INBAR Working Paper

Technical Manual

Bamboo Fodder Production and Utilisation

Practices in Ethiopia

Yigardu Mulatu1, Eyob Gebregziabhear2, Getu Kitaw2, and Beksisa Urge2

2022

1
Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, Ethiopia
2
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Ethiopia
©The International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation 2022

This publication is licensed for use under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0
Unported Licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0). To view this licence visit: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-
nc-sa/3.0/

About the International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation

The International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation, INBAR, is an intergovernmental organisation

dedicated to the promotion of bamboo and rattan for sustainable development. For more information,
please visit www.inbar.int.

About this Working Paper

This training manual was produced as part of the Intra-Africa Bamboo Smallholder Farmers Livelihood
Development Programme, implemented by the International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation (INBAR)
and funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation

P.O. Box 100102-86, Beijing 100102, China Tel: +86 10 64706161; Fax: +86 10 6470 2166 Email:
info@inbar.int

© 2022 International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation (INBAR)

2
 Table of Content

Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Acronyms ................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 6
2. Bamboo production and availability in Ethiopia ...................................................................... 8
2.1. Bamboo forest cover and distribution in Ethiopia ............................................................. 8
2.2. Bamboo branch and leaf development ......................................................................... 9
2.3. Bamboo biomass allocation among plant components................................................10
2.4. Bamboo fodder yield estimation from Ethiopian forests ..................................................13
2.5. Estimated bamboo leaf hay availability to ruminant livestock in Ethiopia .....................15
3. Laboratory evaluation of major bamboo fodder species ........................................................16
3.1. General perspective .......................................................................................................16
3.2. A nutritive value study on three bamboo species in Ethiopia: synthesis on formulating
feed standards.......................................................................................................................18
4. Bamboo Feed Management Practices ..................................................................................21
4.1. Harvesting and transporting ............................................................................................21
4.2. Bamboo leaf feeding methods ........................................................................................24
4.3. Processing and storing bamboo leaf hay ........................................................................24
4.4. Bamboo feeding practices ..............................................................................................25
5. Bamboo as animal feed ........................................................................................................25
5.1. Feeding bamboo fodder to small ruminants ....................................................................26
5.2. Feeding bamboo fodder to large ruminants ....................................................................27
5.3. Feeding bamboo fodder to non-ruminants ......................................................................29
6. Animal health responses and values in bamboo fodder supplementation .............................30
7. Animal health indices in relation to proportion of bamboo leaf supplementation and
parameter-based ration for lactating cross-bred cows under Ethiopian conditions ................32
8. Research gaps in bamboo fodder production, feeding and health intervention in Ethiopia ....33
References ...............................................................................................................................35

3
Preface

Livestock production in Ethiopia contributes greatly to farmers’ income and the overall Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in Ethiopia. Despite the country being endowed with various feed
resources, including perennial fodder plants, shortage of feed supply and poor nutritional quality
of available feed resources have become major constraints affecting livestock productivity in the
country. Associated with the increase in the population of the country, which demanded more land
for food crop production, most of the natural pastures and forest lands are being brought under
cultivation.

On the other hand, Ethiopia has two indigenous bamboo species namely Arundinaria alpine (new
name: Oldeania alpina) and Oxytenanthera abyssinica covering a considerably big area which
beyond culm production can also cover a considerable component of livestock feed. These two
species grow in highland areas of altitude 2400-3500 masl and lowland areas from 500-1800
masl.

This manual provides basic information and knowledge about bamboo production and availability
in Ethiopia, nutritive values of bamboo fodder species, bamboo fodder best bet management
practices, improved bamboo fodder feeding packages for ruminant livestock, health management
of animals feeding on bamboo fodder species and research gaps of bamboo fodder production

4
Acronyms

ADF Acid Detergent Fibre

AGTDW Aboveground Total Dry Weight

ARC Agricultural Research Council

BGTDW Belowground Total Dry Weight

CP Crude Protein

DM Dry Matter

EFCCC Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission

His Histidine

INBAR International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation

kg culm−1 Kilogram per culm

Leu leucine

NDF Neutral Detergent Fibre

NRC National Agricultural Research

masl meter above sea level

TB Total Biomass (dry weight basis)

t ha−1 tone/ha

PCV Packed Cell Volume

Trp tryptophan

USDA-ARS Unites States Development Agency-Agricultural Research

Service

WRI World Resources Institute

5
1. Introduction
Human population growth, urbanisation and income improvements are causes of increased
demands for foods of animal origin in developing countries. Developing countries are often
characterised by poor productivity of livestock species and low-quality and seasonally fluctuating
feed resources, which adversely affect livestock. Approximately 50% of the livestock basal feed
resources in Ethiopia come from crop residues, which are nutritionally characterised by a high
proportion of cell walls and are deficient in energy, protein and micronutrients.

Accordingly, research and development efforts have been going on to narrow down the gap in
animal feed quality and find potential basal feed resources. However, the scale of fodder
production and utilisation undertaken by smallholder farmers in the country has shown uneven
success rates and has been inadequate for meeting the required goals. As researchers continue
to identify potential basal feed resources among indigenous, locally adaptive fodder materials,
one such feed resource that has displayed promising futuristic feed potential is a leaf component
obtained from an unconventionally used browse species called ‘bamboo’.

There are two indigenous bamboo species growing in lowland and highland areas in Ethiopia,
namely Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. rich) Munro, commonly called lowland bamboo (Figure 1,
top) and (2) Oldeania alpina syn. Yushania alpina k. Schum, Arundinaria alpina, commonly called
highland bamboo (Figure 1, middle). Moreover, seven exotic bamboo species are found to be
adaptive under the Ethiopian climatic and soil conditions (Figure 1, bottom).

Bamboo is a multi-purpose perennial woody plant of the grass family and is used in construction
and furniture making, as well as firewood, food, and animal feed. Bamboo leaf provides cheap,
palatable animal feed that has a better feeding value than natural pasture hay and is a good
substitute for grass hay during dry periods. Since bamboo plants yield bamboo leaves year round
in the climate to which they are adapted, they are a potential feed source in the dry season, when
feed availability for animals in most tropical countries is scarce.

The objective of this manual is to guide the production, harvesting, processing and utilisation of
bamboo fodder. This manual also serves as a reference material for future research needs in
bamboo management for fodder production, utilisation and applications in health intervention
practices.

6
Figure 1. The two indigenous bamboo species of Ethiopia: lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera
abyssinica), top; highland bamboo (Oldeania alpina), middle and introduced bamboo
species (Dendrocalamus asper) under a pilot site, bottom.

7
2. Bamboo production and availability in Ethiopia
2.1. Bamboo forest cover and distribution in Ethiopia
Ethiopia possesses a significant amount of bamboo resources, comprising highland and lowland
species. Based on a recent remote-sensing-based inventory conducted by INBAR (2018), the
country has a total of 1.47 million ha of bamboo forest cover and over three million ha of land
suitable for bamboo forest plantation and restoration (EFCCC and WRI, 2020). The geographical
distribution of bamboo in the country is governed largely by climate and soil conditions.

Highland bamboo (Oldeania alpina) grows naturally in the south, southwest, central and northwest
highlands of Ethiopia (Figure 2, upper right) at altitudes ranging from 2200 to 3500 masl (Yigardu,
2018) and constitutes approximately 35% of the bamboo resource of the country. The most
common rainfall range for the species is 1200–4,000 mm per year (Kelbessa et al, 2000). This
species is also found in many other African countries.

Lowland bamboo grows at 500–1800 masl, at a mean annual temperature between 20 and 35°C
and at a mean annual rainfall of 1150 mm; however, it can also tolerate erratic mean annual
rainfall as low as 600 mm (PROTA, 2016). In Ethiopia, lowland bamboo is found in lowland agro
climatic zones (Figure 2, upper left), which are mostly confined to the western side of the country.
Amajor portion of lowland bamboo forests is found in the Combretum–Terminalia deciduous
woodlands of western Ethiopia, together with other associated grasslands. Lowland bamboo
grows in five regions in Ethiopia: Benishangul-Gumuz, Oromia, Amhara, Gambela and Tigray
(Yigardu et al, 2016). Constituting 65% of the total indigenous bamboo forest cover in Ethiopia
(INBAR, 2018), lowland bamboo is distributed throughout tropical Africa, outside the humid forest
zone, in more than 30 countries. Exotic bamboo species in Ethiopia are tested at different sites
(Figure 2, bottom) and are still only at the piloting stage.

8
Figure 2: Lowland bamboo-growing regions and districts (upper left), highland bamboo-growing
regions and districts (upper right) and experimental sites growing introduced bamboo
(lower) species (Yigardu, 2021; EEFRI GIS and Biometrics Unit)

2.2. Bamboo branch and leaf development

Branching begins either after the culm has ceased elongation or in the following growth season.
Leaves start developing within 2-4 weeks from the developing branches. The development of
leaves and branches arising from the culm nodes above the middle portion of the culm continues
into the dry season. One-year-old culms have a lower number of leaves compared with older
culms. Significantly more leaves are found in bamboo culms that are 2–3 years old. Afterwards,
as the culm age increases, the number of leaves decreases (Banik and Islam, 2005). For instance,
five-year-old culms contain fewer leaves hence have little contribution to photosynthesis and the
overall health of the clump (Kleinhenz and Midmore, 2001).

9
The number and diameter of new culms that develop from a young stand increase with the age
of the stand until it reaches its maximum production potential, which is associated with the
maximum culm size and stocking. Thus, the age of a bamboo stand is a determining factor in
predicting growth of bamboo in general.

2.3. Bamboo biomass allocation among plant components

The allocation of biomass to plant parts varies greatly from one part to the other. The parts of a
bamboo plant are classified as culm, rhizome, branches and leaf. In carbon allocation studies
conducted by different researchers, the order of biomass allocation to these plant parts was found
to be culm > rhizome > branch > leaf. The allocation to leaves is often the least. The biomass
allocation among the plant parts of indigenous bamboo species (Oxytenanthera abyssinica and
Oldeania alpina), as investigated by different studies, is presented in Table 1 below.

10
Table 1. Biomass allocation in indigenous bamboo species (Oxytenanthera abyssinica and Oldeania alpina)
Species Biomass allocation Biomass allocation Number of Location Reference
to plant parts per unit area or culms/ha
culm
O. abyssinica AGB allocation: culm AGB: 25.38 t 9000 Natural forest at Dicho Fekadu et al (2016)
75.95%,branch ha−1; forest, Wollega zone,
13.29%,leaf 10.76%. culm 2.17; Gidda Ayana district,
branches 0.35; dominated by small
leaf 0.3 Kg/plant; diameter culms
O. abyssinica TB: 14.58 t ha−1 AGB 2.77 8000 Agroforest, Tigray, Ethiopia Darcha and Birhane
(AGB 11.47 t ha−1; andBGB 0.7485 [adopting (2015)
BGB 3.11 t ha−1 ) kg culm-1 LUSO (1997)]
O. abyssinica - AGTDW 70.3 t 8000 Natural forest at Anbesa LUSO Consult
ha−1 Chaka, Bambassi district (1997)
O. abyssinica - - 40,000 (plot- Plantation forest, Pawe on Yigardu (2016)
level records station (Pawe Agricultural
from a 4 m × Research Center
4 m spacing compound)
and an
average
medium-
sized clump
with 73
culms/clump
Sympodial AGB ratio: culm 7–200 t ha−1 - - Kleinhenz and
bamboos 77%,branches 13%, (ATDW) Midmore(2001)
leaves10%;
belowground
biomass is only
20.08% of the total
biomass
A. alpina Allocation to TAGB: 51–110 t 8,840 Natural forest at Masha LUSO CONSULT
(O. alpina) rhizome15.5% ha−1; zone, W Ethiopia; farmers; (1997); Kassahun
bamboo forest in the Embaye(2003)
Injibara-Awi zone, NW
Ethiopia

11
A, alpina Biomass allocation TDW65–117 t 11,000– Farmers’ forest/plantation, Yigardu (2012)
(O. alpina) toleaf 5%–9%, culm ha−1; 20,000 at Choke Mountain, East
65%–69%,rhizome AGTDW 56–99 t Gojjam Zone, Sinan district
14%– ha−1
17%,branch9%–
12%

Note: AGB=Aboveground Biomass; BGB=Belowground Biomass; TDW=Total Dry Weight; AGTDW=Aboveground Total Dry Weight

12
2.4. Bamboo fodder yield estimation from Ethiopian forests
The bamboo fodder yield per unit area or plant depends on the species type, management
condition of the bamboo stand and specific site at which the bamboo is growing. If a bamboo
stand remains unmanaged and/or no proper harvesting is applied, its productivity both at
individual plant and stand-levels is adversely affected. Bamboo stands that have a good stand
structure usually have an optimal age structure, optimal density, an even culm distribution in the
growing area, a regular culm size among plants and a high leaf area index (Yigardu et al, 2016).
Components such as the weight of culms, branches and leaves of a bamboo plant depend on the
growth of the whole plant, which is affected by the aforementioned factors.

Table 2 and 3 show the biomass yield (per unit area and per plant) of natural (current state) and
bamboo plantation stands developed in different parts of Ethiopia which help in the estimation of
bamboo leaf yield in terms of tropical livestock unit (TLU).

Table 2. Leaf biomass yield estimate for natural and plantation lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera
abyssinica) forests of Ethiopia

Leaf biomass per ha in natural lowland bamboo forests

1. Leaf biomass per ha in natural lowland bamboo forests:

9000 plants/ha × 0.3 kg leaf/plant =2,700 kg/ha =2.7 t/ha (Fekadu, 2016).
2. 70.3 t/ha AGTDW × 10.76% biomass allocation to leaf
= 7.56428 t/ha of leaf yield (LUSO CONSULT, 1997).
Thus,leaf yield from natural bamboo forests ranges from 2.7 t/hato 7.56 t/ha.
3. Considering the average value of the two estimates, which is 5.13 t/ha, and assuming that 25%
of the bamboo stock per ha is harvested annually for holistic purposes, the annual average leaf
yield can be estimated as 1.29 t/ha (DM basis) (Ref. ?)
4. Sixty-five percent of Ethiopian bamboo resources, which is 955,500 ha, is lowland bamboo, i.e.
the annual national lowland bamboo leaf yield can be estimated as
1.29 t /ha ×955,500 ha = 1,232,595 t.
Leaf biomass per ha in plantation lowland bamboo forests
1. 40,000 plants/ha × 0.3 kg/plan=12,000 kg/ha=12 t/ha (Fekadu, 2016; Yigardu et al, 2016).
2. Considering 25% of the annual harvest of bamboo for holistic purposes, the leaf yield that can
be harvested annually in one hectare of lowland bamboo forest can be estimated as 3 t/ha.
3. In this case, the bamboo leaf yield per ha of plantation bamboo forests doubles compared with
the leaf yield from natural bamboo forests.However, currently,the availability of lowland
bambooplantation forests is limited,as plantationbegan approximately 5–6 years ago as an
emerging forestry practice.

13
Table 3. Leaf biomass yield estimate fornatural and plantation highland bamboo (Oldeania
alpina) forests in different parts of Ethiopia, based on investigations by different
authors

Leaf biomass per ha in natural highland bamboo forests

1. Leaf biomass per ha in natural highland bamboo forests:

59.25 t/ha of TDW × 7% allocation to leaf [extrapolated from Kassahun (2000)]
=4.15 t/ha total leaf yield/ha.

2. Assuming that 25% of the bamboo stock per ha is harvested annually for holistic purposes,
the average annual leaf yield can be estimated as4.15 t/ha × 25%= 1.04 t/ha [dry matter
(DM) basis].

3. Thirty-five percent of Ethiopian bamboo resources, which is 514,500 ha, is highland

bamboo,
i.e. the annual national lhighland bamboo leaf yield can be estimated as
1.04 t /ha ×514,500 ha =535,080.00 t.
Leaf biomass per ha in plantation highland bamboo forests

Leaf biomass per ha in plantation highland bamboo forests:

1. 91 t/ha of TDW × 7% allocation to leaf [extrapolated from Yigardu(2016)]

=6.37 t/ha total leaf yield.

2. Assuming that 25% of the bamboo stock per ha is harvested annually for holistic purposes, the
average annual leaf yieldcan be estimated as 6.37 t/ha × 25%=1.59 t/ha (DM basis).
In this case, the bamboo leaf yield per ha in highland bamboo plantation forests is higher
than that from natural bamboo forests.
However, plantation bamboo forests in Ethiopia are found only as agroforests; hence,the
extent of their cover is not well determined.

The abovementioned information indicates that the bamboo leaf yield from the natural bamboo
forests of Ethiopia, which cover a large proportion of the national estimate, could reach 1,767,675
t (1,232,595 tons from lowland bamboo +535,080.00 t from highland bamboo).

14
2.5. Estimated bamboo leaf hay availability to ruminant livestock in
Ethiopia
1. 1 TLU= 250 kg, assuming that the animal consumes dry feed at 3% of its body weight.

2. With the further assumption that an adult ruminant consumes bamboo fodder at the rate
of 50% of its total feed DM requirement per TLU, the daily requirement for bamboo leaf
per TLU can be calculated as follows:

Total Feed DM/TLU = 250 × 3% live body weight = 7.5 kg on a DM basis.

Bamboo leaf requirement = 7.5 × 50% = 3.8 kg DM basis/TLU/day

3. The national bamboo leaf yield, which is bamboo leaf yield from the natural bamboo
forests of Ethiopia, which cover a vast majority of the national estimate, reaches 1,767,675
t (1,232,595 t from lowland bamboo + 535,080.00 t from highland bamboo).
4. If all bamboo leaf is used as a roughage source, the annual bamboo fodder production in
the country could then support the basal feed requirements of
1,275,901.23 TLU.

Thus, the availability potential of bamboo as fodder to small and large ruminants is estimated as
follows (Table 4).

15
Table 4. Availability potential of bamboo as fodder to small and large ruminants, along with TLU
estimates in Ethiopia

2019/2000 Recommen TLU (A*B) Total Total Total number

Type of estimate ded annual bamboo of TLUs
animal (CSA, conversion bamboo fodder supported by
2021) units fodder hay the current
supply requirem annual
(C) (t) ent per bamboo
(B) TLU/ann fodder hay
(A) (D) um (t) production
(TLU)
(E) (F)
Large ruminants
70,291,776 31,631,29
Cattle 0.45 - - -
9
31,631,29
Subtotal
9
Small ruminants

Goat 52,463,535 0.1 5,246,354 - - -

Sheep 42,914,865 0.1 4,291,487 - - -

Subtotal - - 9,537,841
Total 41,169,14 1,769,67 3.8 × 1,769,675
5 365/1000 /1.387=
0
= 1.387 t 1,275,901.23

3. Laboratory evaluation of major bamboo fodder species

3.1. General perspective
Bamboo shoots and leaves are very nutritious and have been used for human consumption and
as animal feed for several years. Although several studies have evaluated the nutrient value of
bamboo shoots (Choudhury et al, 2012; Singhal et al, 2013), only a few have focused on bamboo
leaves (Halvorson et al, 2010). Bamboo leaves are used as a feed source for goats, sheep, yaks
and cattle. However, there is a lack of information available on the nutrient value of leaves
harvested indifferent seasons and at specific locations. This greatly hinders its utilisation as a
food or feed crop.

Eyob (2016) reported the contents of dried lowland bamboo hay as follows: DM = 911.2,ash
=103.6, organic matter (OM) = 807.6, crude protein (CP) = 205, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) =

16
730.4, acid detergent fibre(ADF) = 408, acid detergent lignin(ADL) = 87, hemicellulose = 322.4
and cellulose = 321 g/kg. Andriarimalala et al. (2019) reported the contents of DM, total ash and
CP in bamboo leaves as 44.5%–64.6%, 6.68%–18.5% and 7.71%–15.4%, respectively. In a
feeding trial conducted to determine the optimal amount of bamboo as fodder for dairy cattle, the
DM intake of bamboo leaves ranged from 1.6 to 7.1 kg per day, with an average of 4.8 kg per
day. The DM apparent digestibility of bamboo leaves from the same trial was 37.4%–56.4%, while
milk production reached 13.6–14.4 per cow per day; however, there was no significant difference
concerning the rate of bamboo leaves in the mixed diet included at rates ranging from 0% to
100%replacement of the conventionally used maize-silage-based basal diet. The authors
concluded that the introduction of bamboo leaves into ruminants’ diets did not affect the milk
production performances of lactating dairy cows.

The nutrient value of bamboo leaves depends on several factors, including the bamboo species,
harvesting season and growing location. In a related study conducted in the USA by Wang et al
(2017), leaf CP content, amino acid composition and mineral element concentration were
quantified from leaf samples collected from 222 accessions representing two bamboo types
(temperate/tropical), two growing seasons (dry/wet) and three locations. Significant variability in
leaf nutrient value was identified among accessions, types, growing locations and harvesting
seasons. On average, bamboo leaf tissue contained 12.92% protein, with relatively high
percentages of leucine (Leu, 8.97%) and proline (Pro, 7.98%), and low percentages of tryptophan
(Trp, 1.69%) and histidine (His, 2.01%).

Bamboo leaves also contained relatively high concentrations of macro-mineral elements such as
potassium (K, 12.17mg/g) and calcium (Ca, 5.37mg/g), high concentrations of micro-mineral
elements such as manganese (Mn, 388.76 μg/g) and iron (Fe, 123.19 μg/g) and low
concentrations of boron (B, 7.8 μg/g) and zinc (Zn, 28.56 μg/g). Wang et al reported an average
protein content of 12.92% (minimum 5.78%, maximum 21.69%) from nutritive analysis of leaf
collected from 222 accessions which represent two commonly available bamboos in the USDA-
ARS. Temperate bamboo contained a significantly higher percentage of protein (13.02%)
compared with tropical bamboo (12.71%). Leaf samples harvested from the dry season contained
a significantly higher percentage of protein (13.12%) compared with leaf samples harvested from
the wet season (12.70%).

Of the more than 23 introduced bamboo species in Ethiopia, nutritive values, i.e. moisture content
(MC), ash content (Ash), OM, nitrogen content (N), CP, DM, ADF, NDF, ADL, cellulose and
hemicellulose, weredetermined by Desalegne et al (2019)for four species: Dendrocalamus
17
hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus membranaceus, Bambussa vulgaris and Guadua amplexifolia.
B.vulgaris, D. hamiltonii and D. membranaceous had the highest DM (dry weight basis), (95.3%–
95.8%) and CP (28%–31%). The CP values are higher than the recommendations given by
Andriarimalala et al (2019). The study showed that the leaves of these introduced bamboo
species have good amounts of OM and CP and can be used for animal feed substitution,
especially in dry seasons, when fodder availability is scarce. On the other hand, these species
have NDF ADF and ADL values of 69.67%–72%, 38.67%–43.67% and 6.33%–7.33%,
respectively, which indicates that these species have poor palatability, intake and digestibility.
Thus, reducing these values requires devising different feed treatments or feeding systems.

3.2. A nutritive value study on three bamboo species in Ethiopia: synthesis

on formulating feed standards
As a rule of thumb, the feed given to ruminant livestock should always follow the nutritional
requirements of the animals, which can be directly obtained from feeding standard tables, such
as the National Agricultural Research (NRC) feeding standard of the USA, the Agricultural
Research Council (ARC) feeding standard of the UK, etc. Thus, it requires taking into account the
animals’ physiological requirements for a certain level of production based on age, sex, breed,
physiological stages, etc.

As part of the Intra-Africa Bamboo Smallholder Farmers Livelihood Development Programme,

experimentation and trials were conducted on the use of bamboo leaves as fodder for livestock
in Ethiopia between November and February 2020. For this purpose, values in the proximate
composition (Table 5) of experimental leaves from commonly available local (Oxytenanthera
abyssinica and Oldeania alpina) and one introduced bamboo species (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii)
in Ethiopia were determined. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii had the highest ash, CP, NDF and ADF
contents, followed by highland species. Lowland bamboo, on the other hand, had the highest DM
content and the lowest cell wall constituents of NDF, ADF and lignin.

Species containing more than 30%DM and 50%OM in DM are generally considered good fodders
(Bhandari et al, 2015). In fresh fodder, a DM content of less than 15% may restrict the voluntary
intake of ruminants, as higher water content within the plant cell causes bulkiness in the feed
(Tinworth et al, 1999). The mean value for DM content (wet weight basis) in the bamboo species
analysed in the present study was well above 15%. Total ash content is considered a good
criterion to gauge the total mineral content of a plant material. A mean total ash value exceeding

18
10%, according to Andriarimalala et al (2019), can be considered acceptable. Bamboo fodder
samples from the present study had a mean total ash content of 12.1%. According to
Andriarimalala et al (2019), fodder species with CP values ranging between 10% and 15% can
be considered to be of moderate quality. In general, the leaves of the evaluated bamboo fodder
species had CP contents ranging between 13.3%and15.9% per cent on a DM basis, with higher
values corresponding to the introduced bamboo species. Thus, the mean CP content of all
bamboo fodder species from the study would qualify the threshold CP required to optimise the
nitrogen requirements for ruminal microbial proliferation, whose activity would in turn positively
affect the kinetics of ruminal feed digestion.

According to Van Saun (2006), forage grass with less than 50% NDF is described as high quality,
whereas grass with an NDF greater than 60% is considered low quality. Therefore, all bamboo
species from the current study with an NDF value of >60% are considered poor-quality fodder, as
the voluntary feed intake and availability of energy from digestible energy is negatively related to
the NDF content in fodder (Bhandari et al, 2015). Bamboo fodder species from the current trial
had a mean ADF value of 46.6%, which is nearly comparable to the value recommended by
MacDonald et al (2002). ADF was highest in the introduced (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii) species
and lowest in the lowland bamboo species (Oxytenanthera abyssinica).

Lignin is indigestible and makes the carbohydrates in the fibre less available, which results in less
available energy. It reduces the digestibility of the cell wall carbohydrates (primarily
hemicelluloses and cellulose), with which it is co-bonded. The lignin value from our study
conforms well to the ADL values reported earlier by Andriarimalalaet al (2019). It also falls within
the range of 10%–20%ADL reported by Bhandari et al (2015), who assessed and evaluated
14bamboo species based on their fodder quality, genetic divergence and nutritional and forage
quality merits. According to the latter, bamboo fodder species within that range are often
considered to be of moderate quality. This result further implies that the bamboo species available
in Ethiopia have the potential to be used as fodder for ruminants.

Table 5. Chemical nutritional characterisation of bamboo fodder collected from the Awi zone,
north western Ethiopia

Bamboo species DM Ash CP NDF ADF Lignin

Highland bamboo (O. alpina) 43.7 12.2 14.5 75.1 46.4 12.2

19
 Introduced bamboo (D. hamiltonii) 40.4 13.2 15.9 77.7 50.3 12.6

Lowland bamboo (O. abyssinica) 46.7 11.1 13.3 73.4 44.1 9.5

DM: dry matter; CP: crude protein; NDF: neutral detergent fibre; ADF: acid detergent fibre

A B

C D

Figure 3: Nutritive value analysis underway: faecal sample processing (thawing, drying and oven
drying) for subsequent laboratory analysis (A,B); bamboo leaf sample dry weight
determination using the oven-drying method (C); NIRS scanning of feed offer, refusal and
faecal samples for major proximate and detergent analysis (D)

20
4. Bamboo Feed Management Practices
4.1. Harvesting and transporting
A household assessment on the use of indigenous bamboo species as ruminant feed source in
Amhara and Benishangul-Gumuz regions of Ethiopia by Eyob et al. (2021, unpublished) indicated
that no respondents cultivate bamboo for its fodder. Experiences of the interviewees so far show
that bamboo fodder harvesting is mainly associated with harvesting bamboo culms for other uses
such as construction and making furniture. Farmers have good indigenous knowledge about when
to harvest bamboo leaves, which generally involves looking at the physical characteristics (size,
colour, texture and height) of bamboo plants. According to the survey results, most respondents
reported that 2–3-year-old culms have more soft and green leaves which can be used for fodder.
However, the method of harvesting should follow scientific processes and techniques. Farmers
utilise the culm for sale, construction, furniture and fencing and leaves for their animals. Eyob et
al. (2021, unpublished) and Yigardu (2012) indicate that farmers feed their animals by bending
bamboo culms to create access to the level of the browsing height of animals.
The communities in north-western Ethiopia, such as those in the Awi zone and the Assosa zone,
feed their livestock on communal or privately owned bamboo stands by picking leaves from
standing bamboo plants, although not often (Figure 4), and by bending (Figure 5, right) bamboo
culms that are naturally positioned at the upper parts of the plants and are out of the reach of
animals. An alternative way of harvesting bamboo leaves from a standing bamboo plant is to use
a simple tool that includes a sickle or knife attached to one end of a long pole (Figure 5, left).

21
Figure 4: Bamboo leaf collection from lowland bamboo clump plantation (left) and flowered
bamboo stand (right); bamboos in their reproductive phase naturally carry little or no
leaves, while stands in a mature phase carry more leaves and are, therefore, good
sources of animal fodder

The unrecognised benefit of bamboo in Ethiopia is its feed value. This has been demonstrated in
the years 2010–2020 (Yigardu, 2021), when lowland bamboo was flowering progressively in the
Benishangul-Gumuz region. Discussions with the community revealed that animal feed continues
to have the highest constraints in the livestock sector.

In the Assosa market, for instance, it is common to see bamboo leaves as a marketable
commodity. Bamboo feed collectors cut bamboo leaves, organise them in bundles and transport
them to market places either by carrying or, in areas where there are asphalt roads, by using
wheel barrows or vehicles (Figure 6).

22
 Figure 5.Bamboo fodder harvesting by using a cutting knife attached to a long pole, feeding by
bending the bamboo plant (middle top), feeding after harvesting (middle, bottom),
transporting bamboo fodder using human transport (right, top) and using cart (right,
bottom)

Figure 6. Bamboo fodder transportation in Assosa district, north-western Ethiopia

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4.2. Bamboo leaf feeding methods

Farmers have limited information on how to feed bamboo leaves to their animals. Normally, the
feeding method depends on the animal (species, type, habit, age and physiology), season and
location. Leaves can be chopped up to 5–10 cm in length and can be fed. The experience of
farmers in the Awi and Assosa zones, north-western Ethiopia, in feeding their animals is generally
observed as follows.

4.2.1. Cut and carry

Lowland bamboo is a relatively short plant compared with highland bamboo, so its leaves are
reachable and can be collected. By cutting the top of the bamboo plant, sideway branches get a
chance to grow and become accessible to the animals. Moreover, the maturity stages of leaves
differ due to the age differences in culms. Therefore, the cut and carry system is the appropriate
method of feeding bamboo leaves to animals.

4.2.2. Bending

Most farmers in the Awi zone and some farmers in the Assosa zone bend their bamboo for
livestock feeding. This is a common practice in the highlands where bamboo grows in backyards.

4.2.3. Collecting fallen leaves

Once leaves fall from a tree and decompose, they serve as a good source of organic matter for
earthworms and microorganisms. However, in the Awi and Assosa zones, some farmers use
fallen leaves to feed their animals when feed availability is scarce.

4.2.4. Supplement feeding

Farmers in the study area also feed bamboo leaves to their animals by mixing them with other
ingredients, such as leftovers/residues of a local alcoholic drink, known as ‘atela’ in Amharic, as
well as crop residue after sprinkling a salt solution, which enhances palatability.

4.3. Processing and storing bamboo leaf hay

Farmers in north-western Ethiopia have limited experience storing bamboo leaf hay for their
animals. Although bamboo leaf is always available, it is much more beneficial for farmers to feed
their animals while it is green. Currently, only some farmers collect dry and store bamboo leaf hay
in dry and clean places until the time to feed their animals comes. There is also a big opportunity
for farmers to collect shattered or fallen leaves in the dry season and store them in dry areas so
as to feed their animals when feed availability is scarce. In the Awi zone, most farmers do not
24
collect shattered bamboo leaves from the ground. It brings an awful odour that makes the leaves
unpalatable for animals. Thus, it is advisable that farmers collect freshly fallen bamboo leaves,
dry them properly and finally store them in a safe place. In Assosa, during the dry season, forest
fires are deliberately initiated to enhance grass rejuvenation. At this time, there is a great feed
deficit. Therefore, conservation of bamboo leaf hay would fill the gap.

4.4. Bamboo feeding practices

In Ethiopia, bamboo leaves are fed to animals either in fresh or dried form. Fresh bamboo leaves
are highly preferred by animals. Bamboo fodder green can also be sun-dried, chopped and fed to
animals by mixing it with natural pasture hay, as shown in Figure 7. As an indigenous activity,
farmers in the Awi and Assosa zones collect fallen dried bamboo leaves from their bamboo
stands, mix them with crop residue and provide them to their animals when feed availability is
scarce. Dried bamboo leaves should be stored indry and clean places so that they can be
provided as feed to animals via mixing with other feed types, as required.

Figure 7. Bamboo feeding experiment: chopping dried bamboo fodder (left); weighing the
experimental feed to feed cows in the morning (right)

5. Bamboo as animal feed

Farmers in different parts of the world recognise that foliage and leaves of different bamboo
species/varieties have been well relished and consumed by ruminants and non-ruminants, wild
animals and fish (Deng et al, 2007; Denbeshu, 2010). Yeshambel et al (2012) revealed that in
Ethiopia, animals can consume both twigs and leaves of bamboo. Similar findings were reported
by Miah and Hossain (2001) in Bangladesh.

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5.1. Feeding bamboo fodder to small ruminants
Small ruminants are efficient browsers and can hence be considered very good candidates to
benefit from bamboo fodder species grown in different parts of the country. Traditionally, farmers
in bamboo-growing lowland and highland regions of the country feed their sheep and goats by
letting them browse green leaves and twigs of bent culm (Eyob et al, 2021, in press). An attempt
was made by Yeshambel et al (2012) to evaluate the effect of feeding bamboo leaf hay as a
replacement of natural pasture hay to a fast-growing local sheep from the ‘Washera’ breed.
Accordingly, the sheep was managed to grow daily at the rate of 37 g/day to attain a final yearling
marketable weight of 26.8 kg. In another but related study, Eyob et al (2010) achieved 21 kg live
weight for a yearling Gumz sheep fed on a teff straw basal diet supplemented with a concentrate
and bamboo leaf hay mixed in the ratio of 67:33. In general, the following approximate
recommendations (Table 8) can be used regardless of the differences in bamboo fodder species
and leaf harvesting stages, seasonal variations in bamboo leaf quality and animal variability,
which include physiological factors, age, breed, etc.

Table 6. Proportions of each ingredient in bamboo leaf hay-based ration (DM basis) for small
ruminants under Ethiopian conditions

Feed ingredient Recommended proportion in the diet (g/day, DM

basis)

Good quality fresh/dry roughage hay Can accommodate less than 50% of the basal mix

Bamboo leaf hay/green foliage Replace 50%–100% of conventionally used roughage

through direct browsing diet (~300–700)

Concentrate mix (>20% CP) 300–400

Water Ad libitum

Source: Eyob et al (2016); Yeshambel et al (2012); good-quality roughage refers to natural

pasture grass hay and roughage obtained from improved cultivate annual/perennial
forage crops

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5.2. Feeding bamboo fodder to large ruminants
In Ethiopia, there is a lack of application of feed technologies and limited experience with bamboo
feeding systems. This limited experience was observed during field observations aimed at
upgrading the palatability of bamboo fodder in comparison with other countries.

Feed shortage during the dry season in the highlands of Ethiopia negatively impacts dairy cattle
productivity as well as farmers’ income. Bamboo can produce a large quantity of biomass and
could be an alternative way to increase the fodder supply for cattle. Thus far, very limited data are
available on bamboo’s utilisation as fodder for dairy cattle. Andriarimalala et al (2019) reported a
higher mean daily milk yield when bamboo leaf hay replaced 50% maize silage and was
supplemented with 4 kg of concentrate per cow per day. The same author further reported that
bamboo can completely replace maize silage without any significant reduction in the daily milk
yield of cows. Unpublished data (Getu et al, inpress) from a feeding trial (Figure 8) conducted on
high-grade (3/4 Boran local Zebu X Holstein Frisian) lactating cows under Ethiopian conditions
indicated that a higher daily milk yield was recorded when the cows were fed an ad libitum basal
diet composed of a mixture of dried bamboo leaf hay and natural pasture hay in the ratio of 50:50
and additionally supplemented with a concentrate diet at the rate of 0.5 kg per litre of milk
produced from the cows. From global as well as local research experience, the following feeding
practice (Table 9) can be adopted to improve the yield from dairy cattle maintained on bamboo-
fodder-based total rations.

27
Figure 8. Feeding and digestibility trials underway at the Holetta Agricultural Research Center,
Ethiopia: an experimental cow feeding on bamboo fodder (top left and middle)and
drinking from a watering trough (bottom)

28
Table 7. Recommended levels of bamboo leaf hay inclusion in the total ration of cross-bred
dairy cattle under Ethiopian conditions

Feed ingredient Recommended proportion in the diet (kg/day, DM basis)

Lactating cows Dry cows Heifers
Good quality fresh/dry 50% of roughage intake 50% of the 50% of the
roughage hay roughage intake roughage intake
Bamboo leaf 50% of conventionally 50% of the 50% of the
hay/fresh foliage used roughage diet conventionally conventionally
used roughage diet used roughage diet
Concentrate mix 0.5 kg/l milk production 2–4 kg 1.5% of the live
(≥18% CP and ≥ 12 weight
MJ, ME/kg DM)
Mineral block leak Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum
Water Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum

Source: Andriarimalala et al (2019); Getu et al (data under press); good-quality roughage refers
to natural pasture grass hay and roughage obtained from improved cultivate annual/perennial
forage crops

5.3. Feeding bamboo fodder to non-ruminants

From field observations, it was noted that horses and donkeys in the Awi zone and donkeys in
the Assosa zone feed on bamboo leaves in the dry period (Figure 9).

Figure 9 (a) Bundle of bamboo leaf for sale at the Assosa market; (b) bamboo leaf is the main
feed for donkeys used for transporting goods to and from market places in north-
western Ethiopia

29
6. Animal health responses and values in bamboo
fodder supplementation
Bamboo leaf extract contains active ingredients such as flavonoids, polyphenols and active
polysaccharides, which possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and lipid-lowering effects. A study
Beksisa et al (2021, unpublished) was conducted on the haematological and biochemical effects
of bamboo fodder utilisation as a feed for lactating cows. Based on the result of this unpublished
report, experiments on high-grade cross-bred lactating cows in Ethiopia, responses in terms of
biochemical and haematological indices and milk yield were effective when cows were provided
a basal diet composed of dry bamboo leaves and natural pasture hay in the proportions of 50:50
and 25:75, and supplemented with a concentrate diet at the ratio of 0.5kg per cow. Furthermore,
this proportion is non-toxic and has no other adverse effects on lactating cross-bred cows. The
eosinophil, lymphocyte and PCV (packed cell volume) responses were significantly different (in
the order of T2 >T3 >T4 >T1>T5) when the ratios of bamboo leaf to natural pasture hay were
0:100 (T1), 25:75 (T2), 50:50 (T3), 75:25 (T4) and 100:0 (T5), indicating that the inclusion of dried
bamboo leaves along with the concentrate mix enhanced the haematological and biochemical
responses (Figure 10) more compared with a basal diet without supplementation (Beksisa et al,
2021, in press).

On the other hand, bamboo fodder supplementation at the rate of 75% (T4) and 100% (T5)
resulted in poor performances of serum enzymatic and haematological activities and reduced the
milk yield, thereby inducing profuse diarrhoea, weight loss, gait disorders, convulsions and toxic
and adverse effects on the experimental lactating cows. The use of determining levels of bamboo
fodder in the diet of lactating high-grade cross-bred cows mid-lactation in this experiment
demonstrated that bamboo is a potential source of energy and protein that would aid in filling feed
shortage gaps without causing any adverse health effects on cows. Therefore, an appropriate
amount of bamboo leaves can be utilised as an alternative basal diet for lactating cross-bred
cows. Moreover, livestock rearing communities can use these recommended values (Table 10)
to alleviate the nutritional and health challenges faced by animals during long dry seasons.
However, biologically active bamboo ingredients that have medicinal properties, as well as the
potential effect of tannins on bamboo fodder require further research.

30
Figure 10. Blood sample collection (top left and top right) and laboratory analysis (bottom top and
right) of the haematological parameters for a bamboo-fed lactating cow at the Holetta
Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia

Source: Beksisa et al (2021) (unpublished)

31
7. Animal health indices in relation to proportion of bamboo leaf
supplementation and parameter-based ration for lactating cross-
bred cows under Ethiopian conditions
Responses of biochemical and haematological indices as well as milk yield were completely
effective in the ratio of providing 50:50 and 25:75 dry bamboo leaf inclusion and basal diet as well
as 0.5kg of concentrate diet followed by injection of prophylactic drugs. Moreover, this rate is not
toxic to supplemented animals at the recommended levels, however, the toxicity and severity of
adverse effect is less treatable and the animal response is compromised beyond the
recommended values (Beksisa et al, 2021, in press).

Table 8. Health responses in relation to proportion of bamboo leaf supplementation and

parameter-based ration for lactating cross-bred cows under Ethiopian conditions

Response Recommended proportion in the diet (kg/day, DM basis) of feed Adverse

ingredients effects
Lactating cows Dry cows Heifers beyond the
recommended
proportions
Haematologic • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal diet • Profuse
al indices diet and 50% diet and 50% and 50% bamboo diarrhoea,
bamboo leaf bamboo leaf leaf inclusion with 0.5 weight loss,
inclusion with 0.5 inclusion with 0.5 kg of concentrate mix gait and
kg of concentrate kg of concentrate convulsion
mix mix • 75% of the basal diet disorders
• 75% of the basal • 75% of the basal and 25% bamboo clinically
diet and 25% diet and 25% leaf inclusion with encountered
bamboo leaf bamboo leaf 1.5% of live weight • Chemotherap
inclusion with 0.5 inclusion with 2– concentrate mix eutics is
kg of concentrate 4 kg of advisable
mix concentrate mix
Milk yield • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal diet • Profuse
diet and 50% diet and 50% and 50% bamboo diarrhoea,
bamboo leaf bamboo leaf leaf inclusion with 0.5 weight loss,
inclusion with 0.5 inclusion with 0.5 kg of concentrate gait and
kg of concentrate kg of concentrate mix, convulsion
mix, mix, disorders
• 75% of basal diet • 75% of the basal • 75% of the basal diet clinically
and 25% bamboo diet and 25% and 25% bamboo encountered
leaf inclusion with bamboo leaf leaf inclusion • Chemotherap
0.5 kg of inclusion with 2– with1.5% of the live eutics is
concentrate mix 4 kg of weight advisable
concentrate mix

32
Biochemical • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal • 50% of the basal diet • Profuse
Indices diet and 50% diet and 50% and 50% bamboo leaf diarrhoea,
bamboo leaf bamboo leaf inclusion with 0.5 kg weight loss,
inclusion with 0.5 inclusion with 0.5 of concentrate mix, gait and
kg of concentrate kg of concentrate • 75% of the basal diet convulsion
mix, mix, and 25% bamboo leaf disorders
• 75% of the basal • 75% of the basal inclusion with 1.5% of clinically
diet and 25% diet and 25% live weight encountered
bamboo leaf bamboo leaf concentrate mix • Chemotherap
inclusion with 0.5 inclusion with 2– eutics is
kg of concentrate 4 kg of advisable
mix concentrate mix

Source: Experiments from the study

8. Research gaps in bamboo fodder production, feeding and

health intervention in Ethiopia
Although bamboo has been traditionally used for livestock feed in Ethiopia, its production and use
in feeding based on scientific methods can be considered a new concept in the country. Thus,
considering the technical details described in this training manual, indicating additional
researchable issues seems feasible. Gaps in bamboo use for fodder can be grouped into two
categories: (1) gaps in bamboo fodder stand management and (2) gaps in feeding bamboo fodder
to livestock, mainly small and large ruminants. In line with these gaps, the following specific
researchable issues are identified:

• Similar to bamboo timber stand management and bamboo shoot stand management
models, bamboo fodder stand management models that enhance biomass allocation to
the leaf and bring about a sustainable harvest need to come into focus in bamboo
research. This requires developing appropriate management practices, such as
determining age structure, harvesting intensity, design, stages and seasons of harvesting,
together with the development of agronomic packages. Existing mature indigenous
bamboo forests of O. alpina and O. abyssinica and newly established bamboo stands may
require different stand management models. Thus, considering the stages and
management histories of bamboo forests is important when conducting bamboo fodder
stand management research.
• This manual is developed based on practical experiences and knowledge of the two
indigenous bamboo species in Ethiopia. The selection of improved bamboo fodder species
from the indigenous and introduced species should remain the focus of future research

33
 and development work for efficient utilisation of bamboo fodder species for ruminant
livestock in the country. Previous research indicated that among the many introduced
bamboo species in Ethiopia, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii has highly appreciable biomass
allocation to the leaf (approximately 20%) and has significantly increased the meat yield
of Arsi-Bale sheep. Developing a bamboo fodder package for this species is suggested.
• The economic feasibility of a feeding intervention for cross-bred cows using bamboo leaf
hay as a replacement to conventional basal feed resources needs to be investigated.
• Research should continue to focus on small ruminants to identify a biologically and
economically optimum rate of inclusion of bamboo in the basal diet of animals.
• Research related to developing harvesting mechanisms and identifying optimum stages
of harvesting should be able to tap the level of anti-nutritional factors among the different
indigenous and introduced bamboo species in Ethiopia.
• It is important to explore new information and knowledge regarding biologically active
ingredients of bamboo species that have medicinal properties in Ethiopia
• Bamboo leaves have a high tannin content, which can reduce parasitic worms in livestock
species. This can be used as an alternative option for controlling the infection and severity
of nematode worms in ruminants and requires a detailed research investigation in
Ethiopia.

34
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www.inbar.int
@INBAROfficial

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