BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr.

Amr Alaa 0567573420

Chapter1: Molecules of Biology (Biochemistry)
 Nitrogen: amino acid- proteins, nucleic acids
 Phosphorus: nucleic acid, ATP, membrane
 Sulfur: sulfide bridges in protein

Chemical Bonds
1. Non-polar covalent bond: equal electron share (CO 2- O2)
2. Polar covalent bond: unequal electron share (H 2O)
3. Ionic bond: electron transfer (NaCl)
4. Hydrogen bond: between H and O of 2 molecules (water – DNA-2nd structure of protein)
5. Water cohesion force (H-bond): rise of water in high trees

Polar molecules
 Charged, hydrophilic, and water soluble (proteins, sugars, salts, ions)

Non-polar molecules
 Not charged, hydrophobic, and fat soluble (lipids, CO 2, O2)

Oxidation - reduction reactions (transfer of electrons)

 Oxidation (electrons loss) - reduction (electrons gain)

Food energy (acc. To amount/gram): lipids(9 calories) > carbohydrates (4calories) = proteins (4calories)

Food energy (acc. To the use): Carbohydrate (Main Source) → Lipids → Protein

Minerals: inorganic nutrients such as Ca2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, K+ (promote the growth in plants = Fertilizers)

Vitamins
 Organic molecules act as co-enzymes and must be ingested
 Water soluble vitamins (B, C) and fat soluble vitamins (K, E, D, A)

pH: -log of H+ concentration (if H+ = 10-4, pH = 4)

 Water ionization: H2O →OH- + H+

pH Scale (0-14)
 Neutral solutions (pH = 7): OH - = H+ (water)
 Acidic solutions (pH < 7): H+ > OH - (gastric juice is 2)
 Basic (alkaline) solutions (pH > 7): OH- > H+ (blood: 7.4)
 Buffers keep pH constant such as HCO 3- or bicarbonate in plasma

Polymers
 Chains of similar subunits bonded together called monomers
 Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
Metabolism: all chemical reactions in living organisms
1. Anabolism: building up (photosynthesis)
2. Catabolism: breakdown (respiration)
3. BMR: basal metabolic rate needed to survive
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BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr. Amr Alaa 0567573420
Dehydration synthesis (condensation, building up, anabolism)
Monomers + Monomers → polymer + water

Hydrolysis (break down, catabolism)

Polymer + water → monomers

Enzymes
1. Large protein molecules that reduce activation energy and speed up chemical reaction (catalyst)
2. Not used up, not changed, and don't change products

Induced fit model

 Each enzyme has its specific substrate that fits in its active site

Factors affecting enzymes action

1. Optimum pH is 7.4, optimum temperature is 37cO
2. High temperature (over the optimum temp) denatures enzymes
3. Co-enzymes (vitamins) help enzymes to work faster
4. Inhibitors stop enzymes activity
5. Reactions stop when all active sites are saturated with substrates

Carbohydrates (C +H+O)
1. Monosaccharides (C6111206) C=O
 Glucose, fructose, and galactose
 Glucose is the main source of energy
2. Disaccharides (C12H22O11)
 Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
 Maltose (glucose + glucose)
 Lactose (glucose + galactose)
3. Polysaccharides
 Glycogen: animal sugar
 Starch: plant sugar
 Cellulose: cell wall of plants
 Chitin: Cell wall of fungi and
exoskeleton of arthropods.

Lipids (C,H,O) (C, ↑H, ↓O)

Lipids are insulators and fuel reserve

1. Fat: animal origin, solid, saturated fatty acid (c-c)

2. Oil: plant origin, liquid, unsaturated fatty acid (c=c)
3. Wax: cover of leaves (cuticle) to prevent water loss
4. Steroid hormones: estrogen, testosterone
5. Cholesterol: structure in cell membrane, keep blood
vessel opens

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Proteins (C, H, O, N)
Amino acid
 Monomers of proteins (20 types)
 Bonded by peptide bonds forming polypeptides

Types of proteins
 Primary: 1 polypeptide chain (ultimately determine the function and shape of protein)
 Secondary : a helix bonded by hydrogen bonds
 Tertiary: 3 dimensional shape determines function. (R-group)
 Quaternary: 4 polypeptide chains –hemoglobin

Nucleic acids : Polynucleotides (C, H, O, N, P)

Nucleotide (monomer of nucleic acids)
 Phosphate group (PO4)
 Ribose sugar (RNA) or deoxyribose sugar (DNA)
 Nitrogenous bases
1. Purines (2 rings) 2. Pyrimidines (1 ring) Base pairs (bp)
• (A) Adenine (DNA and RNA) • (C) Cytosine (DNA and RNA) • A is attached with T by 2 hydrogen bonds
• (G) Guanine (DNA and RNA) • (T) Thymine (DNA only) • G is attached with C by 3 hydrogen bonds
• (U) Uracil in (RNA only) base

Monomer (Nutrients) Polymer

Monosaccharide (glucose) Carbohydrate
Amino Acids Protein
Nucleotide Nucleic acid.
Macromolecule but not Polymer
3 Fatty acids +1 Glycerol Triglycerides (Fats and oils)
2 F.A + 1 Glycerol +1 Phosphate Phospholipid (Cell memb)

In Blood cells, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the

following reaction CO2 + H2O -------> H2CO3
Reactants: CO2 and H2O Products: H2CO3
Enzyme: carbonic anhydrase (Help in carry Co2 in plasma)

Molecules identification
a. Carbohydrate(momosaccahride)(Glucose): C,H,O C=O
b. Fatty acid: C,H,O C>O
c. Phosphate: PO4
d. Glycerol: 3 C connected to 3 (-OH)
e. amino Acid: Contain (NH2) + COOH+ R group
f. Nucleotide: 1 PO4 + 1 Sugar(pentose)+1 Nitrogen base.
g. ATP : 3 PO4 + 1 Sugar(pentose)+1 Nitrogen base
h. Lipid (fat or oil) : 3 F.A + 1 Glycerol.
i. Phospholipid: 2 F.A + 1 Glycerol + 1 Phosphate

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Water: All of the following characteristics of water
(A) Water can adhere to many kinds of surfaces.
(B) Water is an effective solvent.
(C) Water molecules have both a slightly positive and a
slightly negative charge. (polar)
(D) Water molecules have a strong attraction for each other.
(Hydrogen bond)

Nonpolar =don’t mix with water

Substance Polarity
Water Polar
Protein Mostly polar
Lipid Non Polar
Oxygen and Carbon dioxide Non Polar

Vitamin: Organic compound – Can’t be synthesized by animals-

must be ingested- Not all vitamins are required by the same quantity and types to all animals- have different
molecular formula.

 Biochemical cycling of nutrients are very important as the present with finite amount in nature.
 Molecular formula: Group of symbols of different elements shows:
a. Types of atoms. B. Number of atoms.
C. molecular weight. D. Numerical proportions of atoms in the molecule.

 To Change from polymer to monomer( Digestion) (add water)=Breakdown=Hydrolysis

 To Change from monomer to polymer (remove water)=dehydration or condensation or synthesis.

 During the purification of protein or enzyme, keep the sample cool to prevent denaturation.

 Indicators: substances that indicate the presence of a substance by changing in color or form.
Examples: a. Bromothymol blue indicates the presence of acid (blue becomes yellow)
b. Iodine solution indicates the presence of starch (yellow becomes blue)
c. Lime water: indicates the presence of CO2 (Clear becomes cloudy white)
 Starch and glycogen are excellent energy store molecules as:
a. insoluble in water: has no interference with osmotic pressure-abundantly stored.
b. Compact molecules: Doesn’t occupy much space.
c. Easily hydrolyzed to glucose that is easily burned releasing energy.
 Vitamins can be destroyed by heat.

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Chapter2: The Cell
Cell surface area/volume ratio - why cells are small?
 Cell surface area (cell membrane) increases by X2 ● Cell volume (cytoplasm) increases by X3
 Cell membrane can fulfill small cells requirements than large cells

Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria) 0.1 – 1 μ

No nucleus - no membrane bound organelles
Plasmid: small circular DNA Plasma membrane Cytoplasm
Eukaryotic Cells (Fungi - Plants - Animals) 1- 10 μ (Nucleus - chromosomal DNA - all organelles)

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Organelles F u n c t i o n
Chromatin network, chromosomes, DNA, genes Nucleolus containing RNA
Nucleus
Membrane bounded Organelles

Mitochondria Cellular respiration, ATP (energy) production

Chloroplasts (Plastids) Chlorophyll for photosynthesis (plants and Algae only)

Golgi body Package, modify, shipping, secretion

Lysosomes Intracellular digestion, defense (animal Cell only)

Internal SER Synthesis of steroid hormones and lipids detoxification and storing Ca ions
transpor RER With attached ribosomes for protein synthesis
t
Vacuoles Store cell sap (water –nutrients- wastes)

Centrioles Produce spindle fibers for cell division (animal cell only)
Non Membrane
Bounded

Ribosomes (smallest) Protein synthesis

Cilia / Flagella Microtubules for movement (locomotion)

Microfilaments Small muscles for movement (locomotion)

Non-membranous Structures: (ribosome — chromosome – centrioles)

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Cell or Plasma Membrane

Transport of substances through cell membrane

Passive (diffusion) Active
Conc. gradient With Against
Energy required No Yes (pump)
Direction From high to low From low to high

Diffusion
Simple Facilitated
From Phospholipid bilayer Channel or Carrier protein
Substances (Non-polar) lipids, O2, CO2 Polar ions/a.a/Glucose
Examples Gas exchange/steroid hormones Dialysis
Osmosis: water movement from high water conc. to low water conc.
1- Hypertonic solution, higher (salt/sugar) conc.
 Water moves outside cells —> shrink —> plasmolysis in plants
2- Isotonic solution, equal (salt/ sugar) conc.
 No water movement, 0.9% salt conc. in human/ 5% glucose solution
3- Hypotonic solution, lower (salt, sugar) conc. Water moves inside cells —> swell —> lysis in animals and turgid in
plants
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