in
Naples, Piedmont and Lombardy but we're crushed. Similar such rebellions took
place after the July Revolution but they too were suppressed. However, this did
not weaken the struggle.

Mazzini (1805-72)
 Mazzini was the prophet of the state that was not yet.
 He was a different kind of revolutionary who believed the energies of the
youth must be channelised which could bring wonders.
 He felt that nothing concrete is going to come out from sporadic and
dividee uprisings. Thus, a proper united and channelised fight was the
need. He thus set up Young Italy Movement in 1831 to put forth a
politically aware struggle.
 He believed that Young Italy shpuld be a body of educative, proselyting
italians wiyh high moral and intellectual fervour for self sacrifoce for the
country.
 He believed in uniting all the provinces into a strong united republic and
not into any federation.
 He urged the youth to sacrific their lives for the motherland . Inspired from
h8m, many such groups of young men started the movemnt.
 Mazzini himself was jailed in 1830s and was living in exile. He still guided
the movement and a lot of mass uprisings took place in 1848. However,
the movement fizzled out due to no unity and lack of presence of Mazzini.
 Hazen has said that Mazzini was the spiritual force behind the Italian
Resurrection.

At this time, 3 views about Italian unification were there -

 Republican view under Mazzini which aimed at establishing a republican
and united Italy
 Monarchists under Cavour who wanted a union of Italy led by King of
Piedmont Sardinia
 Neo-Guelfs who wanted a federation of Italian kingdoms to be ruled by
Pope Pius I
All were clear on one objective - drive out Austria

After revolution of 1848, King Charles Albert of PS tried to patch up a coalition of

Italian states against Austria. But the Pope refused to support it as Austrians were
co-religionists. Hence, one by one king of Tuscany, Naples went back and PS alone
fought Austria and lost. But it gave PS the moral right as protector of Italian
interests. After collapse of 1848 revolutions, the idea of republicans and neo-
geulfs decreased and the idea of monarchists under Cavour became prominent

Cavour (1810-1861)
 He was the Prime Minister of king of Piedmont Sardinia
 He felt that the leadership of Italy was rightfully in the hands of PS. After
all, it was tye only kimgdom outside the Austrian influence. Plus, given its
sacrifices, Charles Albert was a unifying figure for entire Otaly. It was an
enlightened kimgsom where the king himself gave democratic rights under
a constitution which his son Victor Emmanuel refused to annul under
Austrian pressure.
 Cavour’s was a 4 point agenda - Free italy from austrian control, to
establish piedmont sardinia as power center of Italy, to make PS as center
of movement by economic and constitutional reforms and
internationalisatiom of italy issue to seek foreign help.
 He could pursue his policy due to support from PS just like Bismarck got
support from Prussia.
 Cavour was the brain, Mazzini was the heart and Garibaldi was the sword
of Italian unification.
 He started with increasing the military power of PS with a good army and
navy, a good industrial base and favourable balance of trade.
 He himself was a liberal but was hated by consrrvatives snd radicals alike.
He prevented the country from radicals and reaction which would have got
a foreign rewction. Thus, his urge for cobstitutional reforms made the
process of unification less strenuous. He upheld the constitution of
Sardinia and even summoned the All Italian Parliament to raify the union
of Italy. This proves the cobfidence pf Cavour in constitution. Even though
he did not introduce democracy with uniform adult franchise, he at least
created the superstructure.
 Under the programe, Cavour participated in the Anglo-French vs Russian
war in Crimea in 1856. In spite of having no stakes, he did so to get a seat
at the Peace Conference at Paris.
 It was out of the mud of Crimea that a new Italy was made and less
obviously Germany - Cavour
 he then met the French monarch Napoleon III and made an alliance
wherein if war breaks vetween PS and Aystria, France would support PS
  A war did break out in 1859 and France fought from Sardinian side in
Battle of Solferino. Piedmont annexed Lombardy and Milan. However,
french monarch signed a treaty of Villafranca and stopped war with
Austria. This prompted Victor Emmanuel to sign Treaty of Zurich and end
the war.
 Cavour died in 1861 but not before annexing all of Italy except Venetia and
Rome.

Garibaldi (1807-82)
He wss a soldier in the army and was a republican at heart. He wss the one
instrumental in bringing entire South Italy under ome roof. He was the natural
choice of the rebels.
 In 1860, an armed uprising broke in Sicily and Naples against the
reactionary policy of Bourbon monarch. They invited Garibaldi to lead the
uprising
 He declared that the uprising is in the name of victor emmanuel and then
proceeded with his group of revolutionaries called Red Shirts. He
accordingly went on conquering all the south Italy
 Cavour on the other hand tried to play safe because of good relations with
kingdom of Naples. He adopted a neutral stand
 Fearing the rise of Garibaldi, he sent Victor Emmanuel to take charge and
Garibaldi surrendered willingly.
 a plebiscite was conducted where people of Naples, Sicily, Umbria chose to
go under rule of PS.
 Garibaldi then retired and went for his island home Capera. Selfless service

1861 - Victor Emmanuel declared as king of Italy

1866 - Bismarck declares war against Austria and Italy fights from German side.
Austria defeated in Battle of Sadowa and Italy gets Venice
1870- Prussia vs France in Battle of Sedan. Rome integrated with Italy.

Cavour vs Bismarck
 Both were very capable statesmen, administrators and diplomats.
 The job of Cavour was more difficult for the fact that he had limited
resources and backing of a small kingdom like PS than mighty Prussia.
 Cavour gave Italy a parliamentary democracy while Bismarck was a
monarchist and believed in atrict control.
  The democracy in Italy lasted longer, almost half century, than aurocracy in
Germany.
 However, Cavour had to fight only Austria while Bismarck had to fight
France, Austria both.
 Cavour believed in Italy as one nation while Bismarck used as a policy to
extend power of Prussia.

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
 Under Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the Germanic provinces were divided
into 300 kingdons with no unifying tendencies.
 Under Napoleon, the number was reduced to 39. This was the first step
towards their unification.
 There were many liberal intellectuals during this time like Baron von Stein
wgo tried to i jevt a new vigour. He supported social reorganisation.
Serfdom was abolished, all careers were thrown open to talent
 However, Congress of Vienna made things difficult as it placed the Federal
Diet of Germans under the Auatrian control. The Metternich system
believed in keeping the Germanic provinces divided in order to prevent
any danger to Hapsberg dynasty in Austria.
 Moreover, tendency of separatism was high. Stark religious differences
existed as north germany was protestant while south was catholic
 They were not clear as to what constituted unified Germany - Greater
germany included Austria while Little Germany included austria minus non
german elements. Plus, the question of who would lead the struggle was
there.
 Ideological differences existed within right, left, radicals and liberals. While
some were anti monarchy and wanted a republic, some wanted a unified
German federation under a monarch.
 German Romanticism emerged as a counter to french rationalism. The
national spirit was driven by sentiments and emotions rather than teason.
This spirit grew more especially after Napoleonic conquests. Fired up,
many youths joined the movements, espexially students and professors.
Metternich grew cautious and subdued them by the Carlsbad Decree in
1819.
 The Prussian king Freidrich William III of Hohenzollern dynasty had
sponsored a Zollverein trade union in 1818 among german states where no
trade barriers existed and seamless trade took place. It broke trade
 barriers and improved the economic condition of bourgeoise. They now
began to demand political rights. Moreover, it had a psychological impact
as it broke barriers for the first time.
 July Revolution 1830 - It inspired popular revolts in Saxony, Hannover, etc.
But Metternich put them down
 In 1840, Freidrick William IV ascended the throne who was a monarchist
but had passions for germany.
 February Revolution 1848 - The rulers in Baden, Saxony, Baveria,
Wurttemberg were forced by people to concede political rights.
 In March 1848, the 51 German nationalists met at Heidelberg and decided
to convene a German National Diet elected by uniform adult franchise
tasked with preparing a new constitution. The Diet at Frankfurt authorised
them to conduct elections which were won by liberals. It had 568 elected
members. The process was so fast that no ruler got time to react.
 The main objectives were unification of Germany and to draft a
constitution. But the question of leader existed.
 The position of monarch was suggested to Freidrick William IV but he
declined for reasons like - apprehension of opposition from Austria,
derogatory to accept crown that is offered, revolutionary movements had
been suppressed elsewhere hence he also took a rigid stand, leading to
frustrations. Due to riots, freidrick suppressed them and dissolved the
parliament
 With accession of William I in 1862 changed everything. He supported
German unity and also appointed Bismarck as his Minister President in
1862 and Chancellor of German empire inn1871.

Bismarck (1862-1890)
 He believed in policy of blood and iron. He said that the Great Question
will be resolved not by speeeches and majority resolutions but by blood
and iron. Replaced german romanticism.
 He was a staunch monarchist and did not believe in liberalism and
parliamentary democracy. He was convinced that a monarchial system was
necessary for a strong Prussian empire
 He had no direct sympathy as such for the German cause. He just used the
german unity as a tool for extension of Prussian power. Prussians we are,
Prussians we shall remain.
  His job was two fold - 1862-71 when german provinces were united and
1871-90 when the unity was to be preserved in order to make Germany a
strong nation.

War with Denmark

 For annexation of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark
 For long, these two provinces were claimed by the dynasty of Denmark but
werent an official part of it. These provinces had separate assemblies and
laws of succession. The king of Denmark could only be the Duke of Holstein
and Schlesweig.
 Holstein was largely german while Schleswig was largely Danish.
 The Congress at Vienna placed Holstein under German Confederation and
king of Denmark sat in German Diet as Duke of Holstein.
 It was a German demand of uniting all the German speaking provinces. The
ownership of Danes over H and S had to be overthrown.
 In 1848, the claims of King Fredrick VII were thwarted by Duke of
Augustenburg. Uprisings took place but all ended by Treaty of London in
1852.
 A deliberate policy of Danizing the provinces was carried out but was
resisted.
 Finally, the people denlunced Christian IX and accepted the Duke of
Augustenburg as their ruler.
 Bismarck patched up a military aliiance between Austria and Prussia and
won the war against Denmark. In Convention of Gastein 1865, the
province of Holstein was given to Austria while Prussia got Schleswig,

War with Austria

 The time till Austria was defeated, it was not possible to unite the German
provinces as it was in the benefit of Austria to keep Germany divided for its
own religional power.
 However, Bsimarck realised that the time till Napoleon III was there, he
could turn the balance in favour of Austria, Bsimarck thus made sure
france assured neutrality in case of Austro-Prussian war. He also signed a
secret pact with Italy assuring support in war.
 Busmarck took the pretext of radical reforms to declare war against
Austria. It was a war of Seven Weeks.
  It was Bismarck’s policy to focus on military spending for which he had also
defended the monarch in Diet. Thus, due to superior military prowess and
organisation, Austria lost in the crucial battle of Sadowa.
 Treaty of Prague was signed in 1866. But bismarck did not humiliate
Austria as he thought it could be a good ally in future.
 Under treaty, Austria surrendered its claim over german federation, gave
up Venetia to Italy and also the province of Holstein to Prussia. A north
German cobfederation was formed under Prussia

War with France

 Growth of Prussia as a strong power was a threat to national srcurity and
prestige of France. It was France who lost in battle of Sardowa, said a
french general.
 French alr3ady had an eye on Bavaria, Belgium and Luxemberg
 The immiduate reason was assention of throne of Spain. After expulsion of
Queen Isabella, the throne was offered to Hohenzollern dynasty prince
Leopold. This had a problem with France as it will be surrounded. Plus, it
was always the Bourbons who ruled spain.
 Bismarck released the famous Ems telegram wherein the french
ambassador insulted the Prussian king and war broke out.
 In the war that waged, the battle of Sedan was decisive where France was
defeated.
 in Versailles, King William was announced as the Emperor of Germany.
 Peace of Frankfurt where France zurrendered Alsace and Lorraine to
Germany
 In words of Ketelbey- The Franco-German war made Germany the
mistress of Europe and Bismarck the master of Germany.

CRIMEAN WAR 1856

Bismarck in 1888 publicly said that “if there is a general war, it will be due to a
damn fool thing in the Balkans”

Balkans is the mountainous region between the Danube and the Aegean Sea
where multiple racial populations exists like Greeks, Serbs, Bulgara, Albanians,
etc. The population is predominantly Christian.
The problem arose due to 4 reasons -
 1. Weakness of the Ottoman empire - The influence of the Ottomans waned
in the 19th century as fhe kingdom descended into corruption. They had
great military prowess but had little aptitude for civil government. Thus,
there was corruption and constant intrigues betwern the nobility thst
wewkened it. The provincial governors or Pashas became indepedent. The
local christian population becacme rebellious and riots broke out. Thus,
such an unrest affected the economy in the long run.
2. Aspirations of the Christian people - the balan population was Greek
Orthodox christian headed by the Russian Orthodox church. In apite of
common religion, they didnt have any commoh spirit and individual
nationalisms existed. The ideas were inspired by the french revolution.
There was a livr example from the Greek indepedence in 1829. Lord
Morley has defined these aspirstions as a tangle of conflicting interests,
rival people and antagonistic faiths.
3. Ambition of Russia - foreign policy of Russia in 19th century was to enrich
itself at the cost of Turkey. Russia wanted to expand eastwards to capture
more territory. Under Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in 1774, it had got access
to northern shores of Black Sea and navigation. Treaty of Jassey on 1792
recognised the Russian annexation of Crimea. It now wanted to expand
into Turkey. It was Tsar Nicholas I in St Petersburg in 1853 while talking to
the British Ambassador called Trukey as a country falling to pieces and as a
sickman of Europe.
4. Fears of other European powers - Russia was the champion of Pan Slavic
nationalsim. Austria was fearful becuse it had slav population which could
cause political instability. France under Napoleon III feared that the russian
aggrrssion might cause threat to its commercial interests in Syria and
Egypt. France had also got the guardianship of Holy Places of East under
Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji. England was fearful because Russia might
expand into Balck and Mediterranean sea threatening its naval security
and also a threat to India.
5. Thus, Turkey issue became an issue of international concern.

The start was the fight between Greek priests and Latin priests over the control of
a church in Jerusalem. Russia took the side of Greeks as its orthodox church
controlled the Greek orthodox Christians while France took side of Latin priests as
all holy places of East came under guardianship of France.
In oder to put pressure on Ottomans, Russia annexed Moldavia and Wallachia in
Danubian Principalities. As a retaliation, the Sultan decalred war against russia in
october 1853. As war was seen as inevitable, Prussia, Austria, France and England
met in Vienna in to prepare the Vienna note to appeal to Russia to withdraw.
Austria and Prussia remained neutral. But it failed and allies ( england france PS
and Turkey) joined the war in March 1854. Russia was defeated the main being
battles at Balaclava and Inkesman and the Peace of Paris was signed in 1856. It
had
 Black sea demilitarised and open onky for merchant ships
 Russia to give up her protectorate claims over christians of ottoman
empire
 River Danube thrown open for all nations
 The great powers collectively assured the territorial integrity of Turkey and
admitted her into the Concert of Nations.

Effects -
 Russian aggression checked
 Turkey now becomes an integral part of European politics something that
has importance in the first world War
 The entire balance of power presumed under the Metternich system and
Congress of Vienna collapsed.
 PS benefited by sending just 17000 soldiers in order to gain synpathy of
France.
 Rudsia now began expanding in Cwntral Asia towards India
 It also fostered nationalist feelings in the Balkans.

Useless war?
 AJP Taylor has said that it was a fumblimg war, largely futile, probably
unnecessary, certainly extravagent but it was rich with unintended
consequences.
 Taylor has said that mutual fear and not mutual aggreesion caused the war
but it was certianly not a war without a purpose.
 Even David Thompson acknowledges the importance of Crimean War as it
'occupies a peculiar place in history of Europe in 19th century'
 However, War did not bring any change but only maintained the status
quo.
  it did not solve the problem of the rising nationalist tendencies in the
Balkans.
 Countries went to war unprepared and without any risk assessment. Alfred
Lord tenyson and 600 soldiers. Russians being completely unprepared.
 Use- metternich system collapse, turkry into europe politics, process of
unification of Italy.

TREATY OF BERLIN 1878

 The Treaty of Paris 1856 did not satisfy totally the question of nationalism
in the Balkans. The Balkans continued to be under the rule of Ottomans.
 By the end of 1870s, German and Italian nationalism had inspired many in
the Balkans. This reopened the eastern question.
 Russia on her side wanted to take revenge of the defeat in Crimean war. As
her policy of championing Slavic interests, Russia began to fire emotions in
order to crwate Russian satellites in Balkans. People were sent to these
countries to fan these emotions
 The earliest conflict started in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was coupled with
weakening if Turkish ecinomy and imposition of heavy taxes in 1874. It was
coupled with a bad harvest. Peasants in Herzegovina rose in revolt but
were suppressed
 1876- Palace Revolution in Turkey and Abdul Hamid II 1876-1909 takes
over. He had racial tendencies and was a religious bigot. The oppressions
of Turks started
 Under Slavic umbrella, the Bulgarians rose in rebellion but we're crushed
brutally. Nearly 12000 Bulgarians were murdered. Disraeli has talked of the
horrors in his pamphlet Bulgarian Horrors and Eastern Question.
 The Sultan even dared to defy all efforts aimed at creating a democratic
xonstitution. This was happening because of the support of England which
wanted Turkey strong against Russia.
 March 1877 - Sultan refused to accept the Protocol of London and finally
Russia took matters in its hand. It declared war in April 1877 and reached
Constantinople in March 1878. Russia had also signed a secret treaty with
Austria ensuring it stays neutral suring war. In return it would get some
conquered lands from Ottomans
 Treaty of San Stefano was concluded but it sound too one sided and Russia
was forced fo submit it to the conference of Great powers for revision.
 Revised was Treaty of Berlin 1878. Bismarck was the head of this Berlin
Congress.

Comparison between treaties -

 Serbia, Montenegro and Romania declared as independent. Same
validated.
 Bosnia and Herzegovina to be autonomous but under Ottomon. In next,
Austria pacified by giving charge of these two to it.
 Greater Bulgaria formed with nominal control of Ottomans with a Christian
government and national militia. Fearing greater Russian control and
making black Sea as Russian Lake, greater Bulgaria split with Macedonia
returned to ottomon, Bulgaria as autonomous province under ottomans,
Eastern Rumelia with a Christian governor appointed by Sultan
 Certain districts of Armenia go to Russia
 Island of Cyprus to England and England to protect provinces of Turkey.

Still dissatisfied because -

 Greece wanted Macedonia but retuened to Ottomins
 Romania sulked because it had to give Bessarabia to Russia in return of
poorer territory of Dobruja
 Serbia was angry because earlier Serb provinces of Bosnia and H given to
Austria.
 Balkan chrustians felt their interests were compromised for sake of Great
Powers
 It was no solution to problem of nationalities in Balkans
 Break of Dreikaiserbund
 Even though wars did not happen for next 30 years, treaty had seeds of
war. Balkan wars over Macedonia and Austria Serb conflict lead to WW1.
Thus, statement that europe returned back with peace and honor is not
completely true.
 David Thompson - Settlement reached at Berlin Congress had a remarkable
outcome that it left each power dissatisfied and anxious than ever.

BISMARCK’S FOREIGN POLICY

Approach to isolate France
 French were seething with a sense of revenge over the loss of Alsace and
Lorraine and humiliation in Battle of Sedan. There was a real threat that
 France might join hands with Russia and Austria to threaten Germany.
Thus, Bismarck's foreign policy after 1871 was to maintain status quo and
to isolate France.
 Bismarck also knew that the time till a Republican government under
Thiers ruled France, it wont ally with monarchial powers. He even helped
France acquire colonies to compensate for losses of Alsace and Lorraine.
 Bismarck glorified the danger of Red Terror i.e forces of socialism and
communism in front of Russia and Austria and called it a threat to
European monarchies. He got Franz Joseph of Austria to meet with Kaiser
William I. Czar Alexander II also joined in.

Formation of Dreikaiserbund
 1872 - the dreikaiserbund formed between Russia, Austria and Germany.
 Significance was that it kept France isolated, Austria forgave Prussia for
defeat in Battle of Sardowa, Bismarck succeeded in maintaining the old
Prusso-Russian friendship.
 However, the eastern question once again became burning in 1878. The
treaty of San Stefano on Turkey was revisited and a new Treaty of Paris
was formed which distributed the spoils of war.
 Bismarck was summoned to solve the crisis. Hence, Russia held Germany
responsible for not allowing it to enjoy the fruits of victory. Czar withdrew
from Dreikaiserbund.

Dual alliance with Austria

 Bismarck now turned to Austria and signed a dual alliance in 1879
 It said if the signatories were attacked by Russia, the other would help the
partner
 If one was attacked by a power other than Russia, the other would remain
neutral.
 The alliance was to remain for 5 years and renewable. It was renewed till
1914

Revival of Dreikaisarbund
 Bismarck feared Russia might join hands with France against Austria and
Germany.
  He exercised his influence on new Czar Alexander III and made him join
back the Dreikaiserbund in 1881. By the treaty, if any power was attacked
by any 4th power, other two would remain neutral.
Triple Alliance
 1882 - Bismarck felt the need to create yet another alliance against France
as he fekt that Austria and Russia couldnt do much against France.
 He took advantage of Franco-Italian rivalry with respect to Tunis and
convinced Italy to join the alliance with Germany and Auatria.
 The agrrement - all three agrred to help each other if one or two if them
got involved in war with a 4th power.
1881- With permission of Bismarck, Austria and Serbia signed a treaty that
virtually made Serbia the protectorate of Austria.

Berlin West Africa Conference 1884-85- Again a way to ascertain Germany’s

centrality in world politics and to endure it gets its share of colonies in Africa.

However, after 1890, the entire outlook changed to militarization and aggressive
colonization, known as Weltpolitik or world policy of Kaiser William II. Bismarck
was forced to resign as he opposed this in 1890.

Impact -
 Germany became the pivot of European politics. The complex system of
alliances did not male Bismarck forget the basic goal of safeguarding
German interests. He engaged with Russia, Austria, Italy, England right up
to Serbia and Romania.
 His own system of alliances were, however, based on contradictions.
Dreikaiserbhnd was based on Austro-Russian friendship while Triple
Alliance was based on Austro-Russian war.
 Bismarck allied with weak forces. Austria and Italy were in any case not a
formidable opposition to the French power.
 Overall, Bismarck tried to isolate France but never actively engaged with
them to end the issues. Thus their relation remained spiteful throughout.
 He increaded the Austrian hunger for BALKAN provinces. By the secret
treaty with Serbia and Rumania, he incressed Austria’s appetite for
balkans.
 Kaiser William II made triple alliance
TRIPLE ENTENTE
 After Bismarck retired in 1890, the Reassurance Treaty with Russia was not
renewed. Consequently France made moves to strike alliance with Russia.
 The need for French gold ovverode the reservations of Tsar and finally a
military pact was signed in 1893.
 Great Britain was diplomatically isolated. She had strained relations with
Russia-France as well as Germany. However, the rapid industrial growth
after unification made Germany a bigger competitor to England and hence
England chose to go over to France and Russia. But it was rejected. As a
result, England entered into defensive alliance with Japan in 1902.
 1904- England and France settled their differences and concluded the
Anglo-French entente. It allowed France a free hand in Morocco in return
of France recognising its hold over Egypt.
 Russia lost in the Russo-Japanese war in 1904-05 and hence Britain felt no
danger from her. Tgis gradually imoroved the relations and Triple Entente
was formed in 1907.
 David Thompson - The system of rival alliances marked the liquidation of
19th century relationships and abandonement of traditional foreign
policies invented by Cavour and Bismarck.

MOROCCAN CRISIS 1905

 England and France had settled about Morocco in1904. While taking
control of Morocco, France consulted Spain and Italy but did not consult
Germany who also was a signatory to the Madrid Convention on Morocco
in 1881.
 Germany protested. Kaiser landed in Morocco and proclaimed the Sultan
as independent sovereign.
 A convention was called in Spain to douse the tension. The control of
Morocco was given to Spain and France. It was a setback for Germany.

BOSNIAN CRISIS 1908

 Young Turk movement was growing in Ottomon empire. Fearing the
strenghtening of Turks, Austria attacked and captured Bosnia and
Herzegovina. It was a setback for the Pan-Slaavic movement.
 Since it was the violation of Treaty of Berlin 1878, Russia asked the issue to
be sorted in front of European Congress
  Finally, Russia had to pull back due to her weakness after Russo-Japanese
war. Austrian domination was recognised and compensation paid to
Turkey.
 It created tension between Austria and Serbia.

Second MOROCCAN CRISIS 1908

 Trouble arose when a few German officers gave undue trouble to French
men. But given the croitical situation, France and Germany came to a
truce.
 France would assist Sultan of Morocco financially and in return Germany
will recognise the right of France over Morocco.

Third MOROCCAN CRISIS 1911

 In protest of French expansion into Morocco, Germany sent a gunboat to a
Atlantic coast port of Morocco. Great Britain sent a strong warning to
Germany.
 In a truce, France ceded to Germany territories of Kamerun and French
Congo. Only then did Germany recognise France control over Morocco.

BALKAN WARS 1912-13

 Treaty of Berlin merely delayed the disintegration of Turkey as it managed
to somehow maintain a status quo.
 The turkish empire went on declining till the start of 20th century. Taking
advantage of its weakness, Italy attacked Tripoli in September 1911.
 This caused uprisings in dissatisfied Balkan states. Albania and Macedonia
saw uprisings
 Soon, Serbia and Bulgaria joined in and an alliance between Bulgaria,
Serbia, Greece and Montenegro was forned under king Ferdinand of
Bulgaria. Turkey couldnt hold against them
 An effort at reconcilation was attempted by great powers by imposing an
armistice but failed. war started, turkey was defeated and Treaty of
London signed in 1913
 Turkey gave up almost all of its European provinces except for
Constantinople and a tiny strip around Strait of Dardanelles.
 In this time, Serbia had ambitions to annex Albania. Austria resisted it as
Serbia was Russian ally and expansion of Serbia could pose a danger to
Austrian sovereignty. Thus, by exerting pressure, Albania was created as a
 independent nation thus preventing war. But rivakry between Serbia and
Aystrua has been since then.
 This issue of Albania led to second Balkan War in 1913 wherein Bukgaria
was attacked from all sides by Greece, Serbia, Romania and Turkey. The
resukt was that Bulgaria had to give up many provinces under Treaty of
Bucharest.
 Overall result of two wars was that Turkey lost its European possessions.
Biggest gainers were Serbia and Greece and loser was Bulgaria. This
intensified rivalries.

CAUSES OF FIRST WORLD WAR

 System of alliances
 Militarism and Armament Race - Each group started to military strengthen
itself. Due to mutual distrust and suspicion, it gave rise to an armament
race. There was a race for naval supremacg between Britain and Germany.
Rule of England navy. In 1889, first Hague Conference started in The Hague
city where disarmament was discussed. It lead to eatablishment of
Permanent Court of International Justice and Permanent Court of
Arbitration. But it did not achieve much. At one point, alarmed by French
and British expansion, Germany increaded it's standing army to 800000
according to Tirpitz Plan.
 Ketelbey has remarked that by turn of new century, Europe turned into a
congress of vast army camps
 Forces of nationalism - it worked two ways. One was for great powers who
wanted to conserve their national interest in any case and capture more
colonies and defeat the if rivsls. It lead to unification of Germany and italy.
On other side, it assumed destructive nature in case of Balkans where
multiple nnationalities and conflicts sowed the seeds for war. Eg- Serbia
wanted to annex 5 million serb in Austria with support of Russia
 Economic and Imperialist Forces - The race to acquire colonies had
brought many great powers in conflict. The colonies were seen as a tool to
show off the economic and military prowess of great powers. Great Britain
and France were in conflicg for most parts in Africa. Moroccan crisis
between France and Germany. The growth of Germsny had also alarmed
many. Germany was also searching for cplonies and coming in conflict with
Powers as all good parts of world were colonised till then.
 Crises in 20th century - Moroccan crisis, Balkan wars, etc
  Immediate reasons - In early 1914, a paper in St Petersburg published an
article titled - Russia is ready. France must be ready too. On 28th June
1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in
Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia. The blame was put on a Serbian Secret society
called Black Hand. Austria alleged that Serbia PM knew about it and aided
it. The reason given was that Serbian fanatics killed because Archduke
desired to keep Bosnia and Herzegovina as a part of Hapsburg Empire.
Austria asked Serbia to handover the perpretators and set an ultimatum.
Serbia refused. Austria declares war on 28th July 1914.
 David Thompson- by 1914, the new sickman of Europe was not Turkey,
but Europe itself. “feverish, turbulent and with strong suicidal
tendencies”
 David Thompson - most imp thing about the first world war was that it was
unsought, unintended and a product of a long chain of events since 1871.

Consequences of World War 1-

 Deaths- Nearly 7-8 million people died, countless crippled and injured.
France lost 20% of its young men, hence called the Lost Generation
 In Germany, Kaiser William II was forced to abdicate and Germany became
a democracy till rise of Hitler
 Hapsburg dynasty collapsed. King Karl I was dethorned. Austria and
Hungary split into two nations
 Russia saw the Bolshevik revolution
 Italy, although on allied side felt cheated. The failure of democracy led to
rise of Fascism
 Increase in US influence. By 1919, US accounted for 20% of world trade.
This rapid and unchecked expansion led to 1929 Great Depression.
 League of Nations and principle of collective security.
 First total war, hence entire populations engaged. It was a new thing for
world
 End of European dominance as centers for industrial revolutions were
getting destroyed in the carnage.
 Lastly, roots of second world war lie in consequences of first world war
namely the Treaty of Versailles.

Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916–

 Introduction- Roots of ISIS and Kurdish problem lie here.
  It was a secret pact between the French and the British, with the assent of
Russia, to chop up the Ottoman Empire as their sphere of influence after
World War I.
 Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot were British and French diplomats
who negotiated the terms of the agreement.
 The British obtained mandates over Palestine and Iraq; the French got what
is now Syria.

Implications-
 It symbolizes the Western destruction of the dream of Middle East unity –
first political, now religious.
 The agreement led to warring communities of Middle East being bundled
together as new nations such as Iraq and Lebanon, kicking off the conflicts
that still persist.
 These conflicts are also one of the major reasons behind the rise of ISIS and
terrorism in the region.
 It also shows the evolution of the British policy in West Asia from an
extension of the Great Game to control the land route to India, to a
commitment to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
 The agreement divided the Kurds across four countries and made them a
minority community everywhere – a major reason behind their persecution
and misery.
 It shifted the Islamic religious center from Turkey to Saudi, an indirect
reason for spike in Wahabi terrorism funded by Saudi.
This again shows the double standards of European powers- they fought the
world wars for safeguarding their independence and sovereignty but were
content in using their colonies to further their interest – even if it means
destroying the peace and unity.

PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE

 War ended with surrender of Germany in 1918 November. The peace
conference at Paris was summoned on 18th January. The final agreement
at Versailles was concluded on 23rd June1919.
 France -Clemenceau, England- Llyod George, US- Theodore Roosevelt, Italy
- Orlando.
  Similar treaty of Saint Germain with Austria in 1919, Treaty of Trianon with
Hungary 1920, Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria 1919, Treaty of Lausanne
with Turkey 1923.

Treaty of Versailles -
Territorial provisions
 Germany to restore Alsace and Lorraine to France
 After plebiscite, northern Schleswig to Denmark which was seized by
Germany-Austria in 1864. Southern Schleswig to Germany
 All rights over colonies renounced. China colonies to Japan, other
territories placed under mandate of League of Nations.
Military provisions
 Army limited to 1 lakh troops and 6 naval ships
 Production of tanks, armoured cars, submarines banned
 Rhineland permanently demilitarised
 A contingent of Allied Army in Germany to make sure it abides by terms of
treaty.

Economic provisions
 War Guilt clause blamed Germany and her allied alone.
 The Reparation Commission decided an amount of 6600 million pound
sterlings as war indemnity
 France granted coal mines in Saar region thus crippling Germany of its coal
 Germany to surrender most of her merchant navy

Humiliation and seeds of WW2

 EH Carr has said that Versailles Treaty had an element of dictation never
seen in any treaties of modern times.
 The original motive of Treaty of Versailles was to penalise Germany and
her allies for war and to further prevent her from disturbing peace in
Europe. However, it was viewed with suspicion by Germans as War Guilt
clause blamed it solely.
 First, Germans were humiliated during the entire process. Talks
deliberately began on 18th January when 48 years ago Kaiser William of
Hohenzollern dynasty was declared emperor of Germany. The place was
also same - Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versaillee. German diplomats were
 not allowed in peace process and finally were give a readymade draft to
sign. The terms were humiliating.
 The assurance by Wudrow Wilson in his 14 points of 1918 that autocratic
governments of defeated powers will be punished and not the people did
not prove true.
 Second, the war indemnities were impossible to pay. Taking away colonies,
coal rich Alsace, Lorraine and Saar, surrendering merchant navy, etc
crippled German economy. 660 million sterlings by Reparation
Commission.
 Third, treaty aimed at disarmament of all powers but disarmament of only
Germany happened. Its warships were surrendered to england, ban on
military weapon produxtion, etc. Victorious powers continued to develop
arms. Eg- England developed navy
 Fourth, principle of self-determination was selectively applied. Applied for
Poles but not for unificstion of Germany-Austria into German Republic.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 President Wudrow Wilson had drafted his Fourteen Points in 1918 to draft
the agenda for the Treaty of Versailles. The forteenth point was - a general
association should be formed for the purpose of guaranteeing political
independence and territorial integrity to the big and small states alike.
 The LON came into existence on 10th January 1920 at Geneva. The
Covenant with 26 articles formed it's founding document.
 According to Lipson, The League sought to transform the war mentality of
msn into peace mentality.
 Its membership was 60 countries till 1934. US did not join as Senate did not
ratify the proposal; Germany joined in 1926.
Thus, the League was established on two broad objectives -
1. To achieve international peace and security.
2. To promote international cooperation.

Structure-
General Assembly of all nations, Council of Judges of 4 permanent and 4
non-permanent members, Secretariat at Geneva and Permanent Court of
International Justice (article 14)
 Another aspect was the Mandate System which sqid that the Powers are
trustees of their colonies and their duty is to develop the colonies to such a
level thst they will be able to stand on their feet independently. But no
power took it seriously and in words of Schumann jeered at it as a hollow
mockery.

Successes -
 Solved boundary dispute between Greece and Bulgaria
 Assured withdrawal of Serbian troops from Albania
 Settled Swedish and Finnish quarrel over Aaland Island
 Helped in finsncial solvency of Austria and Hungary
 Settled half a million Greek refugees from Asia Minor into Greece.

Failures -
 Aggression of Japsn in Manchuria 1931 but the great powers were
reluctant to use force against Japan for their narrow benefits.
 Italy into Abyssinia or Ethiopia in 1935. Sanctions were imposed like loans
were stopped, imports from Italy were forbidden, etc. But no one could
stop the supply of oil to Italy. All efforts of league failed.
 Spanish Civil War 1936-39
 Hitler's aggression into Czech, Poland and Austria
 Russisn invasion into Finland 1939
 Finally, Japan and Germany left the league in 1933, Italy in 1937 and Russia
was expelled.

Assessment -
 Hans Morgentheu - the policies and interests of nations superseded the
moral and political objectives of the League of Nations.
 The league was not universal in its membership. Absence of US was a big
blow. Without her, League became an arena of power politics.
 Concept of Collective Security under article 16 which made possible to
impose economic sanctions. The league itself had no military or
administrative powers to enforce it on recalcitrant countries. It was seen
during sanctions on Italy during Ethiopian invasion. The article was
watered down by Britain saying it was left for each country to decide
whether breach of Covenant took place and then decide to impose
sanctions.
  Constitutional defects - all decisions in assembly were to be passed
unanimously which was impossible, the jurisdiction of Council and
Assembly clashed and was not clearly demarcated.
 The PMIJ under article 14 was reduced to a petty court where nations took
cases which could be solved by a district court. Grant Gilmore says only
those cases were taken to court on which the concerned state could take a
chance of losing.
 Personal benefit of individual countries superseded League. Reluxtance to
presurise Japan, reluctance to act against Italy by France and Britain as
they wanted to build a coalition against Hitler, etc.
 League’s success lay in non-political field, especially in social work. 1923
convention on banning import of drugs, 1926 convention to abolish
slavery, child welfare committees, effort to release half a million prisoners
of war, etc.
 However, League was not a complete failure. The lofty ideas were just
ahead of its times and countries were not ready for such an international
org. The 2nd WW underlined the imporrtsnce of having an international
body. Hence after WW2, the lofty ideals were blended with pragmatism.
Thus, League can be said as a stepping stone for UN.

International Activities between 1919-1933

Efforts were made by the nations of the world to bring back normal relations and
to ensure economic progress
1. League of Nations- settled international disputes and problems. But it had
its own drawbacks
2. Failed Washington Conference 1921-22 between USA and Japan as it gave
free power to Japan in Far East. Geneva Conference 1922 was the
brainchild of Llyod George to reduce Franco-German hostilities but no one
took it seriously.
3. Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance 1923- If anyone indulged in war, council
of League of Nations was to name the aggressor and other nations would
take action. USA, USSR, Britain opted out as it would put large burden on
them.
4. Dawes Plan 1924- Conducted under American general Dawes. Britain and
France agreed to let Germany pay reparations when it was reasonably
prosperous to do so. Reparations were not reduced but France agreed to
 withdraw military from Ruhr. America gave loan to Germany which resulted
in its growth. Stressman, Germany’s foreign minister led the negotiations
5. Locarno Treaty 1925- Various nations like Britain, Germany, France,
Czechoslovakia, Poland, Italy, etc met at Locarno to sign various
agreements on borders. The two prominent were- 1) Between France,
Germany and Belgium to guarantee each other’s borders. In case one
breaches it, Britain and Italy would help to restore it. Rhineland was to be
permanently demilitarized while Germany gave up its claim over Alsace and
Lorraine. 2) Germany signed an agreement with Poland and Czechs to
establish arbitration mechanism in case of border dispute but did not
provide any guarantee to existing boundaries. Britain also overlooked this.
Although it improved relations with France and Germany a lot (called as
Locarno Honeymoon) and even resulted in Germany joining League in 1926,
it created uncertainty on its eastern borders. Thus, Locarno spirit of
understanding, cooperation, optimism and hope was just a bluff as
Germany in the future would acquire Czech, claim the lands of Oder-Neisse
as its own and attack Poland in 1939. EH Carr hence said- In the long run,
the Locarno Treaty was destructive to the Versailles Treaty and the
Covenant.
6. Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928- 65 nations signed a pact not to go on a war. But
no clarity on action to be taken if someone goes on a war
7. Young Plan 1929- Given the good atmosphere, reparations on Germany
were reduced from 6600 million pounds to 2000 pounds. However, the
death of Strassman, rise of Nazis and the Wall Street crash in 1929 led to
faltering of the plan.
8. World Disarmament Conference 1932-33- Under the League, only Germany
had done disarmament while others were continuously increasing their
arms. The conference failed as Britain wanted arms to protect its empire,
France wanted it due to fear of Nazis in Germany. Hitler became chancellor
in 1933 and he withdrew from the League.
AJP Taylor said that even though Briand and Strassman were sincere, they did not
carry the will of their people. Strong nationalistic feelings in both nations
prevented any reconciliation.

RUSSIA
Russia witnessed the rule of enlightened despots like Peter the Great and
Catherine II under whom it had occupied an important position in the politics of
Europe. However, till 1905, it was under absolute monarchy without any
parliament or constitution.

Emancipation of serfs - 1861

 The enlightened rule of Tsar Alexander II saw the emancipation of serfs
 The question of serfdom was overwhelmingly important as 90% of the
population were serfs tied to their lands with limited personal freedom.
 Problems with serfdom were - Serfdom was one great menace as the serfs
were mere labour with low efficiency, industrialization was impossible
without their emancipation as it needed cheap labour, moral pressure
from educated russians
 Nearly 50 million serfs were classified into three groups - serfs on crown
lands, serfs employed in private service and serfs working on estates of
nobility.
 While Emancipation edict was issued on 3rd March 1861, the king’s land
was directly distributed to serfs. No question of land for second category.
Third category was the problem because if they were released landless, it
will create a group of people dissatisfied with their economic condition
 Finally, half of land from nobiliyy was taken and transferred to village
communities or Mir on which the emancipated serfs owned a living. The
compensation to landlords was earlier paid by the state but later on
extracted from serfs in 49 instalments.

Impact
 Russia gained moral credibility in eyes of other European nations which
helped it to strengthen its position in European politics
 Increase in area of cultivation which lead to higher incomes increasing the
amount of taxes collected
 There was a great influx of ex-serfs into towns and cities in latter half of
19th century that led to growth of industries
 Emancipation in a way weakened the monarchy too as the new classes like
middle class and working class came up who wanted reforms. Traditional
relations were broken down
 However, legal freedom without economic freedom was of no use. Kochan
and Abraham calculated that only 50% serfs received enough land
 endowments while rest were living below subsistence level. To make
matters worse, they also had to pay compensation to landlords in 49
instalments
 Over that, the serfs were never the actual owners of land. The land was
owned by village communities or Mir. This might have affected their legal
rights.

Nihilists
18 60s saw the growth of Nihilists. The Nihilists were completely agnostic people
who discredited traditions and had lack of faith in existing values. They tested
every human institution on basis of rationale and did not accept things just
because majority of the people did so. In the 1860s, nihilism was limited to
philosophical discussions and intellectual debate. However, in 1870s, it began to
gain groujd with thd nihilists touring places to recruit youth. In mang places, the
villagers handee over them to the police and thd government too crushed them.
The height came in 1881 when Tsar Alexander II was assasinated. Nihilism died
thereafter.

Revolution of 1905 -
Under reoressive policies of Tsar Alrxander III anc his police officisls headed by
Plehve, forced russianization took place. There was student unrest and also
peasant and worker unrest due to droughts, low wages and high inflation.
Russia’x defeat in the Russo-Japanese war added fuel to fire. Meanwhile
communism started spreading in Russia since 1870s due to Russian translation of
Das Capital and Comunist Manifesto came up. Social Dem9cratic Workers Party
was formed in 1879 but it split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in 1903 over
tactics and method. Socialist Revolutionary Party was formed in early decades
which indulged in mass uprisings and executions. They executed Please in 1904.
The final spark in 1905 January when police fired on a mob of 150000 striking
workers who were marching towards royal palace of St Petersburg. It's called
Bloody Sundah. In June 1905, strike on Russian battleship. But ultimately, all
protests died down. The only positive outcome was that Tsar Nicholas II (1894-
1917) issued royal decrees which guaranteed civil liberties, male suffrage to Duma
and no law enacted without permission of Duma.

The Duma did not go well. The first Duma of 1906, Second Duma of 1907 were
rigged and captured by landlords and businessmen. The Tsar dismissed the Duma
nonchalantly. The Third Duma 1907-1912 and Fourth Duma 1912-17 were a bit
more conservative and survived longer. But they had very little powers.
Moreover, their suggestions were rejected by Tsar. Tsar even controlled the
secret police.

Avoidable revolution?
Economy revived after 1905. Living conditions were better in 1914. Peter
Stolypin’s work in 1907-11 was good in case of industries. Industrial inspectors
began regulating industries and profits increased. Industrial insurance program
was introduced in 1912. Universal education was taken ahead in 1908. Thus, had
monarchy not indulged in war and been more responsive, the revolution could be
avoided.
Historians like Christopher Reed say the regime was recovering till 1914 and could
have survived indefinitely of there was no war. Similar views are of Robert Service
who said there was a condition of general brittleness but not for a complete
revolution.

BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION 1917

L Kochan - by the end of January, such a state of anarchy prevailed in many parts
of the country that all the Tsar's court martialing and suppression could not
abolish.

The Bolshevik Revolution changed the socio-economic and political structure of

Russia.

Reasons
 Entry into First World War was the biggest trigger. The world war caused
widespread damage. 4 lakh Russians were killed. Tsar assumed supreme
commandership in 1915 but ended in tactical blunders. The Duma,
aristocracy, industrialists and even the army went against him. General
Krimov in 1916 in a secret meeting told the Duma- “we would welcome a
news of coup de’tat. A revolution is imminent and we at the front feel it to
be so”
 Failure of the 3 Duma
 Stolypin who was the confidant of Tsar encouraged rich peasants or Kulaks
to squeeze poor peasants off their lands. The logic was that large and rich
peasants would become the loyalists of the Tsar. This resulted in bulk if the
 peasantry to lose their land and become landless labourers on their own
land. Thus peasants were enraged.
 Industrial worker's plight due to the ill-effects of industrial and had made
the workers angry. The number of strikes increased 1905 to 1914. The
strike of gold miners in Siberia was a prominent one.
 War created shortage of food and fuel. Thd rising inflation made the
middle class seethe. Inflation increased 4 times between 1914-1917. Food
situation in St Petersburg was particularly intense.
 The imsge of Tsarina being under influence of Rasputin who was seen soft
towards German interests also resulted in his asassination in december
1916.
 Writers like Tolstoy, Turgeney, Gorkey, Karl Marx infused new ideas into
the minds of Russians. Tolstoy’s Zimmerwald manifesto in 1916 became a
guiding light for ending war and reforms post that.
 Rise of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks post 1912- Lenin’s own papers Iskra or
Spark and Pravda or Truth called for a complete overthrow of Tsar. Many
exiled men began their activity in Paris and Switzerland. Many Petrograd
Mensheviks who were part of Duma began to speak of constitutional
reforms in Russia.
 Owing to these reasons, the Duma warned Nicholas in November 1916
about serious revolts if a constitutional form of government was not set
up.

March Revolution
 8th March 1917 – It was women’s day. Women worker strike in St
Petersburg for the demand of higher wages and to end the war and for
bread. They were joined by students on the next day. The third day, the
protests became universal. Even police forces were overpowered
 11th March - Tsar issued a decree asking the striking workers to go back.
The workers refused. Tsar started suppression. However, the matter
precipitated such that the ministers of Tsar fled.
 The crowd seized the armoury at St Petersburg. Police stations were set on
fire.
 Soon, the crowds joined by soldiers formed the Soviet or Revolutionary
Council at St Petersburg.
  The Tsar was forced to abdicate and monarchy was dissolved. The Duma
and Soviet at St Petersburg together formed the provisional government
under Prince Georgy Lvov.
 The govt was tasked with preparing the new constitution of Russia. The
govt proclaimed freedom of press, association and religion. All political
prisoners were let off and exiled people were allowed to return. Religious
and ethnic discrimination was abolished.
 So basically, March Revolution passed the political power from the Tsar to
the liberal elements amongst the bourgeoisie.
 The entire government functioned by cooperation between the Duma
which had middle and upper classes and the Soviet which had workers and
peasants.
 However, the biggest drawback was that new provisional government did
not withdraw from the war. It felt to honour the commitments to other
European powers.

October Revolution
 There are decades where nothing happens and there are weeks where
decades happen- Lenin
 The provincial government failed to satisfy the demands of the people. The
world war was still going on which made the soldiers war weary. The
industrail workers and peasants were also not happy.
 The entire question was now whether to have a democratic government or
have in terms of Bolshevik Leader Lenin, dictatorship of the proletariat.
 Lenin and Trotsky returned from exile in april 1917.
 Lenin in his April Theses was critical of the provincial government. He felt
the revolution was still incomplete.
 His slogan now became- All power to the Soviets.
 In July 1917, the July Putsch happened wherein Lenin tried to use sailors,
soldiers and workers to march on the provisional govenrment and ask
soviet to take control. The violence made Prince Lvov to resign, was
replaced by Alexander Kerensky. Trotsky was put behind bars and Lenin
fled Russia.
 In September 1917, the Moscow and St Petersburg Soviets were taken over
by the Bolsheviks.
  On October 24th and 25th , Kerensky government was forced to abdicate
while Kerensky fled Russia. The Bolsheviks captured political power under
Lenin. The second Congress of Soviets declared the new rule.
 The first thing the Bolsheviks did was to withdraw from the war and accept
the terms dictated by Germany in March 1918 under Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk.

Views on October Revolution-

 Official Soviet View- the Bolshevik takeover was the result of a mass
movement: workers, peasants and most of the soldiers and sailors were
attracted by the revolutionary politics of the Bolsheviks, which included
peace, land for the peasants, worker control, government by the soviets
and self-determination. Lenin was a true mass leader
 Robert Service who wrote a biography of Lenin feels Lenin wanted power
and used the potentially revolutionary situation brilliantly. His every
pronouncement was directed towards encouraging the masses to exercise
initiative.
 Weakness of Tsarist regime- Sheila Fitzpatrick said that the regime was so
vulnerable for any jolt that it is hard to imagine it would have survived after
war in any circumstance
 Libertarian view- They refused to accept that there was any significant
popular support for the Bolsheviks, who were simply a minority group of
professional revolutionaries who used the chaos in Russia to take power for
themselves. They were successful because they were well organized and
ruthless. According to Adam Ulam, ‘the Bolsheviks did not seize power in
this year of revolutions. They picked it up
 Moreover, common people wanted power to the Soviets. No specific
demand was made that Soviet must be ruled by the Bolsheviks only.
 Revisionist- Christopher Read believes that “the revolution was constantly
driven forward by the often-spontaneous impulse given to it from the grass
roots.”

Significance -
 AJP Taylor- Lenin did more than any other political leader to change the
face of twentieth century world.
 First practical experience of Marxist thought in a nation.
  The impact of French Revolution was confined to Europe but the influence
of Russian Revolution was global. Germany, Italy, Eastern Europe, Latin
America, India were influenced to varying degrees.
 Anti-imperialism
 It changed the discourse from imperialism to a people centric polity. It
encouraged the suffereing and downtrodden to fight for their freedom
 After the revolution, USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republic was created
which was responsible for the Cold War and formed one important block of
countries till it's crash in 1991.
 The revolution popularised the ideas of Marx and Lenin which led to thd
eatablishment of Communist Parties in different countries. Eg- India.

War Communism (1918-1921)

 There was civil war in Russia from 1918-21. Countries like England, France,
Italy, US, Japan perceived Bolshevik Russia as a problem. Within Russia, the
landlords, businessmen made a coalition against the Bolsheviks. These
countries sent troops in Russia and there was war beteeen Red Army of
Bolsheviks vs White Army of counter-revolutionary forces. Finally,
Bolsheviks won due to non-unity in opposition, organisee fighting under
Trotsky, size of Russia and less resources. Bolsheviks on their part set up a
tribunal called Cheka which supervised thousands of executions.
 War communism was adopted to control the situation. It involved
nationalization of industries, disciplining labour strikes, taking over agri
surplus, rationing of food and banning of private enterprise.

Lenin's New Economic Policy

 Hanes and Moon - The NEP was neither socialism nor capitalism, but a
temporary mixture of both.
 Lipson - an alarming decrease in production, together with peasant
outbreaks and a revolt in Soviet Fleet forced Lenin in 1921 to adopt a NEP.
 Farmer discontent - The land cinfiscated from the landlords was now taken
over by the State and not given to the farmers. The farmers were sngry that
they didnt own the land and were to give the surplus to the government.
They therefore decreased the production leading to shortage and inflation.
 1921 was a drought year in Russia and famine killed 5 million
 Industries were nationalised and management given to the workers. Being
inexperienced, the production declined and prices rose sharply.
  Impact of civil war 1918-21.
 Thus, Lenin felt the need to have NEP.

The policy was a compromise between capitalism and socialism. It made the
Bolshevik revolution survive a disaster. It consisted of -
 Peasants were required to pay a fixed tax, first in kind but later in cash.
Requisition of food from farmers was stopped.
 Peasants were allowed to sell their surplus in open market
 Private enterprise on a small scale was allowed
 Private retail trading was allowed on a small scale.

Great Depression 1929

Stalter has said in 1929 that the world was well above the earlier standards amd
was progressing with an unprecedented pace never seen before.
Reasons-
 The roots of depression lay in the first world war. During the first world
war, there was an increased production of raw materials which resulted in
more goods being produced than consumed. This led to the collapse
 Rationalization and mechanization of industries in post war period led to
large scale unemployment and purchasing power went down.
 War led to many war debts and reparations that crippled the European
economies
 Many under-developed countries raised tariff walls to protect their nascent
industries. This led to piling up of industrial products in developed
countries.
 Agricultural production increased due to mechanization. This led to
excessive production of wheat which could not be exported to under-
developed countries due their bad economic condition. thus, the farm
sector suffered
 Debtor states used to pay their debts to USA in gold leading to shortage of
gold in Europe. This led to collapse of prices.
 Final reason was the sudden collapse of wall street of New York on 26th
October 1929. American govt somehow managed it. But a bigger collapse
happened in November that crippled America. America refused to give
advances to Europe which affected them.
Impact
 England and many countries stopped the export of gold and abandoned
gold standard. This crippled the world currency system.
 Abandonment of free trade- All countries began to protect their own
industries. England passed the Industrial Protection Act.
 Failure of capitalism- Belief in capitalism suffered a shock. Socislistic ideas
began to take root because the world saw Soviet progressing.
 Social unrest in Germany- high unemployment, high prices led to rise of
Nazis
 Economic depression led to isolation of USA from international politics
after 1930
 Economies of France and Italy collapsed
 Japan’s trade reduced to half. In desparation of economic expansion, it
attacked Manchuria in 1931
 Overall, economic crisis paralysed League of Nations. It could not act
against Japan, Italy in case of Albania, collapse of Spanish government, etc
 Reason for WW2- policy of appeasement of Britain and France in decade of
1930s was a result of their focus on internal economic recovery and
reluctance to indulge in any international conflict.

New Deal by Franklin D Roosevelt-

 What we seek is balance in our system- balance between agriculture and
industry, balance between wage earners, employers and consumers. -
Franklin D Roosevelt
 USA president Franklin D Roosevelt proposed the New Deal to fight
depression. It led to some good effects. It had 3 pillars- relief, to
unemployed and desperate citizens, recovery from economic fall and
reform.
 Relief- Federal Emergency Relief Administration was put in charge to give
aid to 15 million who were on verge of starvation. Civilian Conservation
Corps were raised that employed youth in works of roads, railways,
irrigation, etc and got 30$ per month salary.
 Recovery- National Recovery Act 1933 was passed to bring coordination
among all stakeholders for recovery. Reconstruction Finance Commission
was set up to grant loans to farmers and industry. Emergency Banking Act
opened up the closed banks. People were allowed to deposit money.
Drought and desertification was controlled in the southern parts.
 Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed to refinance mounted debt of
farmers at 4%. Housing problem was sought to be solved
 Reforms- To prevent any such event in future, economic base was to be
strong. Gold standard was abandoned as it caused downturn. Stock
markets were better regulated so as to not fall again. Social Security Act
1935 was passed to give basic living income. Investment was made in roads
and railways along with dams like Tenessee Valley Authority.
 Overall, the New Deal made America recover and enter world stage by 2nd
world war. It instilled confidence in people that government was with
them. It strengthened democracy and image of FDR as a strong president.

Drawbacks-
 The total debt mounted to $50 billion by 1940
 Constitution was amended and federal government assumed a lot of
powers
 Extreme government role in agriculture and industry harmed the private
sector
 Numerous schemes meant an increase in bureaucracy and inefficiency.
 As soon as some measures were withdrawn in 1937, an amount of
recession was seen again.

Fascist regimes rose where there was disillusionment with democracy and
socialist policies. They yearned for stability and prosperity. Thus, they supported
fascist regimes who invariably thrived on mass support. They glorified the past of
the country and made promises of prosperity that made youth fall for them. They
had designs to create an air of awe around them - usage of salutes, elaborate
ceremonies, war cries, uniforms, etc. They even sought to put the burden of one’s
failures either on other nations like UK, USA or other ideologies like socialism or
communism or other communities like Jews.

FASCISM IN ITALY-
Reasons for rise-
 Gathorne-Hardy has said that the rise of fascism in Italy confirms the thesis
that autocracy is a product of a situation when democratic sentiment
proves incompatible with effective parliamentary government.
  Post war reasons- The Versailles Treaty went back on the promise of made
in Treaty of London 1915. Italians felt that the province of Damatia was
being robbed from them
 Economic conditions- There was rise in inflation and crippling of industries
leading to closure of factories. 10% Industrial workers were unemployed.
 Political failure- Even after unification of Italy in 19th century, democracy
had failed to take route in Italy. Six ministries changed during 1919-21
because no party had majority.
 Soldiers- 6.5 lakh soldiers were killed and a million wounded. The
decommissioned soldiers were disillusioned and wanted a strong
government
 The capitalist class and middle class bourgeoise wanted a strong
government that will protect private property.
 Failure of Socialism- It had taken route in Italy. Frequent labour strikes
were seen in industrial areas of Milan. The Communist Party of Italy was
formed in 1921. However, the strikes, lockouts and protests led to
situation.
 Finally, the violent methods of Mussolini himself which included
controlling information, rapid mobility and striking terror in minds of
socialists lead to weakening of opposition.
 Thus, Fascism rose as an alternative to Bolshevism to control anarchy.

Thus, Mussolini took advantage of the disillusionmemt of the Italians and

between 1919-1921, gathered the decommssioned aoldiers, ultra nationalists and
anti-socialists and wrecked violence onto the Communists and socialists burning
down labour offices, newspaper offices and local socialist party offices. The
fascists roamed around in Black Shirts. In 1921, Mussolini won 35 seats in Italian
Parliament. The Italian government soon began to be dependent on Fascist party
that was formed in 1921. Mussolini took advantage of this and by his March To
Rome, made king Victor Immanuel to ask him to form the government.

Principles of Fascist party-

 Democracy was not suitable for the country and it could succeed only
under one leader
 Interest of the country are important than individual interest
 The will of the people and national pride were chief symbols
  It favoured complete control over all sections like capitalists, labourers,
landlords, peasants, etc
 It supoorted an aggressive foreign policy and war as an instrument of
national interest.

Internal Reorganization-
 Setting up a corporate state was the endview of Mussolini
 A new electoral law was passed in the parliament that if a party gets at
least one quarter of votes, it gets two third seats. In election of 1924,
Mussolini got 65% seats. universal suffrage was aboloshed, women were
not allowed to vote.
 Suppression of socialists was taken up. All opposition parties including the
socialistscwere removed and Fascist party was the only party left. He also
banned secret socialist soxieties like Freemasons and replaced all electoral
offices with men from Rome
 From 1925, Mussolini came to be known as Duke with the most important
body called the Fascist Grand Council. It consisted of 20 members and
handled portfolios that Mussolini didnt. It had the job of advising
Mussolini, preparing list of candidates for ekections, proposing change in
constitution, etc. Thus, Grand Council became a third house above the
Senate and Chamber.
 Elaborate focus was on military which is a chief feature of every fascist
state,
 The position of king remained powerless. Mussolini merely tolerated the
king and dominated the Parliament
 The end result was that economy was crippled with South Italy faring the
worst. In the words of Lipson- Italy was heading on the road to complete
anarchy.

Economic Reorganization-
 The basic econimic principle was of total state control, a feature similar to
socialism which Mussolini opposed.
 Mussolini believed in the system of Corporate State. A corporate state is
where the state is not governed by political representatives but by
vocational corporations belonging to different professions.
 Such an idea comes near the early French concept of Syndicalism.
  Thus in 1926, Mussolini organized the producers and labour into 13
syndicstes like agriculture, commerce, air trsnsport , industry, intellectuals,
etc. Each syndicate could bargain and reach contracts with each other.
These syndicates were put under strict control of ministry of corporstions.
 Strikes and lockouts were forbidden. Only fascist labour unions could
negotiate contracts.
 A new electoral law provided for a Chamber of Deputies of 400 that would
represent the Syndicates. However,
 Even though a rule of syndicates was imagined, the final power rested with
the Grand Council and Mussolini
 Apart from that, enormous amounts were spent on public works, power,
transportation, etc.
 However, regional imbalances existed with south Italy faring the worst.

Social Reorganization-
 He encouraged people to marry and give birth to more children to swell
the rank of the army. The children were also future fascist party members.
He gave tax exemptions, special loans for this but taxed bachelors and
even extending legal equality to illegitimate children.
 The children were enrolled in various youth movements since the age of
six.
 Mussolini spent on education of all with chief purpose of creating citizens
loyal to the State
 Italian art, literature and culture was also used in ways to create support
for Mussolini
 Due to German support to Italy’s war in Abyssinia, Germany and Italy came
close. Mussolini thus adopted anti-semitic policy and expelled jews from
his party even though Italy, with only 70000 Jews had no inherent Jewish
problem.

Religious Policy-
 Sovereignty of Vatican and its relation with respect to the Roman empire
was always a matter of contention.
 In 1929, Mussolini settled the question of annexation of Papal States with
the Lateran Pact.
  Mussolini thus recognized Vatican as an independent entity with the
sovereign power to the Pope. He also declared Catholicism as the state
religion and promised to end the anti-papal agenda.
 He also gave up the power of taxing the contribution to the Church and
even paid more than 10 million dollars as a compensation.
 Another pact also extended religious instruction to the schools.
 The Church on its side promised not to interfere in politics of Italy and not
to engage in political commentary in its publications.
 By this pact, the Catholics were happy with Mussolini because he restored
the Papacy. The anti-catholics were happy because the Pope was restricted
to a small territory. Thus, religious issues were sorted.
 There was some friction with respect to the Catholic Action Clubs which
were charged by Mussolini as being involved in politics. The Pope Pius XI
denied it and also criticised the monopolising of education of young minds
carried by Mussolini. But still, the Vatican was quite sympathetic to the
fascist regime.

Foreign Policy-
 It is a characteristic of Fascist states to have an aggressive foreign policy
because it enhances their nationalistic pride and pride of the past. Thus,
Mussolini had claimed that Mediterranean Sea has been ours and will be
ours again. He began comparing empire on the lines of Julius Caesar.
 Mussolini’s agression can be seen from his statement that it is better to live
a day as a lion than a thousand years as a lamb.
 The biggest problem for Italy was thst the promises of Treaty of London
1915 were overlooked in Versailles treaty. He saw France as the status
quoist. Thus, he tried to isolate France. According to Langsam- The most
threatening foreign relations for Italy in early post-war years were those
with France.
 Mussoloni turned towards Tunusia which was a French possession. He
claimed it for Italy which strained Franco-Italian relations.
 He managed to take Fiume from Yugaslavia and made Greece pay heavy
compensation for the murder of some Italians.
 He was successful in invading and capturing Albania in 1939
 The fear of Hitler and rising Germany brought England, France and Italy
together. They signed a treaty at Stresa in 1935 for stopping the rise of
Hitler and preventing any violation of Treaty of Versailles. However, soon
 England signed a secret naval treaty wigh Germany which broke the
alliance. Thus, Italy-France signed the Laval-Mussolini Pact. But relations
deteriorated due to Abyssinia.
 Emboldened by Japanese attack on Manchuria and failure of League of
Nations, he attacked Abyssinia. This time, England and France stood against
Italy but Germany supported Italy. This made Germany and Italy good
friends. The friendship treaty called Rome-Berlin axis was signed in 1936
which was an important alliance thst shaped the 2nd world war.

NAZISM IN GERMANY
Problems with Germany-
 Germany was victimized and considered as solely guilty for the First World
War. Humiliating provisions were imposed. War reparations were huge. She
was crippled and humiliated.
 Political instability- Under pressure, King Kaiser William II abdicated the
throne. It resulted in establishment of democracy under influence of
socialists. Friedrich Ebert became the first Chancellor of Germany. The
Weimar Constitution was propounded and the new government was
instated. However, there was an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow it by
Hitler in 1923. Moreover, Germany saw 19 ministries till 1933
 Weimar Republic was thus a failure as it failed to gain the condifence of
Germans
 Economic Problems- Reaparations were very high. The fiscal burden was
too much, tax collections were very less. Prices were rising and exports
were falling. Unemplyment reached to 10%. Moreover, the main industrial
area Ruhr was taken away and given to France. A further problem was
created after Great depression of 1929.
 Foreign relations- Germany was completely isolated. It was not given
membership of League of Nations in the early years. The allied powers had
occupied Rhineland and were to stay there for next 15 years.
 Moreover, Germans have a weakness for prestige and glory. There was a
feeling that Germany needed a leader who would restore her lost prestige.
 Failure of socialists and communists to bring about any credible solutions
for the problems of Germany.

However, there were positive events too-

  Through the Weimar republic, Germany ended monarchy and democracy
was ushered. It became a Republic with a Chancellor at its head.
 The work of Weimar republic- It tried to arrest the domestic crisis by
arranging an international loan under Dawes plan. It introduced new
currency, new industries and new techniques of coal mining. Treaty of
Locarno was signed in 1925 followed by Young Plan of 1929 for economic
development. The efforts went waste due to depression.
 In foreign policy, Chancellor Stressemann managed to partner with Russia
through the Treaty of Rappolo in 1922. The main purpose was to remove
France’s antipathy to German interests. The result was- Germany gained
memership in League of Nations and Allied Powers left Rhineland 5 years
before schedule.

Weimar Constitution-
 David Thompson- It (weimar constitution) was one of the most democratic
paper constitutions ever written.
 It made Germany a republic with a democratically elected government.
 The elections were based on universal adult franchise based on
proportional representation.
 The government was to be headed by the Chancellor and his cabinet who
were answerable to the lower house.
 The legislature was bicameral with upper house called Rechisrat and lower
one Reichstag.

Rise of Hitler-
 The basic reasons for discontent in Germany.
 Hitlerjoined the National Socialistic German Workers’ Party or Nazi and
soon became its leader.
 Allan Bullock has described Hitler as the greatest demagogie in history.
Based on his fierce speeches, Hitler managed to woo the youth, soldiers,
middle class, unemployed workers and capitalists alike. His racial diatribe
gained the support of anti-Jewish as well as anti-communist people
 In November 1923, Hitler tried to unsuccessfully topple the government
with the help of Gen Rudendroff. It is called Hitler-Rudendroff Putsch. Hitler
was imprisoned for 9 months. After comimg out, he started building his
party. He wrote Mein Kampf in jail
  He formed the Stromtroopers as a force to give security and to disrupt
opposition political meetings. They wore Brown Shirts and were at the
forefront of spreading Nazi propaganda. A secret police Gestapo was also
created.
 The Great Depression of 1929 acted as a trigger to increase the influence of
Nazis. Von Hindenburg became the president by defeating his socialist
rivals.
 Von Papen took over as chancellor in 1932 and under his influence, Nazis
grew to such an extent that by July 1932, Nazis captured 230 seats in
Reichstag. Next election in November saw similar results.
 Germany was under complete anarchy due to Nazi repression. Following
Von Papen’s advice, Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as the Chancellor of
Germany on 30th January 1933. Hitler announced elections the same year
 On the eve of election in February 1933, the Reichstag building went on
fire. Hitler blamed it on communists and banned the party. The Enabling
Act made him an autocrat for 4 years as he went on suppressing oposition.
 When Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitker assumed power as president and
chancellor and called himself Führer.

Nazi ideology-
 Anti-Jewish - The Herrenvolk or Master Race theory talked of racial
superiority of the Aryan race over the Jews and Slavs. Hitler thought that
Jews should be exterminated and factories in Russia and Poland be
destroyed to defeat the Slavs.
 Pan-European empire- The Lebensraum or living space meant the German
nation could occupy the space and drive out degraded nations and people.
 One party rule and oposition to democracy- The Nazis were not ready to
tolerate any other opposition party in Germany. They felt that people were
not wise enough to chose their representatives.
 Glorification of past- Germany’s prestige and glory in the past was
focussed. It was thus impressed on the people the need to regain that
glory.
 Glorification of leader- the leader is not to be questioned. His orders are to
be obeyed because the leader symbolizes conviction and courage.
 Opposition to Marxism- Hitler expressed concern that Marxists on getting
power would work on the orders of Russia.
  Finally, the goal was to oppose the Treaty of Versailles and to wipe out the
humiliation it meted out to Germany.

Hitler’s foreign policy was based on the principle of Herrenvolk and Lebensraum.
In his autobiography Mein Kampf, he said the ultimate goal was to unite all the
German speaking provinces into one great Germany. His chief aim was to
repudiate the Treaty of Versailles and the humiliation it caused to Germany.

 Pact with Poland 1934- Hitler thought that if he wanted to march

southwards into Austria, he needed to make peace with eastern borders.
 Pact with Italy 1936- due to Abyssinia and anti-communist stand. Rome-
Berlin axis formed.
 Anti-Comintern Pact 1936- Japan was branded aggressor and militant
nation due to attack on Manchuria in 1931. It left the League of Nations in
protest and was isolated. Hitler joined hands for common interests against
Soviet Russia. In 1940, Italy joined making it a Rome-Berlin -Tokyo axis valid
for 10 years.
 Anglo-German Naval Pact 1935-
 Militarization- In 1935, Hitler denounced the military clauses of the
Versailles Treaty and said the German army will grow up to 36 divisions. In
March 1936, Hitler denounced the Locarno Treaty and German troops
marched into Rhineland. This made France and Belgium both vulnerable.
Hitler tried to appease powers and even offered to enter into another
Locarno treaty, albeit to cool down tempers.
 Germany also helped General Franco in the 1936 Spanish civil war. The
Spanish got arms and volunteers from Germany which helped them to
overthrow the republican government. Historian Hazen has remarked that
most important consequence of Spanish civil war was that it brought
Germany and Italy close.
 Annexation of Austria- After the initial failure in 1934, Nazis again tried to
annex Austria after1936. This time, an environment of cordial relations was
created and Austria was made to believe that Germans had no interest in
Austria. A pact was signed too. However, by 1938, Nazi demonstrations
began in Austria which were supported by the Germans. In a meeting
between the Austrian chancellor and Hitler, he was thretened with invasion
and forced to grant amnesty to Nazis. He agreed to induct Nazi ministers in
his cabinet. Soon in March 1938, a plebiscite was declared to be held to
 determine whether austria wants to be a part of Germany. Under pressure,
the Austrian chancellor quit and his Nazi minister Inquart took over and
invited Hitler to rescue Austria from chaos. The impact was that Germany
took over the Austrian National Bank and got gold and foreign exchange. It
came in direct contact with Italy, Yugoslavia and Hungary while
Czechoslavakia was isolated. The appeasement mode of other European
powers made them take no action against Hitler. It was an indirect
confirmation of Nazi conquests. It also acted as stepping stone for further
conquests.
 Annexation of Czech and Munich crisis 1938-39 -
 Attack on Poland 1939- After Czech, Hitler began talkimg of great ties
between Poland and Germany. Soon he changed stance and began talking
of the german minorities in Poland being oppressed. He began demanding
the Danzig province. Germany not only abrogated the non-agression pact
with Poland, but also the Anglo-German naval pact. Hitler accused Britain
for encirclement. In order to break the defences of poland, france and
britain combined, he sent Ribbentrop to Russia to sign a non-agression
pact. Hitler then attacked Poland on 1st September 1939.

Did Hitler want war?

AJP Taylor- Hitler did not want a world war. His intention was to have a
short war with Poland. “the reason why he got so far was because others
didn’t know what to do with him”.
 Martin Broszat tends to believe there was no concrete plan for Hitler’s
Lebensraum. It was merely a propaganda to get support for Nazis within
Germany.
 Moreover, Martin Gilbert says it was the way of revenging the humiliation
that Germany suffered due to treaty of Versailles by increasing the clout of
Germany.
 The stability in the world exists due to balance of power. European balance
was tilted towards Hitler due to the appeasement of Britain and France.
Thus, inaction of France and Britain made Hitler's greed grow.
 Alan Bullock believes that Hitler wanted to wage war against Poland and
then further USSR. He wanted non-interference from Britain for his
expansionary plans in Europe. Thus not a “world war”
However,
  But the kind of focus on military and growth in arms is an indicator that he
was preparing for war. Hitler announced 36 divisions of his army,
militarization of Rhineland, deployed high class aircrafts and submarines, all
violating the Versailles treaty
 Ian Kershaw, Hitler’s biographer has held Hitler responsible for war. He says
it is the nature of all Fascist states to consider war and agression as a way
to increase the glory and prestige of the nation by defeating all the
neighnouring states.
 Historians like Hugh Trevor-Roper believe that Hitler wanted war since
start. He was against Communism and wanted to defeat USSR. They cite
the Hossbach Memorandum of 1938 where Hitler had explained his
Generals about the war.
 Hitler had said “national boundaries are created by man and can be
changed by man”. Hitler’s Lebensraum was claimed right up to Ural
Mountains. He attacked Soviet, France, Belgium, Holland, etc during the
war. This shows he was well intentioned to drag other countries into war.
 Neil Gregor has pointed out that Hitler’s policy was not merely of
nationalism but of extermination of Jewish Bolshevism. Thus, the war had
to go beyond Poland where Hitler could execute a genocide of Jews.
 Adam Tooze has said that Hitler is responsible for war. He attacked Poland
in 1939 because he didn’t want to give time to Britain, France and USA to
gain power. Thus, war was a foregone conclusion. The timing was the only
decision to be taken
 All the above conflicts were limited to Europe. The war became “worldly”
due to involvement of USA and Japan. The anti-comintern pact with a far
off state of Japan and the formation of the Axis powers escalated the war
to the world level.

Britain-France-USA Appeasement Policy-

Factors that lead to this policy include-
 Avoid war- The world had not forgotten the terrible consequences of 1st
WW. The public opinion in democracies was to avoid war.
 Chamberlain felt that since the League of Nations was a failure, the only
way to avoid war was through personal contact between leaders
 Economic Depression 1929- It made them inward looking. Priority was to
solve economic problems
  Selfish interests- USA wanted to keep safe it's interests in Far East where
Japan was strengthening. France wanted to use Italy against Germany
whom it feared. England wanted Japan to be a counter to Soviet. Plus, it
thought Nazis as best placed to counter Communism.
 Misunderstanding intention of dictators- They accepted Hitler’s words at
face value. He used to talk peace and friendship and then change stance.
Eg- Poland, Austria
 Fear of Communism
 Maintain Balance of power- Italy and Germany would fight against Soviet
and weaken them.

 Main role was played by British PM Neville Chamberlain by balancing British

and French interests on one side and those of Germany, Italy and Japan on
other.
 The policy involved giving selective concessions to these nations.
 The western nations did not interfere in the Anschluss or merger of Austria
with Germany. They did not raise voice when Hitler denounced the
Versailles Treaty and began militarization of Rhineland.
 In case of Czechoslavakia, Germany had staked claimed on Sudetanland
part where more than 50% Germans lived. Chamberlain met Hitler and the
4 nations met at Munich in 1938. Czechs were forced to give away
Sudentanland to Germany under pressuee of Britain and France.
 Italy was also allowed to take over Albania, Germany of Memel province.
 Thus, this move further emboldened the fascist regimes. It increased their
greeds and ambitions. Hitler now began staking claim on Danzig area of
Poland.
 Prevented world war- had the countries acted in time, the rise of Hitler
could have been arrested in 1935-36 when he began militarization and first
activities in Austria. There would have been a conflict in 1935-36 itself but
not as big as world war.
Impact-
 Germany and Italy grew powerful so as to be indifferent to other nations.
Germany captured Czech, Austria. By the time England and France realized
their folly, it was too late.
 It is said that had Britain and France attacked Germany on it’s militarization
of Rhineland in 1936 itself, it would have been a big blow to Hitler.
  The appeasement gave much needed time for militarization, building
sophisticated weapons and strengthen armies. Germany violated the Treaty
and sent military to Rhineland
 The appeasement sound the death knell of League of Nations.
 The aspect of appeasenent resulted in spread of militant expansionist
policy of fascist states and secondly, a collapse of western collective
security system.
 This policy just weakened them and made Europe vulnerable to fascist
attack on democratic forces. Eg- German support for Spanish civil war
 As Alan Bullock states “appeasement and absence of restraints made Hitler
reach out further, take bigger risks”

On the other hand, biographers of Neville Chamberlain have defended him

 John Charmley in his book on Chamberlain believes that Chamberlain had
very little. He tried to buy time through the Munich conference to build up
the arms of Britain to fight against Hitler.
 It was also suggested that the time ensured alliances between Britain and
France, Czechs, Russia could have been formalised.
 Richard Overy has said that it should not be forgotten that Britain and
France had their own self interests, public opinion to be maintained and
safeguard their economic interests.

Causes of 2nd World War-

 Unfair Treaty of Versailles- Revengeful and humiliating. Germamy lost
colonies, mineral rich territories, its army and was under burden of
reparations. EH Carr has said that Versailles Treaty had an element of
dictation never seen in any treaties of modern times.
 Agressive nationalism of Germany- In order to get over humiliation and get
back the prestige, Hitler went on aggressively building the greater German
empire.
 Fascism in Italy- Mussolini had said that it is better to live like a lion for a
day than live like a lamb for a thousand years. Mussolini advocated war and
began comparing his empire with that of ancient Rome. He joined Germany
to form Rome-Berlin Axis
 Japanese imperialism- Japan wanted to spread it's influence in Indo-Pacific
region. She left League of Nations. In 1940, she joined Rome-Berlin-Tokyo
Axis
  Appeasement policy and Economic Depression- The weakened economies
became inward looking and did not oppose the growth of fascist states.
 Failure of League- It failed to achieve its twin objevtive of international
peace and cooperation. It failed to stop Japan, Italy and Germany.
 Failure of disarmament- Article 8 of covenant advocated disarmament. But
nations did not follow it for the fear of national security
 Ideological conflict- democratic countries wanted status quo but fascist
ones wanted war and aggression.

Course of war-
 Germany attacked Poland on 1st September 1939 at 4.40am. The Luftwaffe
was so swift that mere bombing of targets made Poland surrender. Russia
invaded Poland on September 17 and annexed half a part
 No major war till May 1940. Called as Phoney War.
 Germany had captured Denmark, Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg till May
1940. In June 1940, Dunkirk retreat took place where 3.5 lakh allied soldiers
were rescued.
 France was attacked in June 1940. Control over Paris made France
surrender. Some part of France was put under a puppet Vichy government.
Side by side, Charles de Gaulle started his Free France movement in
England.
 By August 1940, Operation Sea lion was launched against England. Bombing
of London took place. The Luftwaffe and RAF fought in air. But by
September 19440, the operation was postponed.
 Tripartite Pact was signed in axis powers and Italy invaded Greece.
Germany annexed Hungary, Rumania, Slovakia, etc.
 In June 1941, Operation Barbarossa was launched against USSR. Hatred and
threat for communism, Lebensraum and control over resources were
reasons for attack.
 Across the Atlantic, USA was just a supplier of arms to countries vital for
defence of USA i.e Britain and France. In August 1941, USA, USSR, England
and France had signed the Atlantic Charter to chalk out plans to destoy Nazi
Germany. Scorched earth policy. Battle of Stalingrad 1942-43 and chilling
winters broke German back.
 Till this time, the entire conflict was limited to Europe and Atlantic.
 However, in 1941 itself, Italy tried to attack African colonies of Britain like
Somaliland, Sudan and started advancing to Egypt. There was a fight in
 Libya between British and German-Italian forces. In Syria, Gen de Gaulle’s
Free France movement resisted attacks.
 On 7th December, Japan attacked Pearl Harbour at Hawaii, a US base. 3000
men were killed in this attack. On the next day, US declared war on Japan
which lasted post 1941 till August 1945 when Hiroshima and Nagasaki were
bombed.
 Similarly, Germany and Italy declared war on US on 11th December 1941
due to attack on Japan.
 The Asian nature of war was seen in India when in 1943, Japan with help of
Subhash Bose and INA tried to invade British India from north-east but
failed. It had already captured Burma and other areas of Indo-China.
 However, it can be said that the war became international in 1940 itself
when Japan entered the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis. It had already invaded
French Indo-China or Vietnam in 1940 itself.
 By 1943, Allies liberated South Italy. Germany attacked Rome and rescued
Mussolini. He started ruling in north Italy. But due to civil war, he was shot
dead in 1945
 6 June 1944 or D Day as Allied Forces landed in Normandy in France. They
liberated France, Belgium. Russians attacked from East In March 1945.
 Allied Forces occupied large land in West Germany. By April 1945, USSR
reached Berlin. Hitler committed suicide on 30th April 1945. Germany
surrendered on 7th May
 Japan nuclear bombing in August 1945 ended the war.

Involvement of US- it maintained neutrality at the start. But by 1941,

condition in Britain worsened. Lend Lease Act was enacted for giving arms
to Britain. Similarly, US UK and USSR involved in Atlantic Charter. Japan’s
spread in Pacific and US demand for withdrawal of Japan led to tensions.
Dec 1941- Pearl Harboyr

Consequences of Second World War-

 Loss of life and money- More than 1 crore people were killed. Many
civilians suffered including women and children. Valuable property of
countries was destroyed. England suffered a loss of 2000 crores.
 There was unprecedented scarcity of goods which led to hardships to
millions. In countries like India, diversion of rice supplies for War led to the
Great Bengal Famine.
  The rise and struggle of fascist states lead to genocide of Jews in Germany
and areas it conquered like Poland and Czechoslavakia. Around 60 lakh
Jews died
 The war gave momentum to scientific development in defence technology
 It gave a fillip to nationalist struggles in colonies like India, Ceylon, Burma
and African countries
 United States and Soviet emerged as superpowers while earlier powers of
France and England became followers
 Sharpening divide between Communism and Democracy led to start of Cold
War
 Terrible war consequences led nations to have an international
organization for peace and cooperation. UNO was established in 1945.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights was passed in 1948.
 Consequences for Germany- It was divided into West Germany ruled by
France, UK and USA while East Germany was ruled by Soviet
 Finally, nuclear bombs used in Japan created a perpetual fear of extinction
of humanity in case of third world war.

Post war events to be read from Hemant Jha notes

 Post war Europe, start of Cold war, war in Korea and Vietnam, US-USSR
tensions, NATO, UN, growth of EU, concept of Total War

JAPAN -
In 1853, Commodore Perry landed in Japan with demands from America.
Increased American interest in Japan was due to growth of American interests in
Indo-Pacific, trade prospects with China through Canton, opening of California
due to Gold Rush and progress of steam navigation. In 1854, a treaty opened up
Japanese ports to America. Similar treaties were signed with England, Russia and
Holland.

Meiji Restoration-
 The nominal ruler of Japan was the emperor residing in Kyoto. However,
after 12th century, the power had passed in the hands of Tokaguwa
Shogunate, a feudal clan, ruling from Yedo.
 The issue of conflict was to allow the foreigners to take hold in Japan or to
adopt the older seclusionist policy.
  In centuries, for the first time the Shogun went to the emperor for
guidance. There was division within the Shogunate too on this issue.The
emperor himself preffered the seclusion policy
 There was widespread anger against the Shogunate for allowing the
foreigners. The influx of foreign goods had led to mamy Japanese workers
being unemployed.
 The slogan of people was- Revere the emperor, expel the barbarians. There
were attacks on foreign establishments too.
 In 1866 an anti-Shogun front was formed by rival cranks and Osama
merchant community.
 At the time, the young Shogun died and was replaced by his guardian. The
emperor also died and was replaced by Prince Meiji.
 In 1867, the Western clans submitted a memo to the Shogun to abdicate
the throne and give actual power to emperor. It was an expression of
patriotism on the part of western clan leaders.
 The young Shogun abdicated the throne and gave the power to emperor.
Kyoto became the power center. This is called Meiji restoration of 1868
 Emperor Meiji on his part did not drive away the Shogun but merely
replaced them.
 Although there was a civil war between Western clan and Tokugawas,
peace was restored in 1869.
 Richard Storry believes that the single most important factor that led to the
Meiji restoration of 1868 was the opening of Japan.
 This is an important event because it led to growth of Japan under Meiji,
modernization of industries and even a new constitution was promulgated
in 1889.

Modernization of Japan-
 Tremendous changes were seen in Japanese society since 1853 till the end
of 19th century chiefly due to rapid modernization and adoption of western
sciences.
 The basic reason was the institution of emperor. The emperor got power
back by people’s choice. He invested his energies in modernization. He
utilized the western ideologies and used them to strengthen the
institutions.
 Among other influential sections of society, a sense of confident
naationalism was seen. The feudal chiefs voluntarily gave up feudalism. It
 was abolished officially in 1871. Similarly, even the Samurais gave up their
privilages. This is a special feature.
 Focus on education- The Charter Oath of 1868 made knowledge the
foudnation of the imperial policy of Japan. Compulsory education was
introduced. Multiple schools were established which soon made Japan a
highly literate nation. University of Tokyo was established. Students were
encouraged to travel to Europe and America to learn
 Military reforms- Japanese military was based on the Samurais class prior
to abolition of feudalism. In 1873, military was nationalised and universal
military service was introduced. Modern weapons were procured.
 Fusion of society and abolition of feudalism led to convergence of energies
which led to growth of technology and industrial undertakings. It developed
textile factories. Japanese technology and machines soon became famous
all over the world.
 Thus, by the time of Sino-Japanese war of 1894, Japan had completely
transformed itself into a modern and technologically advanced nation.

Japanese Imperialism-
 The introduction of western thoughts, modernization and sciences
transformed the feudal economy of Japan into a capitalist industry. The
industrial production increased and Japan now began to search for avenues
to sell these products
 As imperialism was an established concept in 19th century, Japan too
began searching for colonies as captive markets.
 Interest in Korea- It was the nearest place which could be colonized, across
the Yellow Sea. It was a rice producing area and a good market for Japanese
goods.
 Korea was considered as a strategic interest of China as well as Russia.
Japan grew alarmed as Russia began to build the Trans-siberian railway
through Korea.
 Taking advantage of Tonghak rebellion in 1894, Japan sent 8000 soldiers to
Korea even when Chinese soldiers there had stemmed the rebellion. Japan
refused to take back its soldiers and both sides came in open conflict in
August 1894. Japan won over the Sino-Japanese war
 China had to pay a huge war indemnity, recognize Korea as part of Japan
and cede Formosa, Liatung peninsula and Port Arthur.
  The Three Power Intervention of France, Germany and Russia in1895
thwarted Japan's plan of enjoying Korea. Particularly, Russia’s interest
clashed in Korea and Manchuria
 Seeing a common enemy, Japan signed Sino-Japanese treaty in 1904 with
England. It was against Russia, France and Germany
 Russo-Japanese war 1904-05- Japan began negotiations with Russia over
Manchuria but failed. Japan declared war which it won. Treaty of
Portsmouth was signed where Korea was recognized as Japanese territory.
 Russo-Japanese war shattered myth of European invincibility
 Japan annexed Korea and riled directly in 1910
 1915- Its Twenty One Demands wanted to make China a virtual
protectorate of Japan. Due to US pressure, Treaty of Washington was
signed in 1921 that watered down the provisions
 1st World War- Japan declared war against Germany in Tsingtao and
annexed Shantung in China.
 Intermediate period- Japan attacked Manchuria twice in 1931 and 1937 but
League of Nations failed to execute sanctions
 2nd world war- Japan attacked Pearl Harbour base in 1941 resulting in war
with USA. It ended with atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Japan’s imperialism came to an end and her colonies were annexed. Korea
became independent and Manchuria given back to China.

Japan is special because- It changed itself and its old ways by absorbing the
western thought without changing the core, it is one of the fastest modernized
countries - short time of 1868-94, the developed world was limited to Europe and
America but Japan became first in East, transfer of power from Shogunate to
Emperor was relatively peaceful and no revolution was needed, Japan progressed
under an emperor who yielded considerable political power, Japan became the
first democratic system under Meiji Constitution of 1889 where no fight was put
up for establishing democracy.

CHINA-
Society and Canton Trade in 17th century
 The Chinese society was essentially a closed one. Due to the large landmass
and varying natural resources, self sufficiency existed in China. Thus, Chien
 Lung write to king George III saying China had ‘all the things in prolific
abundance' and hence did not need foreign trade.
 The Confucian doctrine imparted a notion among the Chinese about their
cultural superiority. They considered it as a Mandate From Heaven for the
Chinese rulers to rule.
 The notion was that it was natural for foreign barbarians to accept the
superiority of Chinese civilization and bow before the emperor and pay
tributes and gifts to him
 Thus, when trade with China began in 16th century by Portuguese, British
and Russians, the attitude was of regulation and inferiority of foreigners. So
much so that gifts sent by King George III were taken as tributes paid to
Chinese emperor.
 Portuguese were the first to set up a base in Macau near Canton. Russia
signed two trade treaties in 17th century and 18th century for on-land
trade.
 There were multiple restrictions on trade. They had to sit or Kowtow in
front of the emperor, leave families behind in Macau showing temporary
nature of trade. The Cohong was the sole communication between empire
and the foreigners. The traders could not employ Chinese labour. Women
were not to be brought in factories. They could not use any transport
except walking. Thus, Canton trade between 1760-1840 was like a
compromise between Chinese and European mercatilism. It was very
humiliating for British who considered themselves as world power. They
were now determined to break restrictions and open trade with China.

Opium Wars- 1839-42

 Due to self sufficient and agrarian society, the British had very little to trade
with China. They had to pay in solid silver for the trade. They were thus in
find of a product which can be used to pay in return of Chinese products.
They hit upon opium
 Using their control over India, the EIC since late 18th century began to take
Indian opium to China and get in return tea, silk and other goods. The trade
become so lucrative that the 2000 chests traded in 1800 reached to 40000
by 1838, thereby addicting Chinese people
 The Chinese society was of feudal setup with wealth concentrated in hands
of nobles and landlords with taxation burden on peasants. The high
 demand for opium led to silver getting drained out of China thus increasing
its price. The inflation too increased.
 The tough economic situation drove the Manchu government to
desperation. But by then, too many people were addicted. The traders in
China had tasted profits in opium trade and too many officials became
corrupt
 By 1839, the Manchu rulers of Beijing ordered the governor of Canton to
confiscate 20000 chests of opium and destroy them. The British
government took objection to this act. The Chinese authorities did not
appreciate the viewpoint and opened fire on British ships.
 The British responded by attacking Canton and occupying Hong Kong.
 Finally, the Treaty of Nanking was signed that made Chinese pay for the
losses of opium and give Hong Kong to British for 150 years. British citizens
got the right to be tried as per British law.
Analysis-
 Historian KS Latourette has called the Opium Wars as a conflict between
two opposing civilIzations. It is a conflict between China as a feudal state
and Britain as a capitalist state.
 Chinese society was static and feudal. The China dynasty left behind
political disunity and financial insolvency. The wealth was concentrated in
hands of nobles and landlords with taxation burden on peasant and
artisans. It was agrarian and self sufficient. On the other side, British were
dynamic based on mastery of capital. They had industrial overproduction
since 19th century and were wanting to search for better markets.
 Thus, opium just became a medium for the war. Opium or no opium, a
conflict would have anyway broken out.
 Another aspect is whether British deliberately broke into China or Chinese
actions forced British into military aggression.
 The British historuans say that the humiliating conditions and trade
restrictions were bound to result in conflict. Plus, actions of Canton
governor in 1839
 On the other hand, historians argue that China was not bound to entertain
Britain or any European power. It thus imposed restrictions. The British on
the other side were greedy. The EIC wanted rich dividends from trade and
when restricted, waged a war with China.

Second Opium War-(1856-1860)

  In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered
ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew
members, and allegedly lowered the British flag.
 Later that month a British warship sailed up the Pearl River estuary and
began bombarding Canton. In December Chinese in Canton burned foreign
factories there, and tensions escalated.
 In April 1858 allied troops in British warships reached Tianjin and forced the
Chinese into negotiations.
 The treaties of Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing
for foreign envoys, the opening of several new ports to Western trade and
residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China, and freedom
of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai
later in the year, the importation of opium was legalized.

Taiping Rebellion (1850-64)-

 It was partly a Christian religious movement and partly a political reform
movement, which aimed to set up a ‘Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace’
(Taiping tianguo).
 The movement was eventually defeated, not by the Manchu government
troops, which proved to be ineffective, but by newly-formed regional
armies. The failure of the government forces was a serious blow to the
authority of the Ch’ing dynasty.
 It left them dependent on regional armies that they did not control. This
began the process in which provinces began to assert their independence
from the central government in Beijing (Peking)

Sino-Japanese War 1894-

 Japan began to modernize in 1868 and flushed with national pride, eyed
Korea which was a client state of China.
 The situation was made more tense later in the year when the Tonghak
rebellion broke out in Korea, and the Chinese government, at the request
of the Korean king, sent troops to aid in dispersing the rebels.
 The Japanese considered this a violation of the Li-Ito Convention, and they
sent 8,000 troops to Korea. Chinese tried to reinforce their own forces,
further inflaming the situation.
  By March 1895 the Japanese had successfully invaded Shandong province
and Manchuria and had fortified posts that commanded the sea
approaches to Beijing. The Chinese sued for peace.
 In the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ended the conflict, China recognized
the independence of Korea and ceded Taiwan, the Liaodong Peninsula in
Manchuria.
 China also agreed to pay a large indemnity and to give Japan trading
privileges on Chinese territory. This treaty was later somewhat modified by
Russian fears of Japanese expansion, and the combined intercession of
Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula
to China.

Hundred Days Reform 1898-

 Following the Sino-Japanese War, a series of clubs sprang up across China
urging reform on the Western model. One of these was founded by a civil
service examination candidate, Kang Youwei, who led a group of other
candidates in the writing of a “Ten Thousand Word Memorial,”
 On June 16, 1898, Kang was given his first interview with the emperor.
Thereafter the government were pushed to the background, and Kang, his
famous disciple Liang Qichao, and other followers became trusted imperial
advisers.
 In all, the emperor issued more than 40 edicts The old civil service
examination system based on the Chinese Classics was ordered abolished,
and a new system of national schools and colleges was established.
Western industry, medicine, science, commerce, and patent systems were
promoted and adopted. Government administration was revamped, the
law code was changed, the military was reformed, and corruption was
attacked.
 The attack on corruption, the army, and the traditional educational system
threatened the privileged classes of traditional Chinese society.
Conservative forces rallied behind the empress dowager, Cixi; with the
army on her side, she carried out a coup d’état and imprisoned the
emperor in his palace. Kang and Qichao managed to escape to Japan, but
six other young reformers were executed.

Boxer Rebellion 1900-

  Boxers were a secret community that performed certain boxing rituals and
believed that made them invincible. Their goal was to pull down the
imperial Chinese government and push out the foreigners from China.
 Local Chinese governors and even queen Cixi encouraged them thinking
they could be used as militia.
 By 1900, they besieged Beijing and burnt churches, killed Chinese Christians
and officials seen close to foreigners
 A 19000 strong force of European nations descended on China to quell the
rebellion. Queen shifted her court to Xian leaving Beijing to some royal
princes.

Rebellion of 1911
 Chinese Revolution, (1911–12) was a revolution that overthrew China’s last
imperial dynasty Qing (or Manchu) dynasty in 1912, and established the
Republic of China (ROC).
 All through the 19th century the dynasty had been declining, and, upon the
death of the empress dowager Cixi (1908), it lost its last able leader. In 1911
the emperor Puyi was a child, and the regency was incompetent to guide
the nation.
 The turning point was the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911, (a
mutiny broke out among the troops in Wuchang, which is regarded as the
formal beginning of the revolution) and most provinces quickly declared
themselves independent of Beijing.
 In several cities Manchu garrisons had been massacred, the regent had
been forced out of office, a provisional republican government had been
set up at Nanjing, and the arch revolutionist Sun Yat had returned from
abroad and had been elected provisional president
 A provisional constitution was promulgated in March 1912 by the Nanjing
parliament, and in April the government was transferred to Beijing. This
marked the beginning of China’s early republican era (1912–16). With the
support of the army, Yuan Shikai ruled as a military dictator from 1912 until
1915.
 In 1915, the twenty one demands of Japan came forth which was partially
accepted by Yuan. The fifth group of demand that made Japanese political
advisors in China would have made China a colony of Japan.
  But Yuan’s own ambitions made him secretly accept it in 1916 in return of
him becoming emperor. Chinese people did not want republic to go away
and protested. Yuan died in 1916.
 Warlord Era 1916-28- The abdication and death of Yuan Shikai removed the
last person who seemed capable of maintaining some sort of unity in China.
The country now disintegrated into literally hundreds of states of varying
sizes, each controlled by a warlord and his private army. As they fought
each other, it was the ordinary Chinese peasants who suffered hardships.
However two important positive developments took place during this
period.
 The May the Fourth Movement began on that date in 1919 with a huge
student demonstration in Beijing, protesting against the Warlord and
against traditional Chinese culture. The movement was also anti-Japanese;
especially when the 1919 Versailles settlement officially recognised Japan’s
right to take over Germany’s concession in Shantung province. Though
Japan promised to return control of Shantung to China eventually—it did so
in February 1922—the Chinese were deeply outraged by the Allied decision
to favor Japan at Versailles. Thousands of university students went on strike
al the failure of the government to protest strongly enough at Versailles. It
was a remarkable show of mass patriotism. The government finally had no
choice but to give way: the students were released: the ministers, who had
signed the Twenty-One Demands agreement in 1915 were sacked and the
Chinese delegation at Versailles refused to sign the peace treaty.

Rise of Sun Yat Sen (1911-1927) and Kuomintang

 The main hope for the survival of a united China lay with the Kuomintang,
or National People’s Party, formed in 1912 by Or Sun Yat-sen. Between
1905 and 1912, Sun developed a political movement called the
Revolutionary Alliance.
 He was dismayed by the disintegration of China and wanted to create a
modem, united, democratic state. Returning to China after the .revolution,
he succeeded in setting up a government at Canton in southern China
(1917).
 Sun himself summarized his aims as the Three Principles: Nationalism,
Democracy and Land Reform
  The KMT was not a communist party, though it was prepared to co-operate
with the communists, and developed its own party organization along
communist lines, as well as building up its own army.
 Thus, an alliance was made between KMT under Sun and Communist Party
of China under Mao
 Sun gained enormous respect as an intellectual statesman and
revolutionary leader, but when he died in 1925 little progress had been
made towards achieving the three principles, mainly because he was not
himself a general. Until the KMT armies were built up, he had to rely on
alliances with sympathetic warlords, and he had difficulty exercising any
authority outside the south
 General Chiang Kai-shek became leader of the KMT after Sun’s death
 In 1926 he set out on the Northern March to destroy the warlords of
central and northern China. Starting from Canton, the KMT and the
communists went north and captured Beijing
 During 1927 Chiang decided that the communists were becoming too
powerful. All communists were expelled from the KMT and a terrible
‘purification movement’ was launched in which thousands of communists,
trade union and peasant leaders were massacred
 The Kuomintang government proved to be a great disappointment for the
majority of the Chinese people. Chiang could claim to have achieved Sun’s
first principle, nationalism but not the other two.

Mao and his growth-

 The Communist Party of China had been officially founded in 1921
 After the communist breach with the KMT, Mao was responsible for
changing the Party’s strategy
 In 1931 Mao was elected chairman of the Central Executive Committee of
the Party, and from then on, he gradually consolidated his position as the
real leader of Chinese communism.
 Mao and his supporters spent most of their energies on survival as Chiang
carried out five ‘extermination campaigns’ against them between 1930 and
1934. They took to the mountains between Hunan and Kiangsi provinces
and concentrated on building up the Red Army.
 Mao decided that the only chance of survival was to break through Chiang’s
lines and set up another power base somewhere else. In October 1934 the
breakthrough was achieved and almost 100 000 communists set out on the
 remarkable Long March, which was to become part of Chinese legend. They
covered about 6000 miles in 368 days
 Eventually the 20 000 survivors found refuge at Yenan in Shensi province:
this was the last surviving communist base in China. The Shensi
communists, not entirely willingly, accepted Mao as leader, and a new
organized base
 Jung Chang suggested that Mao’s ‘breakout’ in Kai October 1934 was
actually permitted by Chiang-shek because he preferred the communists to
be in the north where he could box them in while he extended the KMT
control over the south -west

Why did Mao gain support while KMT lost it?

 Failure of administration- faulty land reforms, printing of money led to
galloping inflation, people were often put into submission
 Military defects- soldiers were poorly trained, poorly paid, no strategy on
soldier movement
 Little improvement in factory conditions- worst abuses, child labour in
textile mills continued. Mill owners bribed govt officials
 No improvement in condition of peasants- In the early 1930s there was a
series of droughts and bad harvests which caused wide¬ spread famine in
rural areas. There were high taxes and forced labour. Communist base
areas conducted better land settlements
 Failure of New Life Movement- Chang tried to start a New Life Movement
based on modern, secular and rational version of Confucianism. It failed as
more focus was given on civic discipline like not spitting, etc than national
issues
 Weak stand on Japanese- Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931. Yet KMT
considered Communists as a greater enemy than Japanese. Chiang attacked
Mao in Shensi in 1936 when Japanese were trying to spread in north China
 Communist response to Japan- When Japan fully invaded in China in 1937,
KMT forces simply gave up. But CCP led guerrilla forces and tried to fight
the Japanese.
 Communist advantages- well disciplined army, better land reforms, fair
administration,
 The effect was an overall increase in Communist bases in China and
weakening of KMT
China during the War and Communist Victory in 1949-
 China was invaded by Japan in 1937 and held control over Manchuria,
North China, Formosa and other regions. European powers also held areas
around Canton.
 KMT was sympathetic to Germans hence could not align with Allies. But
with downfall of Nazis after 1942, he supported Allies as they were against
Japan. Allies promised that all land would be returned once Japan was
defeated.
 Japan defeated in August 1945, all lands returned to China except Hong
Kong.
 Now, a final battle for power began between CCP and KMT. USA helped
KMT to gain control over China except Manchuria where USSR obstructed
KMT and allowed CCP entry.
 KMT’s own military was very weak and disintegrated soon while CCP had
huge cadre. Finally, in January 1948, Communists gained control of Beijing
while KMT fled to Formosa
 In October 1948, at Tiananmen Square Mao proclaimed the new People’s
Republic of China and himself as Chinese premier.

Mao indulged in 2 blunders- Great Leap Forward in 1958 where communes were
formed and industries were focused on. Second was Cultural Revolution 1966-69
where thoughts of Mao were propagated by students touring China, especially
against RW in CCP like Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi.

Australia-
 A proposal that Britain found a colony of banished convicts in the South
Sea to enable a small farmer town to exploit the riches of those regions,
had been put forward in 1766 by John Callander.
 In 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he
named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain.
 Following the loss of the American Colonies after the American
Revolutionary War 1775–1783, Great Britain needed to find alternative
land for a new British colony.
 Australia was chosen for settlement, and colonisation began in 1788. The
British Government sent a fleet of ships, the “First Fleet”, under the
command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New
South Wales.A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port
 Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which became Australia’s national day,
Australia Day.
 Rather than resorting to the use of slavery to build the infrastructure for
the new colony, convict labour was used as a cheap and economically
viable alternative.
 The colonisation of Australia was driven by the need to address
overcrowding in the British prison system; Many convicts were either
skilled tradesmen or farmers who had been convicted for trivial crimes and
were sentenced to seven years, the time required to set up the
infrastructure for the new colony. Convicts were often given pardons prior
to or on completion of their sentences and were allocated parcels of land
to farm.
 The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, the establishment of
farming, industry and commerce; and the exploration and settlement of
other regions.
 Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants
of the colony. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from
overseas were few and far between. Many new arrivals were also sick or
unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated
with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food
situation reached crisis point in 1790. From 1791 however, the more
regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of
isolation and improved supplies.
 Treatment to Aborginals- The indigenous population, estimated 1,000,000.
Competition for resources, killings and infectious diseases declined their
number.A government policy of “assimilation” beginning with the
Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal
children were from their families and communities—often referred to as
the Stolen Generations. British assassinations led to a Black War in
Tasmania. In New Zealand, they signed the Treaty of Waitangi with Maori
tribes.
 Tasmania in 1803, Brisbane in 1825, Perth in 1829, Victoria in 1851 and
Queensland in 1859.
 A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict
transportation to that colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.
 1 January 1901 – the Federation of Australian States to form the
Commonwealth of Australia.
  1911 – The Australian Capital Territory is established.

Scramble for Africa-

 The “Scramble for Africa” was the invasion and occupation, colonization
and annexation of African territory by European powers during the period
of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. In 1870, 10 percent of Africa
was under European control; by 1914 it was 90 percent of the continent,
with only Ethiopia and Liberia still independent
 Till 1870, limited presence of European powers in Africa. French had
Algeria, Britain had south Africa, Portugal had Mozambique and limited
ports on coasts of Africa.
Reasons-
 Long Depression 1873-96 caused need for colonies to boost production
  Resources of Africa- rich in all resources, yet untouched. Capitalists wanted
to exploit them.
 After the slave trade ended, Africa was open was more business avenues
 Work of explorers like Stanley Morton who was hired by king Leopold II of
Belgium to explore markets, settlements and resources in Africa.
 Neo-imperialism, nationalism and need to strengthen military power.

Berlin West Africa Conference 1884-85-

 Paved way for scramble for Africa but without wars
 Congo and Niger rivers declared free for navigation for all nation
 No nation shall stake claim to any region without intimating other nations
of its intentions
 No nation shall claim a region without effectively occupying it.
 Many a times, rulers were violated by nations.

(In answer, make a short list of colonies of Britain, France, Portuguese, Germany,
Belgium, etc)

Portugal-
 Oldest entrant in Africa
 Held coastal control in many places like Mozambique, Cape town, Angola,
etc
 Mainly as stop-over ports to trade with India and Far East.

Belgium- colonization of Congo-

 Stanley was asked by Leopold II to sign treaties with kings on banks of
Congo and get a Congo Free State after 1876. Leopold used it for getting
ivory and rubber
 Portugal intervened saying it had earlier treaties with Kongo empire kings
and by 1884, made a treaty with Britain to block naval access of Belgium to
Congo.
 Rhodes Mining Company was present to the south of Congo in Rhodesia.
Even it was interested to exploit the gold and diamonds in Congo.
 From north it was Belgium and from south it was Rhodes. Belgium won.
They attacked the Msiri king and hung his head in public. Barbarities were
conducted by Belgium by killings
  Congo Reform Association in 1908 took it out from Leopold and made
Belgium Congo as a nation’s colony.

British-
 Main reason for possession was to safeguard travel routes to India.
 Sudan and Egypt-French started to construct Suez Canal in 1855-56 with
Egyptian help. The Pasha held shares in Suez Canal but ran into debt by
1879 and had to repudiate them to Britain and France who seized joint
control. Rebellions from Egyptian people in 1882 made Pasha call for British
military help , from when the British administration over Egypt began.
 Control over Kenya and Uganda through 1890s gave control over source of
Nile
 South Africa- Cape Colony acquired since 1795. It helped to conquer
neighboring African tribes and Dutch Afrikaner provinces. Next stage came
in 1877 when an independent Transvaal was annexed. In 1879, Anglo-Zulu
war made consolidation of South Africa. In 1880, first Boer War and
freedom had to be granted to Transvaal. But in 2 nd war 1899-1902, Orange
Free State and Transvaal were finally annexed.
 British wanted to extend the railway line from Cape to Cairo according to
Rhodes plan while French wanted their influence from Nigeria to Nile. Their
ambitions thus intersected in Sudan region of Fashoda. It led to control a
fort in Fashoda in 1898. A solution was a treaty in 1899 that French would
consolidate to west of Congo and British in Nile watershed to continue their
spheres of influence. This led to Britain-France Entente in 1904.

France-
 In 1881 Tunisia became a French protectorate.
 French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial
Africa in 1910.
 Fashoda crisis in 1898 and Anglo-French Entente in 1904.
 Morocco was ceded to French after the Moroccan crisis of 1905 and 1908.

Germany-
 Reasons to start colonization- Weltpolitick, Berlin conference, Tirpitz plan
 In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West
Africa to be under its protection
 It crushed Herero rebels in SW Africa and Maji-Maji rebellion in East Africa,
Genocide by poisoning of wells.
  Interfered in Moroccan province of French
 Lost colonies after 1st world war.

Italy
 Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882.
 Defeat in the First Italo–Ethiopian War (1895–1896),
 it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889–90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899).
 In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired
Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya).

Overall, scramble led to increase in rivalries between European nations, quest for
land and resources, scramble for colonies, furthering rival alliances and leading to
first world war.

Decolonization-
 Decolonization refers to end of regime of colonial powers, marked by
either dominion status or complete independence of the colonies. It was
coined by German scholar Moritz Julius Bonn in 1932.
 Reasons leading to decolonization- Hemant Jha 1- chapter 6
 4 types of decolonization- self government for white settlers like Australia,
complete independence like India, informal influence or neo-colonialism in
Latin America, mere change of imperial masters like Indo-China
 Approaches to study decolonization- Hemant Jha 1- chapter 5 pg 3

South Africa- From Apartheid to Democracy- Hemant Jha 1- chapter 6

Israel-Palestine-
 Since 71CE, Romans drove out Jews and later Arab occupied Palestine as
their homeland
 In 1897, World Zionist Organization was set up to get back Palestine as a
national homeland. Main reason was persecution in Europe and life in
exile. Even though Jews had started to trickle back there, the numbers
were quite less.
 By 1917, Balfour Declaration came that marked Britain's entry in the
conflict. British supported the idea of a Jewish homeland. After 1919 when
 British got the mandate of Palestine, they began emmigrating Jews to
Palestine.
 Bitter Arab resistance started but Balfour himself assured Arabs of their
religious rights. British wanted Jews and Arabs to live together.
 Nazi persecution after 1933 increased immigration that created a revolt
among Arabs as by 1940, half the Palestine was Jewish. It was brutally
suppressed by British
 In 1937, Peel Commission suggested splitting Palestine into two states but
it was rejected by Arabs. Second world war increased the refugees even
more
 The Jews had started to resort to terrorist activities as a final push. They
even blew up King David Hotel in Jerusalem. This pressurized British even
more
 The changed world order and cold war made British exit troops from
Palestine leaving it to U.N. decide fate of Palestine. UN in 1948 voted in
favour of a Jewish homeland and in November, a separate nation of Israel
was formed.
British Responsibility-
 Conservatives alleged that the British troops should have stayed on to
ensure that the partition of Palestine was carried out smoothly.
 The Arabs accused the British of being pro-Jewish, for letting far too many
Jews into Palestine in the first place, and for causing them to lose half their
homeland. The Jews accused the British of being pro-Arab, for trying to
limit Jewish immigration.
 British were known to further their colonial interests as seen in brazen
division of Arab world in the Sykes-Picot agreement.
 Some historians have defended the British, pointing out that they were
trying to be fair to both sides, and that in the end, it was impossible to
persuade both Arabs and Jews to accept a peaceful solution.
 The British withdrawal was understandable: maintaining peace cost the
British nearly 100 million sterlings.
US role-
 It was US President Harry S Truman who pressured Britain to allow 100 000
extra Jews to go to Palestine in April 1946 . Although this was bound to
upset the Arabs even more, Truman refused to provide any American
troops to help keep order in Palestine. He refused to allow any more Jews
to enter the USA.
  It was Truman who rejected the British Morrison Plan (July 1946), which
would have set up separate Arab and Jewish provinces under British
supervision.
 It was the Americans who pushed the plan for partition through the UN,
even though all the Arab nations voted against it; this was bound to cause
more violence in Palestine.

1948 War
 Soon after Israel was formed, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq attacked
Israel.
 Jews fought desperately using their military experience in British army and
now captured two thirds of Palestine. Arabs were weak and not united.
 Arabs fled to neighbouring countries and ended up in living in West Bank
ruled by Jordan. Jerusalem was divided into two with Israel and Jordan.
 Arabs refused to give recognition to Israel as a nation.
 Britain and France guaranteed Israel's frontiers, thus increasing the rivalry.

Suez Canal Crisis 1956- Hemant Jha

1967 War- Six days war

 Egyptian head Col Nasser had become famous for his socialist policies and
hold in Arab world. As it is Arabs had not recognized Israel. He felt time
was ripe to wipe out Israel. Using his position, he united Syria and Iraq
both under influence of Ba'ath Party. Lebanon and Jordan joined in along
with Saudi
 In 1964, Israel diverted waters of Jordan for its National Career Program
that threatened Arab countries.
 In 1967, Egypt finally led to naval blockade of Israel in Gulf of Tiran and
Aqaba.
 Troops were mobillized from all sides. Syria began bombing Israel at its
vantage point of Golan Heights.
 USSR supported Arabs as USA was supporting Israel.
 Israel attacked all forces by itself and using its superior army and air force,
defeated Arabs in mere 6 days.
 It captured Sinai peninsula from Egypt, Golan Heights from Syria, West
Bank from Jordon and entire Jerusalem. It did not return most lands, using
them as buffer states against Arabs
  It however caused problems of Arab refugees who are languishing even
today.

Yom Kippur war 1973-

 Egypt was now headed by Anwar Sadat who was confident about Israel's
defeat due to modern Russian weapons. Moreover, he wanted America to
mediate a peace, given terrorist activities of Palestinians
 Egypt along with Syria attacked Israel but the latter defeated them. Israel
even captured Suez Canal from Egypt, thus forcing USA and USSR to start
negotiations.
 It was a partial success for Sadat who wanted intervention of USA
 Settlement arrived- return of Suez canal and Sinai peninsula. 1973 OPEC
cartel increased prices.

Palestine Movement-
 Col Nasser, with the view of creating internal troubles for Israel began
sending Fidayeen to sabotage and kill within Israel.
 It is from this began the El Fatah movement among Palestinians to get back
their land.
 Founded in 1957, Fatah eventually became the core section of the
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), with Yasser Arafat as one of its
leaders.
 Seeing inaction from many fronts, a radical organization emerged from
PLO called Popular Front of Liberation of Palestine. It began terrorist
aactivities like hijacking planes. It even to killed Israeli team at Munich
Olympics 1972.
 Egypt-Israel talks and Camp David Agreement 1979 reduced focus on
violence by PFLP.
 But in 1987, Intifada or shaking off was marked by massive protests by
Palestenians, non payment of taxes and boycott of Israeli products. Israel
used ough methods
 However, US pressure and need for peace made Israeli PM Rabin and
Yasser Arafat to sue for peace.
 1993 Peace Accord was signed- Israel formally recognized the PLO;The PLO
recognized Israel’s right to exist and promised to give up terrorism;the
Palestinians were to be given limited self-rule in West Bank and in part of
the Gaza Strip, areas occupied by Israel since the 1967 war
  Yet tensions exist. Recent times, terrorist org Hamas have propped up,
signalling the problem is far from solved.

UN w set up not to take us to heaven but to save us from hell- Winston Churchill

Britain and EU-

 Although Winston Churchill was the biggest votary of cooperation between
European countries in 1943, the efforts were not supplemented by the
future labour governments
 Britain refused to sign the Rome Statute forming the European Economic
Community.
 Reasons were multiple. Firstly Britain thought that it would compromise it’s
sovereignty since the European Council sitting in Brussels would take
economic decisions
 Britain had a special relationship with the Commonwealth nations and
didn’t want any compromise with the trade with them
 Britain’s special ally was USA. Joining EU might affect that relation
 So it decided to form a rival European Free Trade Association consisting of
some west European nations in 1959 as a counter to EU
 But come 1961, Britain saw the success of EEC due to French and German
strengths while the purchasing power of Commonwealth or EFTA could not
match EEC. British PM Harold Macmillon also understood the special
relation with Commonwealth can be maintained even within EEC
 However, now Charles Ge Gaulle blocked Britain’s entry in 1963 because
Britain had its own economic problems, was too close to USA and could
spell trouble for agriculture policies of EEC.
 However, the deft negotiations of Edward Heath and retirement of De
Gaulle in 1969 ensured Britain entered EEC in 1973.
 Even during the Treaty of Maastricht 1991, Britain objected to the Social
Chapter as it talked of safety of workers, equal pay to men and women, etc
saying that it would drive up labour costs. EU was formed by ratifying the
treaty except the Social Chapter.