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Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The
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Br ief coN t eN ts
P r efac e xv chapter 22
IntroductIon R oM A n T IC I SM , R E A L I SM ,
P ho T o G R A P h y: E u R o P E A n D
W hAT I S A RT h I S T o Ry ? 1
A M E R IC A , 1 8 0 0 T o 1 8 7 0 6 4 2
chapter 14
chapter 23
L AT E M E D I EVA L I TA Ly 400
I M P R E S SIo n I SM , P o ST- I M P R E S SIo n I SM ,
chapter 15 SyM B o L I SM : E u R o P E A n D A M E R IC A ,
1870 To 1900 686
L AT E M E D I EVA L A n D E A R Ly
R E nA I S S A n C E n o RT h E R n E u R o P E 422 chapter 24
chapter 16 M o D E R n I SM I n E u R o P E A n D A M E R IC A ,
1900 To 1945 722
T h E R E nA I S S A n C E I n
Q uAT T R o C E n T o I TA Ly 446 chapter 25
chapter 17 M o D E R n I SM A n D P o S T M o D E R n I SM
I n E u R o P E A n D A M E R IC A ,
R E nA I S S A n C E A n D M A n n E R I SM I n
1945 To 1980 786
C I n Qu E C E n T o I TA Ly 4 8 6
chapter 18 chapter 26
C onTE MPoR A Ry A RT WoR LDWI DE 828
h IG h R E nA I S S A n C E A n D M A n n E R I SM
I n n o RT h E R n E u R o P E A n D SPA I n 5 3 2
N o t es 862
chapter 19 G l o s s a ry 865
ThE BARo QuE In ITALy AnD SPAIn 556
B i B li o G r a P h y 875
chapter 20 c r ed i t s 884
T h E BA R o Qu E I n n o RT h E R n m u s e u m i N d ex 889
EuRoPE 582
s u B j e c t i N d ex 893
chapter 21
R o C o C o T o n E o C L A S SIC I SM :
T h E 1 8 T h C E n T u Ry I n E u R o P E
A n D A M E R IC A 6 1 4
vii
coN t eN ts
P r efac e xv c h a p t er 1 5
l at e m ed i eva l
a N d e a r ly r eN a i s s a N c e
I n t ro d u c t I o n
N o rt h er N e u ro P e 422
W h at i s a rt h i s t o ry ? 1
Art history in the 21st century 2
FrAming the erA
| aTheFlemish
virgin in
home 423
Different Ways of Seeing 13 Timeline 424
northern europe in the 15th century 424

burgundy and Flanders 424
c h a p t er 1 4
France 438
l at e m ed i eva l i ta ly 400
holy roman empire 440
FrAming the erA
| Late medieval or
Proto-renaissance? 401 ❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Tempera and Oil Painting 427
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Framed Paintings 431

Timeline 402
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Artist’s Profession in Flanders 433
13th century 402
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Woodcuts, Engravings,
14th century 406 and Etchings 444
❚❚ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: The Great Schism, m a p 20-1 France, the duchy of Burgundy, and the Holy Roman
Mendicant Orders, and Confraternities 404 Empire in 1477 424
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Italian Artists’ Names 405 The Big picTure 445
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Fresco Painting 408
❚❚ W R i t t e n S o u R c e S : Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions,

and Artists’ Contracts 410
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Artistic Training in Renaissance Italy 414
m a p 14-1 Italy around 1400 405
The Big picTure 421
ix
c h a p t er 1 6 c h a p t er 1 8
t h e r eN a i s s a N c e h i G h r eN a i s s a N c e
i N q uat t ro c eN t o i ta ly 446 a N d m a N N er i s m
i N N o rt h er N e u ro P e
FrAming the erA
| classical
medici Patronage and
Learning 447 a N d s Pa i N 532
Timeline 448 FrAming the erA
| the
earthly Delights in
netherlands 533
renaissance humanism 448
Timeline 534
Florence 448
northern europe in the 16th century 534
The Princely courts 477
holy roman empire 535
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Linear and Atmospheric
Perspective 455 France 544
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Cennino Cennini on Imitation
The netherlands 546
and Emulation in Renaissance Art 461
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Italian Renaissance Family Spain 552

Chapel Endowments 472
❚❚ R e l i g i o n a n d M y t h o l o g y: Catholic and Protestant Views
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Italian Princely Courts of Salvation 541
and Artistic Patronage 479
m a p 23-1 Europe in the early 16th century 534
m a p 21-1 Renaissance Florence 449
The Big picTure 555
The Big picTure 485
c h a p t er 1 9
c h a p t er 1 7
t h e Ba ro q u e
r eN a i s s a N c e
i N i ta ly a N d s Pa i N 556
a N d m a N N er i s m
i N c i N q u e c eN t o i ta ly 486 FrAming the erA | baroque Art and Spectacle 557
Timeline 558
FrAming the erA
| ofmichelangelo in the Service
Julius ii 4 8 7 “baroque” Art and Architecture 558
Timeline 488 italy 558
high and Late renaissance 488 Spain 575
mannerism 520 ❚❚ W R i t t e n S o u R c e S : Giovanni Pietro Bellori
on Annibale Carracci and Caravaggio 570
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Renaissance Drawings 492
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: The Letters of Artemisia Gentileschi 572
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Leonardo and Michelangelo
on Painting versus Sculpture 497 ❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Velázquez and Philip IV 578
❚❚ W R i t t e n S o u R c e S : Religious Art in m a p 24-1 Vatican City 561

Counter-Reformation Italy 505
The Big picTure 581
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Women in the Renaissance Art World 518
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Palma il Giovane on Titian 519
m a p 22-1 Rome with Renaissance and Baroque monuments 488
The Big picTure 531
x contents
c h a p t er 2 0 ❚❚ W R i t t e n S o u R c e S : Femmes Savants and Salon Culture 617
❚❚ W R i t t e n S o u R c e S : Diderot on Chardin and Boucher 626

t h e Ba ro q u e
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Grand Tour and Veduta Painting 632
i N N o rt h er N e u ro P e 582
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Excavations of Herculaneum
FrAming the erA
| Still-Life Painting in
the Dutch republic 583
and Pompeii 633
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: David on Greek Style and Public Art 635
Timeline 584 m a p 26-1 The United States in 1800 616
War and trade in northern europe 584 The Big picTure 641
Flanders 585
Dutch republic 590 c h a p t er 2 2
France 602 ro m a N t i c i s m , r e a li s m ,
england 611 P h o t o G r a P h y: e u ro P e
a N d a m er i ca ,
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Rubens on Consequences of War 588
1800 t o 1870 642
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Middle-Class Patronage and the Art Market
in the Dutch Republic 591 FrAming the erA | napoleon at Jaffa 643
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Poussin’s Notes for a Treatise Timeline 644
on Painting 607
m a p 25-1 Europe in 1648 after the Treaty of Westphalia 584

Art under napoleon 644
The Big picTure 613

romanticism 650
realism 663
Architecture 675
c h a p t er 2 1 Photography 679
ro co co t o N e o c l a s s i c i s m :
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Romantic Spirit in Art, Music,
t h e 1 8 t h c eN t u ry i N and Literature 655
e u ro P e a N d a m er i ca 614 ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Delacroix in Morocco 657
FrAming the erA

| ofArtenlightenment
and Science in the era
615
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Courbet on Realism
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Lithography
664
666
Timeline 616 ❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Daguerreotypes, Calotypes,

and Wet-Plate Photography 680
A century of revolutions 616
m a p 27-1 The Napoleonic Empire in 1815 644
rococo 616 m a p 27-2 Europe around 1850 646
The enlightenment 624 The Big picTure 685
“natural” Art 626
neoclassicism 633
contents xi
i m P r es s i o N i s m , P o s t- m o d er N i s m i N e u ro P e
i m P r es s i o N i s m , s y m B o li s m : a N d a m er i ca ,
e u ro P e a N d a m er i ca , 1900 t o 1945 722
1 8 7 0 t o 1 9 0 0 686
FrAming the erA | impressions of modern Life 687
FrAming the erA
| and
global War, Anarchy,
Dada 723
Timeline 688 Timeline 724
marxism, Darwinism, modernism 688 global upheaval and Artistic revolution 724
impressionism 689 europe, 1900 to 1920 724
Post-impressionism 699 united States, 1900 to 1930 750
Symbolism 707 europe, 1920 to 1945 760
Sculpture 712 united States and mexico, 1930 to 1945 775
Architecture and Decorative Arts 715 ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Matisse on Color 726
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Science and Art in the Early 20th

❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Academic Salons and Independent Century 729
Art Exhibitions 690
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Gertrude and Leo Stein
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Renoir on the Art of Painting 694 and the Avant-Garde 732
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Japonisme 696 ❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Primitivism and Colonialism 734
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Whistler on “Artistic Arrangements” 698 ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Picasso on Cubism 737
❚❚ M a t e R i a l S a n d t e c h n i q u e S : Pointillism and 19th-Century ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Futurist Manifestos 742
Color Theory 701
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Armory Show 751
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Letters of Vincent van Gogh 702
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Art “Matronage” in the United States 753
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Gauguin on Where Do We Come From? 704
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Degenerate Art 765
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Rodin on Movement in Art
and Photography 713 ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Brancusi, Hepworth, and Moore
on Abstract Sculpture 770
m a p 28-1 France around 1870 688
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus 773
The Big picTure 721
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Rivera on Art for the People 780
❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: The Museum of Modern Art

and the Avant-Garde 783
m a p 29-1 Europe at the end of World War I 725
The Big picTure 785
xii contents
m o d er N i s m co N t em P o r a ry a rt
a N d P o s t m o d er N i s m Wo r ldW i d e 828
i N e u ro P e a N d a m er i ca ,
1 9 4 5 t o 1 9 8 0 786
FrAming the erA
| message
Art as Sociopolitical
829
FrAming the erA | Art and consumer culture 787 Timeline 830
Timeline 788 Social and Political Art 830

The Aftermath of World War ii 788 other movements and Themes 842
Painting, Sculpture, and Photography 788 Architecture and Site-Specific Art 848
Architecture and Site-Specific Art 813 new media 857
Performance and conceptual Art and new media 821 ❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Public Funding of Controversial Art 832
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Jackson Pollock on Easel ❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Frank Gehry on Architectural Design

and Mural Painting 792 and Materials 851
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Helen Frankenthaler ❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Maya Lin’s Vietnam

on Color-Field Painting 796 Veterans Memorial 853
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: David Smith on Outdoor Sculpture 798 ❚❚ a R t a n d S o c i e t y: Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc 855
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Donald Judd on Sculpture The Big picTure 861

and Industrial Materials 799
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Roy Lichtenstein on Pop Art 803 N o t es 862

❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Chuck Close on Photorealist
Portrait Painting 806
G l o s s a ry 865
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Judy Chicago on The Dinner Party 809 B i B li o G r a P h y 875

❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Philip Johnson on Postmodern c r ed i t s 884
Architecture 818
m u s e u m i N d ex 889
❚❚ a R t i S t S o n a R t: Carolee Schneemann on Painting,
Performance Art, and Art History 822 s u B j e c t i N d ex 893
The Big picTure 827
contents xiii
Pr eface
t he gA r Dner LegAcY more than 250 bonus images is cited in the text of the traditional
book and a thumbnail image of each work, with abbreviated cap-
i n t he 21St cen t u rY tion, is inset into the text column where the work is mentioned. The
I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and ex- integration extends also to the maps, index, glossary, and chapter
panded 14th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and online infor-
Perspective, which, like the enhanced 13th edition, is a hybrid art mation. The 14th edition is in every way a unified, comprehensive
history textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory sur- history of art and architecture, even though the text is divided into
vey of the history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of paper and digital components.
“Gardner” retains all of the best features of traditional books on
paper while harnessing 21st-century technology to increase by 25%
the number of works examined—without increasing the size or K eY Fe At u r eS
weight of the book itself and at very low additional cost to students
compared to a larger book.
oF t he 14t h eDit ion
When helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through In this new edition, I have added several important features while
the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that more than retaining the basic format and scope of the previous edition. once
85 years later instructors all over the world would still be using her again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,400 photographs, plans,
textbook in their classrooms. Indeed, if she were alive today, she and drawings, nearly all in color and reproduced according to the
would not recognize the book that, even in its traditional form, highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, including hundreds
long ago became—and remains—the most widely read introduc- of new images. Among them is a new series of superb photos taken
tion to the history of art and architecture in the English language. by Jonathan Poore exclusively for Art through the Ages during three
During the past half-century, successive authors have constantly photographic campaigns in France and Italy in 2009, 2010, and
reinvented helen Gardner’s groundbreaking survey, always keep- 2011. The online component also includes custom videos made at
ing it fresh and current, and setting an ever-higher standard with each site by Sharon Adams Poore. This extraordinary new archive
each new edition. I am deeply gratified that both professors and of visual material ranges from ancient Roman ruins in southern
students seem to agree that the 13th edition, released in 2008, lived France to Romanesque and Gothic churches in France and Tuscany
up to that venerable tradition, for they made it the number-one to Le Corbusier’s modernist chapel at Ronchamp and the post-
choice for art history survey courses. I hope they will find the 14th modern Pompidou Center and the Louvre Pyramide in Paris. The
edition of this best-selling book exceeds their high expectations. 14th edition also features the highly acclaimed architectural draw-
In addition to the host of new features (enumerated below) in ings of John Burge. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos,
the book proper, the 14th edition follows the enhanced 13th edi- and drawings provide readers with a visual feast unavailable any-
tion in incorporating an innovative new online component. All where else.
new copies of the 14th edition are packaged with an access code The captions accompanying those illustrations contain, as be-
to a web site with Bonus Essays and Bonus Images (with zoom ca- fore, a wealth of information, including the name of the artist or
pability) of more than 250 additional important paintings, sculp- architect, if known; the formal title (printed in italics), if assigned,
tures, buildings, and other art forms of all eras, from prehistory description of the work, or name of the building; the provenance or
to the present. The selection includes virtually all of the works place of production of the object or location of the building; the date;
professors have told me they wished had been in the 13th edition, the material(s) used; the size; and the present location if the work
but were not included for lack of space. I am extremely grateful to is in a museum or private collection. Scales accompany not only
Cengage Learning/Wadsworth for the considerable investment all architectural plans, as is the norm, but also appear next to each
of time and resources that has made this remarkable hybrid text- photograph of a painting, statue, or other artwork—another unique
book possible. feature of the Gardner text. The works discussed in the 14th edition
In contrast to the enhanced 13th edition, the online compo- of Art through the Ages vary enormously in size, from colossal sculp-
nent is now fully integrated into the 14th edition. Every one of the tures carved into mountain cliffs and paintings covering entire walls
xv
or ceilings to tiny figurines, coins, and jewelry that one can hold in terminology. The boxes address questions of how and why various
the hand. Although the captions contain the pertinent dimensions, forms developed, the problems architects confronted, and the solu-
it is difficult for students who have never seen the paintings or stat- tions they used to resolve them. Topics discussed include how the
ues in person to translate those dimensions into an appreciation of Egyptians built the pyramids; the orders of classical architecture;
the real size of the objects. The scales provide an effective and di- Roman concrete construction; and the design and terminology of
rect way to visualize how big or how small a given artwork is and mosques and Gothic cathedrals.
its relative size compared with other works in the same chapter and Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media
throughout the book. artists employed from prehistoric to modern times. Since materials
Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions and techniques often influence the character of artworks, these dis-
introduced in the 13th edition. Students have overwhelmingly re- cussions contain essential information on why many monuments
ported that they found these brief synopses of the most significant appear as they do. hollow-casting bronze statues; fresco painting;
aspects of each artwork or building illustrated invaluable when Islamic tilework; embroidery and tapestry; engraving, etching,
preparing for examinations. These extended captions accompany and lithography; and daguerreotype and calotype photography are
not only every image in the printed book but also all the digital among the many subjects treated.
images in the online supplement. Another popular tool introduced Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi-
in the 13th edition to aid students in reviewing and mastering the pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to
material reappears in the 14th edition. Each chapter ends with a the representation of religious and mythological themes in paint-
full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth in bullet- ing and sculpture of all periods and places. These discussions of
point format the most important characteristics of each period or belief systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding
artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Small illustrations of of some of the greatest artworks ever created. The topics include the
characteristic works accompany the summary of major points. The gods and goddesses of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome; the
14th edition, however, introduces two new features in every chap- life of Jesus in art; Muhammad and Islam; and medieval monaster-
ter: a Timeline summarizing the major developments during the era ies and Benedictine rule.
treated (again in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter- Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political,
opening essay on a characteristic painting, sculpture, or building. cultural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some in-
Called Framing the Era, these in-depth essays are accompanied by a stances, specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader
general view and four enlarged details of the work discussed. themes, as when the hegeso stele serves as the springboard for an
The 14th edition of Art through the Ages is available in several exploration of the role of women in ancient Greek society. Another
different traditional paper formats—a single hardcover volume; two essay discusses how people’s evaluation today of artworks can dif-
paperback volumes designed for use in the fall and spring semes- fer from those of the society that produced them by examining the
ters of a yearlong survey course; a four-volume “backpack” set; and problems created by the contemporary market for undocumented
an interactive e-book version. Another pedagogical tool not found archaeological finds. other subjects include Egyptian mummifi-
in any other introductory art history textbook is the Before 1300 cation; Etruscan women; Byzantine icons and iconoclasm; artistic
section that appears at the beginning of the second volume of the training in Renaissance Italy; 19th-century academic salons and
paperbound version of the book and at the beginning of Book D of independent art exhibitions; primitivism and colonialism; and
the backpack edition. Because many students taking the second half public funding of controversial art.
of a survey course will not have access to Volume I or to Books A Written Sources present and discuss key historical docu-
and B, I have provided a special set of concise primers on architec- ments illuminating important monuments of art and architecture
tural terminology and construction methods in the ancient and throughout the world. The passages quoted permit voices from the
medieval eras, and on mythology and religion—information that is past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique in-
essential for understanding the history of Western art after 1300. sights into the creation of artworks in all media. Examples include
The subjects of these special boxes are Greco-Roman Temple Design Bernard of Clairvaux’s treatise on sculpture in medieval churches;
and the Classical orders; Arches and Vaults; Basilican Churches; Giovanni Pietro Bellori’s biographies of Annibale Carracci and
Central-Plan Churches; The Gods and Goddesses of Mount olym- Caravaggio; Jean François Marmontel’s account of 18th-century
pus; and The Life of Jesus in Art. salon culture; as well as texts that bring the past to life, such as
Boxed essays once again appear throughout the book as well. eyewitness accounts of the volcanic eruption that buried Roman
This popular feature first appeared in the 11th edition of Art through Pompeii and of the fire that destroyed Canterbury Cathedral in
the Ages, which in 2001 won both the Texty and McGuffey Prizes of medieval England.
the Text and Academic Authors Association for a college textbook Finally, in the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects
in the humanities and social sciences. In this edition the essays are throughout history discuss both their theories and individual
more closely tied to the main text than ever before. Consistent with works. Examples include Sinan the Great discussing the mosque he
that greater integration, almost all boxes now incorporate photo- designed for Selim II; Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo debat-
graphs of important artworks discussed in the text proper that also ing the relative merits of painting and sculpture; Artemisia Gentile-
illustrate the theme treated in the boxed essays. These essays fall schi talking about the special problems she confronted as a woman
under six broad categories: artist; Jacques-Louis David on neoclassicism; Gustave Courbet on
Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- Realism; henri Matisse on color; Pablo Picasso on Cubism; Diego
dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions Rivera on art for the people; and Judy Chicago on her seminal work
are concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the ma- The Dinner Party.
jor aspects of design and construction. The information included In every new edition of Art through the Ages, I also reevaluate
is essential to an understanding of architectural technology and the basic organization of the book. In the 14th edition, the treatment
xvi Preface
of the art of the later 20th century and the opening decade of the In the 1926 edition of Art through the Ages, helen Gardner dis-
21st century has been significantly reconfigured. There are now sep- cussed henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso in a chapter entitled “Con-
arate chapters on the art and architecture of the period from 1945 temporary Art in Europe and America.” Since then many other
to 1980 and from 1980 to the present. Moreover, the second chapter artists have emerged on the international scene, and the story of art
(Chapter 26, “Contemporary Art Worldwide”) is no longer confined through the ages has grown longer and even more complex. As al-
to Western art but presents the art and architecture of the past three ready noted, that is reflected in the addition of a new chapter at the
decades as a multifaceted global phenomenon. Furthermore, some end of the book on contemporary art in which developments on all
chapters now appear in more than one of the paperbound versions continents are treated together for the first time. Perhaps even more
of the book in order to provide enhanced flexibility to instructors important than the new directions artists and architects have taken
who divide the global history of art into two or three semester-long during the past several decades is that the discipline of art history
courses. Chapter 14—on Italian art from 1200 to 1400—appears in has also changed markedly—and so too has helen Gardner’s book.
both Volumes I and II and in backpack Books B and D. The 14th edition fully reflects the latest art historical research em-
Rounding out the features in the book itself is a greatly ex- phases while maintaining the traditional strengths that have made
panded Bibliography of books in English with several hundred new previous editions of Art through the Ages so popular. While sus-
entries, including both general works and a chapter-by-chapter list taining attention to style, chronology, iconography, and technique,
of more focused studies; a Glossary containing definitions of all I also ensure that issues of patronage, function, and context loom
italicized terms introduced in both the printed and online texts; large in every chapter. I treat artworks not as isolated objects in
and, for the first time, a complete museum index listing all illus- sterile 21st-century museum settings but with a view toward their
trated artworks by their present location. purpose and meaning in the society that produced them at the
The 14th edition of Art through the Ages also features a host of time they were produced. I examine not only the role of the artist
state-of-the-art online resources (enumerated on page xxi). or architect in the creation of a work of art or a building, but also
the role of the individuals or groups who paid the artists and in-
fluenced the shape the monuments took. Further, in this expanded
W r it i ng A nD te Achi ng hybrid edition, I devote more space than ever before to the role of
women and women artists in Western societies over time. In every
t he hiStorY oF A rt chapter, I have tried to choose artworks and buildings that reflect
nonetheless, some things have not changed in this new edition, in- the increasingly wide range of interests of scholars today, while not
cluding the fundamental belief that guided helen Gardner so many rejecting the traditional list of “great” works or the very notion of
years ago—that the primary goal of an introductory art history a “canon.” Indeed, the expanded hybrid nature of the 14th edition
textbook should be to foster an appreciation and understanding has made it possible to illustrate and discuss scores of works not
of historically significant works of art of all kinds from all peri- traditionally treated in art history survey texts without reducing
ods. Because of the longevity and diversity of the history of art, it is the space devoted to canonical works.
tempting to assign responsibility for telling its story to a large team
of specialists. The original publisher of Art through the Ages took
this approach for the first edition prepared after helen Gardner’s ch A P ter-bY-ch A P ter
death, and it has now become the norm for introductory art history
surveys. But students overwhelmingly say the very complexity of ch A ngeS i n t he
the history of art makes it all the more important for the story to 14t h eDit ion
be told with a consistent voice if they are to master so much diverse
All chapters feature many new photographs, revised maps, revised
material. I think helen Gardner would be pleased to know that Art
Big Picture chapter-ending summaries, and changes to the text re-
through the Ages once again has a single storyteller—aided in no
flecting new research and discoveries.
small part by invaluable advice from more than a hundred review-
ers and other consultants whose assistance I gladly acknowledge at
Introduction: What is Art History? new painting by ogata Korin
the end of this Preface.
added.
I continue to believe that the most effective way to tell the story
of art through the ages, especially to anyone studying art history 14: Late Medieval Italy. new Framing the Era essay “Late Medi-
for the first time, is to organize the vast array of artistic monuments eval or Proto-Renaissance?” and new timeline. new series of pho-
according to the civilizations that produced them and to consider tos of architecture and sculpture in Florence, orvieto, Pisa, and
each work in roughly chronological order. This approach has not Siena. Andrea Pisano Baptistery doors added.
merely stood the test of time. It is the most appropriate way to nar-
15: Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Northern Europe. new
rate the history of art. The principle underlying my approach to ev-
Framing the Era essay “The Virgin in a Flemish home” and new
ery period of art history is that the enormous variation in the form
timeline. new section of the Nuremberg Chronicle illustrated. Dip-
and meaning of the paintings, sculptures, buildings, and other art-
tych of Martin van nieuwenhove added.
works men and women have produced over the past 30,000 years is
largely the result of the constantly changing contexts in which art- 16: The Renaissance in Quattrocento Italy. new Framing the Era
ists and architects worked. A historically based narrative is there- essay “Medici Patronage and Classical Learning” and new time-
fore best suited for a comprehensive history of Western art because line. Expanded discussion of Botticelli and neo-Platonism. Re-
it enables the author to situate each work discussed in its historical, vised boxes on linear and atmospheric perspective and on Cennino
social, economic, religious, and cultural context. That is, after all, Cennini. Tomb of Leonardo Bruni and Resurrection by Piero della
what distinguishes art history from art appreciation. Francesca added.
Preface xvii
17: Renaissance and Mannerism in Cinquecento Italy. new AcK noW LeDgmen tS
Framing the Era essay “Michelangelo in the Service of Julius II”
and new timeline. Michelangelo’s late Pietà and Parmigianino’s A work as extensive as a history of Western art and architecture
self-portrait added. Revised box on “Palma il Giovane and Titian.” from prehitory to the present could not be undertaken or completed
Series of new photos of Florence, Rome, and Venice. without the counsel of experts in all eras. As with previous editions,
Cengage Learning/Wadsworth has enlisted more than a hundred
18: High Renaissance and Mannerism in Northern Europe and art historians to review every chapter of Art through the Ages in or-
Spain. new Framing the Era essay “Earthly Delights in the neth- der to ensure that the text lives up to the Gardner reputation for
erlands” and new timeline. Dürer’s self-portrait and Melencolia I accuracy as well as readability. I take great pleasure in acknowledg-
and El Greco’s View of Toledo added. ing here the important contributions to the 14th edition made by
the following: Michael Jay Adamek, ozarks Technical Community
19: The Baroque in Italy and Spain. new Framing the Era essay
College; Charles M. Adelman, university of northern Iowa; Chris-
“Baroque Art and Spectacle” and new timeline. Bernini’s Four Riv-
tine Zitrides Atiyeh, Kutztown university; Gisele Atterberry, Joliet
ers Fountain and Gentileschi’s self-portrait added.
Junior College; Roann Barris, Radford university; Philip Betan-
20: The Baroque in Northern Europe. new Framing the Era es- court, Temple university; Karen Blough, Suny Plattsburgh; Elena
say “Still-Life Painting in the Dutch Republic” and new timeline. n. Boeck, DePaul university; Betty Ann Brown, California State
Expanded discussion of Dutch mercantilism. Vermeer’s Woman university northridge; Alexandra A. Carpino, northern Arizona
Holding a Balance added. university; Anne Walke Cassidy, Carthage College; harold D. Cole,
Baldwin Wallace College; Sarah Cormack, Webster university,
21: Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and Vienna; Jodi Cranston, Boston university; nancy de Grummond,
America. new Framing the Era essay “Art and Science in the Florida State university; Kelley helmstutler Di Dio, university of
Era of Enlightenment” and new timeline. Expanded discussion of Vermont; owen Doonan, California State university northridge;
Diderot as art critic. Adelaide Labille-Guiard added. Marilyn Dunn, Loyola university Chicago; Tom Estlack, Pittsburgh
22: Romanticism, Realism, Photography: Europe & America, Cultural Trust; Lois Fichner-Rathus, The College of new Jersey;
1800 to 1870. new Framing the Era essay “napoleon at Jaffa” and Arne R. Flaten, Coastal Carolina university; Ken Friedman, Swin-
new timeline. Friedrich’s Wanderer above a Sea of Mist and Altes burne university of Technology; Rosemary Gallick, northern Vir-
Museum, Berlin, added. ginia Community College; William V. Ganis, Wells College; Marc
Gerstein, university of Toledo; Clive F. Getty, Miami university;
23: Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Symbolism: Europe Michael Grillo, university of Maine; Amanda hamilton, northwest
and America, 1870 to 1900. new Framing the Era essay “Impres- nazarene university; Martina hesser, Grossmont College; heather
sions of Modern Life” and new timeline. new discussion of Manet Jensen, Brigham young university; Mark Johnson, Brigham young
and Monet. Rodin’s Gates of Hell and James Ensor added. university; Jacqueline E. Jung, yale university; John F. Kenfield,
Rutgers university; Asen Kirin, university of Georgia; Joanne
24: Modernism in Europe and America, 1900 to 1945. new Klein, Boise State university; yu Bong Ko, Tappan Zee high School;
Framing the Era essay “Global War, Anarchy, and Dada” and new Rob Leith, Buckingham Browne & nichols School; Adele h. Lewis,
timeline. new box on “Walter Gropius and the Bauhaus.” Grosz’s Arizona State university; Kate Alexandra Lingley, university of
Eclipse of the Sun, de Chirico’s Song of Love, Arthur Dove, Egon hawaii–Manoa; Ellen Longsworth, Merrimack College; Matthew
Schiele, Adolf Loos, and Margaret Bourke-White added. Looper, California State university–Chico; nuria Lledó Tarradell,
25: Modernism and Postmodernism in Europe and America, universidad Complutense, Madrid; Anne McClanan, Portland
1945 to 1980. Former 1945–Present chapter significantly ex- State university; Mark Magleby, Brigham young university; Gina
panded and divided into two chapters. new Framing the Era essay Miceli-hoffman, Moraine Valley Community College; William
“Art and Consumer Culture” and new timeline. Arshile Gorky, Lee Mierse, university of Vermont; Amy Morris, Southeastern Louisi-
Krasner, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Joan Mitchell, Bridget ana university; Charles R. Morscheck, Drexel university; Johanna
Riley, Isamu noguchi, George Segal, niki de Saint-Phalle, Lu- D. Movassat, San Jose State university; Carola naumer, Truckee
cian Freud, Diane Arbus, Minor White, and Vanna Venturi house Meadows Community College; Irene nero, Southeastern Louisiana
added. university; Robin o’Bryan, harrisburg Area Community College;
Laurent odde, Kutztown university of Pennsylvania; E. Suzanne
26: Contemporary Art Worldwide. Former 1945–Present chapter owens, Lorain County Community College; Catherine Pagani,
significantly expanded and divided into two chapters. This chapter The university of Alabama; Martha Peacock, Brigham young uni-
also now includes contemporary non-Western art. new Framing versity; Mabi Ponce de Leon, Bexley high School; Curtis Runnels,
the Era essay “Art as Socio-Political Message” and new timeline. Boston university; Malia E. F. Serrano, Grossmont College; Molly
Robert Mapplethorpe, Shahzia Sikander, Carrie Mae Weems, Jean- Skjei, normandale Community College; James Swensen, Brigham
Michel Basquiat, Kehinde Wiley, Shirin neshat, Edward Burtynksy, young university; John Szostak, university of hawaii–Manoa; Fred
Wu Guanzhong, Emily Kame Kngwarreye, Tara Donovan, Jenny T. Smith, Kent State university; Thomas F. Strasser, Providence Col-
Saville, Marisol, Rachel Whiteread, Andy Goldsworthy, Keith har- lege; Katherine h. Tachau, university of Iowa; Debra Thompson,
ing, Andreas Gursky, Zaha hadid, I.M. Pei, Daniel Libeskind, and Glendale Community College; Alice y. Tseng, Boston university;
green architecture added. Carol Ventura, Tennessee Technological university; Marc Vin-
cent, Baldwin Wallace College; Deborah Waite, university of ha-
Go to the online instructor companion site or PowerLecture waii–Manoa; Lawrence Waldron, Saint John’s university; Victoria
for a more detailed list of chapter-by-chapter changes and the Im- Weaver, Millersville university; and Margaret Ann Zaho, univer-
age Transition Guide. sity of Central Florida.
xviii Preface
I am especially indebted to the following for creating the in- Bither and Jessica Jackson, editorial interns; Cate Rickard Barr, se-
structor and student materials for the 14th edition: William J. Al- nior art director; Lydia LeStar, brand manager; Jason LaChapelle,
len, Arkansas State university; Ivy Cooper, Southern Illinois uni- executive marketing communications manager; and the incom-
versity Edwardsville; Patricia D. Cosper, The university of Alabama parable group of local sales representatives who have passed on to
at Birmingham; Anne McClanan, Portland State university; and me the welcome advice offered by the hundreds of instructors they
Amy M. Morris, Southeastern Louisiana university. I also thank speak to daily during their visits to college campuses throughout
the members of the Wadsworth Media Advisory Board for their north America.
input: Frances Altvater, university of hartford; Roann Barris, Rad- I am also deeply grateful to the following out-of-house con-
ford university; Bill Christy, ohio university-Zanesville; Annette tributors to the 14th edition: the peerless and tireless Joan Keyes,
Cohen, Great Bay Community College; Jeff Davis, The Art Institute Dovetail Publishing Services; helen Triller-yambert, development
of Pittsburgh–online Division; owen Doonan, California State editor; Ida May norton, copy editor; Do Mi Stauber, indexer; Su-
university-northridge; Arne R. Flaten, Coastal Carolina univer- san Gall, proofreader; tani hasegawa, designer; Catherine Schnurr,
sity; Carol heft, Muhlenberg College; William Mierse, university Mary-Lise nazaire, Lauren McFalls, and Corey Geissler, PreMedia-
of Vermont; Eleanor F. Moseman, Colorado State university; and Global, photo researchers; Alma Bell, Scott Paul, John Pierce, and
Malia E. F. Serrano, Grossmont College. Lori Shranko, Thompson Type; Jay and John Crowley, Jay’s Pub-
I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my grati- lishing Services; Mary Ann Lidrbauch, for all her help; Kim Meyer,
tude to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage Learning/ image consulting; and, of course, Jonathan Poore and John Burge,
Wadsworth involved with the editing, production, and distribu- for their superb photos and architectural drawings respectively.
tion of Art through the Ages. Some of them I have now worked with Finally, I owe thanks to my former co-author, Christin J.
on various projects for nearly two decades and feel privileged to Mamiya of the university of nebraska–Lincoln, for her friendship
count among my friends. The success of the Gardner series in all and advice, especially with regard to the expanded contemporary
of its various permutations depends in no small part on the exper- art section of the 14th edition, as well as to my colleagues at Bos-
tise and unflagging commitment of these dedicated professionals, ton university and to the thousands of students and the scores of
especially Clark Baxter, publisher; Sharon Adams Poore, senior de- teaching fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching
velopment editor (as well as videographer extraordinaire); Lianne in 1975. From them I have learned much that has helped determine
Ames, senior content project manager; Mandy Groszko, rights ac- the form and content of Art through the Ages and made it a much
quisitions specialist; Robert White, product manager; Ashley Bar- better book than it otherwise might have been.
gende, assistant editor; Marsha Kaplan, editorial assistant; Amy
Fred S. Kleiner
Preface xix
Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia university) is the author or
Ab ou t t h e A u th o r
co-author of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions of Art through the Ages:
A Concise History, as well as the 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th
editions of Art through the Ages, and more than a hundred publica-
tions on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A His-
tory of Roman Art, also published by Wadsworth, a part of Cengage
Learning. he has taught the art history survey course for more than
three decades, first at the university of Virginia and, since 1978, at
Boston university, where he is currently Professor of Art history
and Archaeology and Chair of the Department of history of Art
and Architecture. From 1985 to 1998, he was Editor-in-Chief of the
American Journal of Archaeology. Long acclaimed for his inspiring
lectures and dedication to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston
university’s Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for undergraduate
Advising in the humanities in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize
in the College of Arts and Sciences honors Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries of London, and, in 2009, in recognition of lifetime achievement in publication and teaching,
a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors Association.
Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Enhanced Edition (Wadsworth/

Cengage Learning 2010; ISBn 9780495909873), winner of the 2007 Texty
Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences. In
this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces
the development of Roman art and architecture from Romulus’s foundation
of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth
century ce, with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and herculaneum, ostia,
funerary and provincial art and architecture, and the earliest Christian art.
The enhanced edition also includes a new introductory chapter on the art
and architecture of the Etruscans and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.
r esou rces
For FAcu Lt Y For St u Den tS
powerLecture with digital Image Library courseMate™ with eBook

This flashdrive is an all-in-one lecture and class presentation tool Make the most of your study time by accessing everything you
that makes it easy to assemble, edit, and present customized lec- need to succeed in one place. open the interactive eBook, take
tures for your course using Microsoft® PowerPoint®. The Digital Im- notes, review image and audio flashcards, watch videos, and take
age Library provides high-resolution images (maps, diagrams, and practice quizzes online with CourseMate™. you will find hundreds
most of the fine art images from the text, including the over 300 of zoomable, high-resolution bonus images (represented by thumb-
new images) for lecture presentations, either in PowerPoint format, nail images in the text) along with discussion of the images, videos
or in individual file formats compatible with other image-viewing created specifically to enhanced your reading comprehension, au-
software. A zoom feature allows you to magnify selected portions dio chapter summaries, compare-and-contrast activities, Guide to
of an image for more detailed display in class, or you can display Studying, and more.
images side by side for comparison. you can easily add your own
images to those from the text. The Google Earth™ application al- Slide Guide
lows you to zoom in on an entire city, as well as key monuments The Slide Guide is a lecture companion that allows you to take
and buildings. There are links to specific figures for every chapter in notes alongside thumbnails of the same art images that are shown
the book. PowerLecture also includes an Image Transition Guide, in class. The Slide Guide is available as a downloadable Word® doc-
an electronic Instructor’s Manual and a Test Bank with multiple- ument in CourseMate™.
choice, matching, short-answer, and essay questions in ExamView®
computerized format. The text-specific Microsoft® PowerPoint®
slides are created for use with JoinIn™, software for classroom per-
sonal response systems (clickers).
Webtutor™ with eBook

on Webct® and Blackboard®
WebTutor™ enables you to assign preformatted, text-specific con-
tent that is available as soon as you log on. you can also custom-
ize the WebTutor™ environment in any way you choose. Content
includes the Interactive ebook, Test Bank, Practice Quizzes, Video
Study Tools, and CourseMate™.
To order, contact your Cengage Learning representative.
x xi
G a r d n e r’s
ArT AGES through

the
b e for e 1 3 0 0
Students enrolled in the second semester of a yearlong introductory survey of the

history of art may not have access to paperback Volume I. Therefore, Volume II
of Art through the Ages: A Western Perspective opens with a special set of concise
primers on Greco-Roman and medieval architectural terminology and construc-
tion methods and on Greco-Roman iconography—information that is essential for
understanding the history of art and architecture after 1300 in the West.
Co n t en t s
❚ architectural basics
Greco-Roman Temple Design and the Classical Orders xxvi
Arches and Vaults xxviii
Basilican Churches xxx
Central-Plan Churches xxxii
❚ religion and mythology

The Gods and Goddesses of Mount Olympus xxxiii
The Life of Jesus in Art xxxiv
architectural basics
BefORe 1300
Greco-Roman temple Design and the Classical orders
T he gable-roofed columnar stone temples of the Greeks and

Romans have had more influence on the later history of ar-
chitecture in the Western world than any other building type ever
❙❙ Classical❙ orders The Greeks developed two basic architectural
orders, or design systems: the Doric and the Ionic. The forms of
the columns and entablature (superstructure) generally differenti-
devised. Many of the elements of classical temple architecture are ate the orders. Classical columns have two or three parts, depend-
present in buildings from the Renaissance to the present day. ing on the order: the shaft, which is usually marked with vertical
The basic design principles of Greek and Roman temples and channels (flutes); the capital; and, in the Ionic order, the base. The
the most important components of the classical orders can be sum- Doric capital consists of a round echinus beneath a square abacus
marized as follows. block. Spiral volutes constitute the distinctive feature of the Ionic
capital. Classical entablatures have three parts: the architrave, the
❙❙ Temple❙design The core of a Greco-Roman temple was the cella,
frieze, and the triangular pediment of the gabled roof, framed by
a room with no windows that usually housed the statue of the
the cornice. In the Doric order, the frieze is subdivided into tri-
god or goddess to whom the shrine was dedicated. Generally,
glyphs and metopes, whereas in the Ionic, the frieze is left open.
only the priests, priestesses, and chosen few would enter the
cella. Worshipers gathered in front of the building, where sacri- The Corinthian capital, a later Greek invention very popular
fices occurred at open-air altars. In most Greek temples, for ex- in Roman times, is more ornate than either the Doric or Ionic. It
ample, the temple erected in honor of Hera or Apollo at Paestum, consists of a double row of acanthus leaves, from which tendrils
a colonnade was erected all around the cella to form a peristyle. and flowers emerge. Although this capital often is cited as the dis-
In contrast, Roman temples, for example, the Temple of tinguishing element of the Corinthian order, in strict terms no Co-
Portunus in Rome, usually have freestanding columns only in a rinthian order exists. Architects simply substituted the new capi-
porch at the front of the building. Sometimes, as in the Portu- tal type for the volute capital in the Ionic order, as in the Roman
nus temple, engaged (attached) half-columns adorn three sides temple probably dedicated to Vesta at Tivoli.
of the cella to give the building the appearance of a peripteral Sculpture played a major role on the exterior of classical tem-
temple. Architectural historians call this a pseudoperipteral de- ples, partly to embellish the deity’s shrine and partly to tell some-
sign. The Greeks and Romans also built round temples (called thing about the deity to those gathered outside. Sculptural orna-
tholos temples), a building type that also had a long afterlife in ment was concentrated on the upper part of the building, in the
Western architecture. pediment and frieze.
ARChiTeCTuRAL BAsiCs
Doric and Ionic orders
x xvi
BefORe 1300
Greek Doric peripteral temple (Temple of Hera or Apollo, Paestum, Italy, ca. 460 bce)
Roman Ionic pseudoperipteral temple Roman Corinthian tholos temple

(Temple of Portunus, Rome, Italy, ca. 75 bce) (Temple of Vesta, Tivoli, Italy, early first century bce)
x xvii
BefORe 1300
Arches and Vaults
A lthough earlier architects used both arches and vaults, the Ro-
mans employed them more extensively and effectively than
any other ancient civilization. The Roman forms became staples of
arches of the vaults function as windows admitting light to the
building.
❙❙ Dome The hemispherical dome may be described as a round arch
architectural design from the Middle Ages until today. rotated around the full circumference of a circle, usually resting
❙❙ Arch The arch is one of several ways of spanning a passageway. on a cylindrical drum. The Romans normally constructed domes
The Romans preferred it to the post-and-lintel (column-and- using concrete, a mix of lime mortar, volcanic sand, water, and
architrave) system used in the Greek orders. Builders construct small stones, instead of with large stone blocks. Concrete dries to
arches using wedge-shaped stone blocks called voussoirs. The form a solid mass of great strength, which enabled the Romans to
central voussoir is the arch’s keystone. puncture the apex of a concrete dome with an oculus (eye), so that
much-needed light could reach the interior of the building.
❙❙ Barrel❙vault Also called the tunnel vault, the barrel vault is an
extension of a simple arch, creating a semicylindrical ceiling over Barrel vaults, as noted, resemble tunnels, and groin vaults are
parallel walls. usually found in a series covering a similar longitudinally oriented
❙❙ Groin❙vault The groin vault, or cross vault, is formed by the in- interior space. Domes, in contrast, crown centrally planned build-
tersection at right angles of two barrel vaults of equal size. When ings, so named because the structure’s parts are of equal or almost
a series of groin vaults covers an interior hall, the open lateral equal dimensions around the center.
Arch Barrel vault

Groin vault Hemispherical dome with oculus
x xviii
BefORe 1300
Roman arch (Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, ca. 81)
Roman hall with groin vaults (Baths of Diocletian, now
Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome, Italy, ca. 298–306)
Medieval barrel-vaulted church

(Saint-Savin, Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, France, ca. 1100) Roman dome with oculus (Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125)
x xix
BefORe 1300
Basilican Churches
C hurch design during the Middle Ages set the stage for ecclesi-
astical architecture from the Renaissance to the present. Both
the longitudinal- and central-plan building types of antiquity had a
ponents of Gothic design are labeled in the drawing of a typical
French Gothic cathedral, which can be compared to the interior
view of Amiens Cathedral and the plan of Chartres Cathedral.
long postclassical history. Gothic architects frequently extended the aisles around the apse
In Western Christendom, the typical medieval church had a to form an ambulatory, onto which opened radiating chapels housing
basilican plan, which evolved from the Roman columnar hall, or sacred relics. Groin vaults formed the ceiling of the nave, aisles, am-
basilica. The great European cathedrals of the Gothic age, which bulatory, and transept alike, replacing the timber roof of the typical
were the immediate predecessors of the churches of the Renais- Early Christian basilica. These vaults rested on diagonal and trans-
sance and Baroque eras, shared many elements with the earliest ba- verse ribs in the form of pointed arches. On the exterior, flying but-
silican churches constructed during the fourth century, including tresses held the nave vaults in place. These masonry struts transferred
a wide central nave flanked by aisles and ending in an apse. Some the thrust of the nave vaults across the roofs of the aisles to tall piers
basilican churches also have a transept, an area perpendicular to frequently capped by pointed ornamental pinnacles. This structural
the nave. The nave and transept intersect at the crossing. Gothic system made it possible to open up the walls above the nave arcade
churches, however, have many additional features. The key com- with huge stained-glass windows in the nave clerestory.
Cutaway view of a typical French Gothic cathedral Nave of Amiens Cathedral, France, begun 1220
(1) pinnacle, (2) flying buttress, (3) vaulting web, (4) diagonal rib,
(5) transverse rib, (6) springing, (7) clerestory, (8) oculus, (9) lancet,
(10) triforium, (11) nave arcade, (12) compound pier with responds
xxx
In the later Middle Ages, especially in the great cathedrals of the (circular windows with tracery resembling floral petals). The major
BefORe 1300
Gothic age, church facades featured extensive sculptural ornamenta- sculpted areas were the tympanum above the doorway (akin to a Greco-
tion, primarily in the portals beneath the stained-glass rose windows Roman temple pediment), the trumeau (central post), and the jambs.
Radiating chapels
Ambulatory Ambulatory
Apse Nave
Aisles Aisles
Transept Transept
Transept Crossing Transept

portals portals
Nave
Aisle
Aisle
F17-10.eps
Facade portals
Plan of Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France,

rebuilt after 1194
West facade of Amiens Cathedral, Amiens, France, begun 1220
Voussoirs Voussoirs
Archivolts
Tympanum
Lintel
Trumeau
Jambs Jambs
Diagram of medieval portal sculpture Central portal, west facade, Chartres Cathedral, ca. 1145–1155
x x xi
BefORe 1300
Central-Plan Churches
T he domed central plan of classical antiquity dominated the

architecture of the Byzantine Empire but with important
modifications. Because the dome covered the crossing of a Byzan-
join to form a ring and four arches whose planes bound a square.
The first use of pendentives on a grand scale occurred in the sixth-
century church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople.
tine church, architects had to find a way to erect domes on square The interiors of Byzantine churches differed from those of ba-
bases instead of on the circular bases (cylindrical drums) of Roman silican churches in the West not only in plan and the use of domes
buildings. The solution was pendentive construction in which the but also in the manner in which they were adorned. The original
dome rests on what is in effect a second, larger dome. The top por- mosaic decoration of Hagia Sophia is lost, but at Saint Mark’s in
tion and four segments around the rim of the larger dome are omit- Venice, some 40,000 square feet of mosaics cover all the walls,
ted, creating four curved triangles, or pendentives. The pendentives arches, vaults, and domes.
F12-05.eps
Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey, 532–537 Saint Mark’s, Venice, Italy, begun 1063
Pendentives Squinches
Dome on pendentives
x x xii
religion and mythology
BefORe 1300
The Gods and Goddesses of Mount olympus
T he chief deities of the Greeks ruled the world from their home
on Mount Olympus, Greece’s highest peak. They figure prom-
inently not only in Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art but also in art
❙ Hephaistos❙(Vulcan) God of fire and of metalworking, Hephaistos
was the son of Zeus and Hera. Born lame and, uncharacteristically
for a god, ugly, he married Aphrodite, who was unfaithful to him.
from the Renaissance to the present. ❙ Apollo❙ (Apollo) God of light and music and son of Zeus, the
The 12 Olympian gods (and their Roman equivalents) were: young, beautiful Apollo was an expert archer, sometimes identi-
❙ Zeus❙(Jupiter) King of the gods, Zeus ruled the sky and allotted fied with the sun (Helios/Sol).
the sea to his brother Poseidon and the Underworld to his other ❙ Artemis❙ (Diana) Sister of Apollo, Artemis was goddess of the
brother, Hades. His weapon was the thunderbolt. Jupiter was also hunt. She was occasionally equated with the moon (Selene/Luna).
the chief god of the Romans. ❙ Aphrodite❙ (Venus) Daughter of Zeus and a nymph (goddess of
❙ Hera❙ (Juno) Wife and sister of Zeus, Hera was the goddess of springs and woods), Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty.
marriage. ❙ Hermes❙ (Mercury) Son of Zeus and another nymph, Hermes
❙ Poseidon❙(Neptune) Poseidon was lord of the sea. He controlled was the fleet-footed messenger of the gods and possessed winged
waves, storms, and earthquakes with his three-pronged pitchfork sandals. He carried the caduceus, a magical herald’s rod.
(trident).
❙ Hestia❙ (Vesta) Sister of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hera, Hestia was Other important Greek gods and goddesses were:
goddess of the hearth. ❙ Hades❙(Pluto), lord of the Underworld and god of the dead. Al-
❙ Demeter❙(Ceres) Third sister of Zeus, Demeter was the goddess though the brother of Zeus and Poseidon, Hades never resided
of grain and agriculture. on Mount Olympus.
❙ Ares❙(Mars) God of war, Ares was the son of Zeus and Hera and ❙ Dionysos❙(Bacchus), god of wine, another of Zeus’s sons.
the lover of Aphrodite. His Roman counterpart, Mars, was the ❙ Eros❙(Amor or Cupid), the winged child-god of love, son of Aph-
father of the twin founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus. rodite and Ares.
❙ Athena❙(Minerva) Goddess of wisdom and warfare, Athena was ❙ Asklepios❙(Aesculapius), god of healing, son of Apollo. His ser-
a virgin born from the head of her father, Zeus. pent-entwined staff is the emblem of modern medicine.
ReLiGiOn AnD MyThOLOGy

Zeus, from Cape Artemision,
ca. 460–450 bce
Hermes and infant Dionysos,
Athena, by Phidias, by the Phiale Painter,
ca. 438 bce ca. 440–435 bce
Aphrodite (Venus de Milo),

by Alexandros, ca. 150–125 bce
x x xiii
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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