L6 the+Cell+Cycle+&+the+Central+Dogma

OVERVIEW: PREVIOUS LECTURE (L5)
❑ What are the four biological macromolecules?
❑ Describe and explain the primary structure &

function of each?
❑ Include some examples of each where relevant.

Lecture 6_Detailed
The cell cycle

&
the Central Dogma
CHAPTER 17
(p. 431 – 438)
Lecture 6_Detailed
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: LECTURE 6
❑ Briefly describe the eukaryotic cell cycle
❑ Briefly explain the Central Dogma
❑ Detail the DNA replication process
❑ Detail the protein replication process

LECTURE 6: HOMEWORK
❑ Animation: mitosis
❑ Animation: transcription
❑ Animation: the genetic code
❑ Animation: translation
❑ RECAP VIDEO: from DNA to protein
❑ Suppose you are advising a professional athlete on protein ingestion

following exercise…
❑ you continue to explain that it will increase muscle protein

synthesis.
❑ the patient ask you to explain what the latter is and why it is
important, what would you tell her?
DNA structure and function: an overview
• Human DNA: organized into 46 separate chromosomes
containing 3 billion base pairs of DNA
• Twenty thousand genes on the 46 chromosomes
• Chromosomes consist of DNA and histones (proteins)
• Throughout most of cell cycle, DNA is loose and diffuse,

referred to as chromatin
• During mitosis, DNA is compacted into chromosomes that are

visible under the microscope, each consisting of two sister
chromatids joined at the centromere
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 17.2 Double-stranded
DNA
Histones
Chromatin
material:
not visible
during
interphase
FYI: a gene is a short segment of

DNA that contains the code, or
recipe, for protein synthesis
One chromatid
Its sister
chromatid
Centromere
Chromosome: visible during mitosis

DNA structure and function: an overview
Three processes essential to DNA function
1. Replication: process of copying the cell’s DNA prior

to cell division
2. Transcription: process of creating a coding

message of a single gene that can be carried out of
the nucleus
3. Translation: process of converting the coded

message into proteins which are useful to the cell
NB: aka the CENTRAL DOGMA

DNA
directs directs
DNA RNA Proteins
direct life’s processes
NB: aka the CENTRAL DOGMA

Cell cycle of eukaryotic cells
Two distinct phases
1. Interphase
• G1: cell growth
• S: DNA synthesis
• G2: growth &
preparation for mitosis
2. Mitosis
• nucleus divides
• cytokinesis
Your textbook; Figure 17.1

9
Animation: mitosis

DNA replication…
Replication overview:
copying DNA before cell division
DNA replication
• Process of copying DNA prior to cell division (S phase –
interphase)
• This involves making exact copies of all 46 chromosomes
• Steps
• DNA uncoils and “unzips,” pulling apart the two strands
• A new complementary strand of DNA is built upon each

template strand, using appropriate base-pairing (T-A
and G-C)
• DNA polymerase: major replicating enzyme

DNA replication involves several enzymes
• Helicase (“unzipping enzyme”): open the double helix at

replication forks by disrupting the hydrogen bonds that hold the 2
strands together
• DNA polemerase (“the builder”): replicate DNA molecules from

DNA template, to build a new strand of DNA
DNA replication involves several enzymes
• Primase (“the initialiser”): synthesise primer RNA primer,

which is short nucleic acid sequence that provides a
starting point for DNA synthesis
• Ligase (“the glue”): facilitates the joining of DNA

fragments
NOTE: DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair and

DNA replication
The replication process…
• Replication of DNA molecule begins at special sites called
origin of replication
• These are short specific sequences of DNA nucleotides
• DNA helix unwinds, with the help of helicase
• Single-stranded binding proteins binds to DNA strands to keep

them separated and topoisomerase keeps DNA from super
coiling
• Primase synthesise RNA primers on both strands (so that

DNA polymerase has a starting point)
• Remember DNA polymerase build new strand in 5’ to 3’
direction!
• Hence the lagging strand, and Okazaki fragments
• Ligase facilitates the joining of DNA fragments
Base pairing and directionality of
DNA
Remember: that bases pair up in a complementary fashion
A always pairs with T (double bond)

G always pairs with C (triple bond; stronger)
Strand 1: 3' A T G G C T T 5’
Strand 2: 5’ T A C C G A A 3'
Figure 17.3
Parent New (daughter) Parent

strand strands forming strand
Keys:
= Thymine = Adenine
= Cytosine = Guanine
Base pairing and directionality of DNA
Base pairing and directionality of DNA
Replication
3' 5'
Template
Mutation
• A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism’s
DNA (or RNA)
• Can be large scale or small scale.
• Changes in a single nucleotide pair of a gene = point

mutation
• May or may not have adverse effect on the phenotype

Sickle cell anemia
• Genetic disorder /hereditary disease
• Sickle cell disease is a change in a single

nucleotide. Valine instead of glutamic acid
(normal condition)
23
Protein synthesis…
Replication, transcription, and translation:
an overview
• Transcription
• Process of copying DNA of a gene into mRNA
(messenger ribonucleic acid)
• Occurs within the cell nucleus
• Translation
• Process of converting the mRNA template into one or
more proteins
• Occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes

Transcription: converting a gene’s code
into mRNA
• DNA of a gene unwinds
• RNA polymerase assists in copying base sequence in

RNA nucleotides
• Primary transcript (RNA) made, includes introns

(intervening sequences) and exons
• Introns edited out
• Exons (carry genetic information) are spliced

appropriately
• Messenger RNA strand produced

Figure 17.4
DNA Introns
Exons
Assembly
site
DNA strand not

DNA being transcribed
template
Introns are
edited out. Codons
mRNA
c) The introns are edited
out by enzymes to
produce the final mRNA.
RNA primary transcript
a)The portion of the DNA molecule b)The strand of RNA released from DNA
corresponding to the gene unwinds is called a primary transcript. It contains
temporarily, and a complementary sections that carry genetic information,
strand of RNA is produced from one called exons, and sections that may allow
of the DNA strands. different combinations of genetic information,
called introns.
Animation: transcription

into mRNA
• Genetic code
• The genetic code is a triplet code
• Codon
• Sequence of three mRNA bases
• Codes for amino acids
• Redundancy of the genetic code

• Sixty-four different codons, but 20 different amino acids
• Several different codons encode each amino acid, with

the exception of methionine (AUG, start codon)

into mRNA
• Genetic code
• Codon “grammar”
• Start codon
• AUG (methionine): begins all genes
• Stop codons
• UAA, UAG, UGA: one ends each gene

Figure 17.5 Second position
U C A G
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
Phe Tyr Cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC C
U Ser
UUA UCA UAA Stop UGA Stop A
Leu
UUG UCG UAG Stop UGG Trp G
CUU CCU CAU CGU U

His
CUC CCC CAC CGC C
C Leu Pro Arg
Third position
First position
CUA CCA CAA CGA A

Gln
CUG CCG CAG CGG G
AUU ACU AAU AGU U

Asn Ser
AUC IIe ACC AAC AGC C
A Thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
Lys Arg
AUG Met/start ACG AAG AGG G
GUU GCU GAU GGU U

Asp
GUC GCC GAC GGC C
G Val Ala Gly
GUA GCA GAA GGA A
Glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG G
Phe = Phenylalanine Pro = Proline Gln = Glutamine Cys = Cysteine

Leu = Leucine Thr = Threonine Asn = Asparagine Trp = Tryptophan
Ile = Isoleucine Ala = Alanine Lys = Lysine Arg = Arginine
Met = Methionine Tyr = Tyrosine Asp = Aspartic acid Gly = Glycine
Val = Valine His = Histidine Glu = Glutamic acid
Ser = Serine
Animation: the genetic code

Translation: making a protein from RNA
• Components
• Messenger RNA (mRNA): basically this is a copy of the
“recipe”
• Transfer RNAs (tRNA): relatively small RNA molecules

that escort amino acids to the ribosome (site of
translation)
• Ribosomes made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein

• Contain sites for mRNA and incoming amino acid-tRNA
• Contain the enzymes/factors that catalyze the peptide

bond formation

Translation: making a protein from RNA
• Process
• Initiation
• Initiator tRNA (carrying methionine), start codon
on mRNA, and ribosomal subunits form an
initiation complex
• Elongation
• tRNA brings specific amino acids to developing
protein chain
• Chain elongates one amino acid at a time
• Termination
• Stop codon terminates developing chain, protein is
released from ribosome

Figure 17.6
Amino acids
tRNA captures
free amino acid.
tRNA
Completed protein
Anticodon Bond forms

between amino acids.
His
tRNA anticodon
binds to Val Leu Val
mRNA codon.
Met
Peptide chain
tRNA "Stop"
Ribosomal detaches at
is released. codon
subunits stop codon.
mRNA
Ribosome moves
"Start" codon along mRNA.
Initiation. A tRNA Elongation. tRNA molecules capture free Termination.

carrying the “start” amino acids and bring them to the When a “stop”
anticodon binds to the appropriate codon on the mRNA. As mRNA codon is reached,
smaller ribosomal subunit passes between the two ribosomal subunits, the ribosomal
and to the “start” codon of the ribosome binds to the tRNA and subunits and the
mRNA. The larger catalyzes the formation of the bond between newly formed
ribosomal subunit joins successive amino acids. The tRNA is then protein detach
them. released to find another amino acid. from the mRNA.

Animation: translation

RECAP: from DNA to protein
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG7uCskUOrA
LECTURE 6: HOMEWORK
❑ Animation: mitosis
❑ Animation: transcription
❑ Animation: the genetic code
❑ Animation: translation
❑ RECAP VIDEO: from DNA to protein
❑ Suppose you are advising a professional athlete on protein ingestion

following exercise…
❑ you continue to explain that it will increase muscle protein

synthesis.
❑ the patient ask you to explain what the latter is and why it is
important, what would you tell her?

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OVERVIEW: PREVIOUS LECTURE (L5)

❑ What are the four biological macromolecules?

❑ Describe and explain the primary structure &

❑ Include some examples of each where relevant.

The cell cycle

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: LECTURE 6

❑ Briefly describe the eukaryotic cell cycle

❑ Briefly explain the Central Dogma

❑ Detail the DNA replication process

❑ Detail the protein replication process

❑ RECAP VIDEO: from DNA to protein

❑ Suppose you are advising a professional athlete on protein ingestion

❑ you continue to explain that it will increase muscle protein

• Twenty thousand genes on the 46 chromosomes

• Chromosomes consist of DNA and histones (proteins)

• Throughout most of cell cycle, DNA is loose and diffuse,

• During mitosis, DNA is compacted into chromosomes that are

FYI: a gene is a short segment of

Chromosome: visible during mitosis

1. Replication: process of copying the cell’s DNA prior

2. Transcription: process of creating a coding

3. Translation: process of converting the coded

NB: aka the CENTRAL DOGMA

direct life’s processes

NB: aka the CENTRAL DOGMA

Your textbook; Figure 17.1

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• This involves making exact copies of all 46 chromosomes

• A new complementary strand of DNA is built upon each

• DNA polymerase: major replicating enzyme

• Helicase (“unzipping enzyme”): open the double helix at

• DNA polemerase (“the builder”): replicate DNA molecules from

• Primase (“the initialiser”): synthesise primer RNA primer,

• Ligase (“the glue”): facilitates the joining of DNA

NOTE: DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair and

• These are short specific sequences of DNA nucleotides

• DNA helix unwinds, with the help of helicase

• Single-stranded binding proteins binds to DNA strands to keep

• Primase synthesise RNA primers on both strands (so that

A always pairs with T (double bond)

Parent New (daughter) Parent

• Can be large scale or small scale.

• Changes in a single nucleotide pair of a gene = point

• May or may not have adverse effect on the phenotype

• Genetic disorder /hereditary disease

• Sickle cell disease is a change in a single

• Occurs within the cell nucleus

• Occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• RNA polymerase assists in copying base sequence in

• Primary transcript (RNA) made, includes introns

• Introns edited out

• Exons (carry genetic information) are spliced

• Messenger RNA strand produced

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

DNA strand not

RNA primary transcript

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Redundancy of the genetic code

• Several different codons encode each amino acid, with

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.