unl UNITIE nt of Higher Education, yartmel ew National e Dept i the new al cued by the “desh, Under 2 _ sylabs Jt Miadhya Prager Year (Second Paper) NGove! olicy for BS al Physics backs = ore ist Oh bre historical + of India and Indian ct A tet biography of Var ound of mathematies and mechanics in the context Sinamihira and Vikram Sarabhai with their major oe ce and society iS yey ds Gradient ofa scalar field and its physical significance 2 Se aegal ine neg 22. ie ergence ofa vector field and its physical signific or. z : 13, Bee, sector fed and its physical significance, Stokes and Gress ~ neorem, Numerical problems based on the above topics. Keywords/Tags Scalar field, Vector field, Vector Integral, Gradient, Divergence, Curl + Mechanics of Rigid and Deformable Bodies n (1). Rigid body Mechanics 1.1. System of particles and concept of Rigid body, Torque, Centre of mass position of the centre of mass, Motion of the centre of mass, Conservation oflinear and angular momentum with examples, Single stage and multistage rocket. 1.2, Rotatory motion and concept of moment of inertia, Theorems on moment of inertia ; theorem of addition, theorem of perpendicular axis, theorem of parallel axis, Calculation of moment of inertia of rectangular lamina, disc, solid cylinder, solid sphere. 2) Mechanies of Deformable Bodies . Hook's law, Young's modulus, Bulk modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Een tatio, Relationship between various elastic moduli. Pees of Poisson ratio, Finding Poisson's ratio of rubber in the . Torsion ofa eylinder, Strain energy of twisted cylinder. 23, Fit palin ergy of twisted eylin ‘aipbtle modulus figiity of the material ofa wire by Barton's method, ogee ndulum and Maxwell's needle, Searle's method to find Y, 1) and ite ends snutetial of a wire, Bending of beam, Cantilever, Beam supported at surface integral and volume integral, ce, Gauss divergence ‘ts ends and loaded inthe mi Ke wds/Tay . middle. mai ics gid body, Centre of mass, Moment of inertia, Poisson's rato an (Surface Ten: 2 rien ee UNIT IV UNITY, 1.2. Surfac forces, 13. Any deter meth 2) Visco 2.1. Ideal Rotal of m 2.2. Bern of ai 23. Vise of Pe bods Keyword Capillarit : Gravitat Q) Gra LA. Cor gle 13. Gr @) Ce 21. Me 2.2. Th mi 23. M bo 2.4. El Keywo self-ene : Relatiy @ R re 1.2. F P s F 13. Q) 21.1 t 1 Bos 1 23.1 Keyw distanon, 1 |= 100 -ctures 2 context > major jeance, itegral, ence Green's gence, 2 mass vation tistage oment rem of , disc, y and in the ethod, nand red at ratio. 12 n and UNITIV UNITY + Relativistic Mechanics and Astrophysics w 1.2. Surface tension, Explanation o aes {surface tension on the basis of intermolecular determination of surface tension 0 deter fi of a liquid—capillary rise method, Jaeger’s Q) Vise 21 Ideal and viscous fad, Streamline and turbulent flow, Equation of continuity Rotational and irotaonal fo; Energy of a fowing fi, ules equation tion of @ non-viscous fluid and its physical significance 2.2. Bemoul’s theorem and its applications (Velocity of efflux, shapes of wing of plane, Magnus effect, Fier pump, Bumsensbumie) 23. Viscous flow of a fui, Flow of aud rough capil tube, Derivation of Poise’ formula and linitatons, Soke formula, Motion of pheeal Keywords/Tags : Inier-molecular force, Surface tension, Angle of contact, ari Vicor Euler's equation Poses formula nal Potential and Central Forces 2 (1) Gravitational Potential Conservative and non-conservative force field, Conservation of energy in motion under the conservative and non-conservative forces, Potential energy. . Conservative force, Conservation of energy, Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy, Gravitational potential and intensity of gravitational field due to a uniform spherical shell and a uniform solid sphere. 1.3. Gravitational self-energy, Gravitational selfenergy of a uniform spherical shell and a uniform solid sphere. Q) Central Forces 2.1. Motion under Central Forces, Conservative characteristics of central forces. 2.2, The motion of a two particles system in Central force, Concept of reduced ‘mass, Reduced mass of positronium and hydrogen. ‘Motion of particles in an inverse-square central force, Motion of celestial bodies and derivation of Kepler's laws. 2.4, Elastic and inelastic scattering (elementary idea) Keywords/Tags : Conservative force field, Gravitational potential, Gravitational self-energy, Central force, reduced mass, Scattering. es (1) Relativistic Mechanics 1.1. Frame of references, Galilean transformation, —Michelson-Morley experiment. 1.2. Postulates of special theory of relativity, Lorentz Transformation, Simultaneity and order of events, Length contraction, Time dilation, Relativistic transformation of velocities, Variation of mass with velocity. 1.3. Mass-energy equivalence and its ‘experimental verification, (2) Astrophysics eee ezer to the Universe, Properties of the Sun, Concept of Astro- nomical distance, " Life cycle of a star, Chandrasekhar Limit, H-R diagram, Red giant star White dwarf star, Neutron ge ee le : . Big-Bang Theory (clementary idea), % ras Bagormaton ‘Mass-energy equivalence, Astronomical Jimit, Black hole.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND Tia MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS ST 4.1. ABrief Historical Background of Mathematics and Mi Context of India and Indian Culture aren ey ae One end of the progress of modem science is at the knowledge possessed by ancient Indian rishis and scholars. The immense possibilities of modern day science are indebted to ancient Indian civilization, their knowledge and traditions. It has been our ancestors who have been responsible for the well-being of mankind by imparting initial knowledge about mathematics, chemistry, physics, medical science ete. ‘We can understand the traditions of science on Indian soil by two ways namely by reading all the ancient scripts, vedas, puranas etc. and by following the rishis who created these scriptures. India has undoubtedly given the world immense knowledge in field of mathematics and astronomy. Einstein said that “We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which most modern scientific discoveries could have been impossible.” We must learn about these Indian scientists for they have been the true learners of Indian vedic culture and have transferred the knowledge to future generations. Pythagoras theorem for a right angled triangle was initially given by Maharishi Baudhayana (800 to 740 BC). Indian mathematician were editing Shulb Sutra written by Baudhayana at the time of birth of Pythagoras. Indians knew it 1000 years before Pythagoras was born. The Baudhayana sutras consist of six texts : (1) Baudhayana Srautasutra : Probably in 19 prasnas (19 questions), (2) Baudhayana Karmantasutra : in 20 Adhayayas (chapters), (3) Baudhayana Dvaidhasutra : in 4 Prasnas, (4) Baudhayana Grihyasutr: 4 Prasnas, (5) Baudhayana Dharmasutra : in 4 Prasnas, (© Baudhayana Sulbasutra : in 3 Adhayayas. Aryabhata was the Indian scientist of 5 century (nearly 1600 years from today). He had written several scripts on astronomy and mathematics. ‘Aryabhat’s script ‘Aryabhatiya’ says that ‘zero’ in mathematics was discovered by him and gave the approximate value of 7 as 3-1416, He established that area of a triangle is equal to 4. x base » height. He explained the meaning of trigonometrie function ‘sin’ and ‘Ve its value for different angles. He gave the solution of equation like ax + by = ¢. On solving N= x + 5 = 9y + 4 = 7z +1, he obtained N = 85, Similarly he gave the relations for the sum of squares and cubes of integer numbers. In honour of important contributions ae scientist Aryabhata, the Government of India named the first space satellite as “Aryabhata’,Kanada suggested that every” 0 on forever, and there MUS! Bo at aggre n ie iy. a ok me three laws of motion ion was the first to discover gravitational concepts. Yoy Mabrishi Kanada gave sam ‘The world believes that Ne\ be surprised to know will an Indian mat Newton by universal foree that al the mass of a body, the higher wil The achievements of the sage Maharishi Bhardwaj discover I be hing can be ist be sma rent Ways that the theory thematician Bhaskaracharya. He explained that gravity is q jows the mass of a bo His nam USS fo, da way back in between, subdivided, but this sub-division canno, wes entities (parmanu) that cannot be divided, thy to yield complex substances and bodies wi attributed to Newton much before of gravitation was created 1200 years before dy to attract other masses of a body. The bigger the force of gravity. Maharishi Bhardwaj are described in the ‘Puranas’ sed and wrote about how aeroplanes or spaceships appeared and disappeared and how they travelled from one planet to another. ‘Vishwamitra was one of the most revered and appreciated ‘Rishi’ of India. Thousands of years ago, he invented missiles and taught his disciples how missiles work and function The missiles described by him were of many types. Some had fire, others had a smok: radiation, electric spark, different weapons etc. 2 1.2. Varahamihira ee was born in 499 A.D. into a family of Brahmins settled at Kapittha, a ‘las natin. His father, Adityadssa was a worshipper ofthe Sun god and it was hi arahamihira astrology. On a visit to Kusumapura (Patna) young Varahamiira the Me and planets are : met the great astronomer and mathematician, Aryabhata. The meeti ing inspired him so inent place in the lustrous not beat 1:3.) V in Ahm Vikram a daug Cambr to Indi of Scie Distrib V establis achiev progra empha faaion cannot vided, that odies with ch before. cepts. You ats before wity is a he bigger Puranas’ appeared housands function, a smoke, pittha, a twas he jamihira him so was one amihira He was the five re now ses five dhanta, oposed due to Brihat- “ology, gems, found ‘same a matigal Background and Mathematical Physics @ Being an Astrologer he wrote on all the three main Wrote on all the three main ————— branches of Jyotisha astrology, it covered Brihat Jake which is considered as one of the five main treatise Hindu astrolgy or Horoscopy aos Varahamihira’s mathematical work tical work included the discovery ofthe tigonometie formas, He necro the accuracy of the sine tables of Aryabhats 1. te defined the algebraic properties of zero as well as of negative numbers. Furthermore, he was among the fist mathematicians to discover a version of what is now known as the Pascal’s triangle, He c ingle. He used it to calcula the binomial coefficients, : 4.3. Vikram Sarabhai Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was born on 12 August, 1919 in a famous Sarabhai family in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, His father’s name was Ambalal Sarabhai and was an industrialist. Vikram was married to Mrinalini who was a classical dancer. They had two children, a daughter, Mallika and son, Kartikeya. After completing his matriculation, he went to Cambridge for his college education and took his tripos in natural sciences. He returned to India after World War Il in 1945. He joined Sir C. V. Raman at the Indian Institute of Sciences as a Research Scholar. He published his first research paper titled, ‘Time Distribution of Cosmic Rays’ and completed his Ph.D, in 1947. Vikram Sarabhai is considered as the father of the Indian Space Program. The establishment of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was one of his greatest achievements. He successfully convinced the government of the importance of a space programme for a developing country like India after the Sputnik launch. Dr. Sarabhai emphasized the importance of space program in his quote 1 “There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambigu of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight.fBut we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the ‘community of the nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.” Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha, widely regarded as the father VIKRAM SARABHAI ) G+ India’s Nuclear Science program, supported Dr. Sarabhai in Fi setting up the first rocket launching station ip India, This center Fig. 1.2. 6 UP pee 3 ‘was established at Thumba near Thiravananthapuram on. the coast ofthe Arabian Sea, primarily because of its proximity tothe equator. After aremarkable effort in setting up the infrastructure, personnel, communication links and launch pads, the inaugural flight was launched on November 21, 1963 with a sodium vapour payload. AS 2 result of Dr, Sarabhai’s dialogue with NASA in 1966, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was lauiched during July 1975—July 1976, Dr. Sarabhai started @project for the fabrication and launch of an Indian Satellite. As a result, the fist Indian satellite, Aryabhata, was put in orbit in 1975 from a Russian Cosmodrome, Dr. Sarabhai was very VARAHAMIHIRAPaper) ————__________ nity Seience Centre at ARmedabaq 3 Com hai community Science Centre, He an vere established under him. Besse, aon n as the Sarabhai Crater. ications Centre, actor, Kalpakkam. n Project, Calcutta. f India Limited (ECIC), Hyderabad. srporation of India Limited (UCIC), Jadugora. 9. Ua oo i and achievements, he was conferred with the Padma Bhushan th December, 1971 at Kovalam. Fast Breeder Test Rea Variable Energy Cyclotrot §. Electronics Corporation of a val built ee : tition ri 1 ee ee enity a crater on the ene inthe Sea of Serenity plished by Vikram Str a sons xubilY e, aesabal, 1, Physical Rewer Management (IIM), Ahmed 2. Indian science Centre, Abmedabad. 3. Community Soir ce Centre, Thintvananthapuram 4. Vikram Serine Cente, Ahmedabad. © space Appli 6 + all his contributions and a and oral Vibhushan. He died on 30" 4.4. Scalar and Vector Physical Quantities The physical quantities which we can measure, are classified mainly in two classes (1) scalar quantities and (2) vector quantities.* (1) Scalar quantities or scalars —These are the physical quantities which are expressed only by their magnitude. For example, if we say that the mass of a body is 5-0 kg, it has a complete meaning and we are completely expressing the mass of the body. Examples—Mass, length, time, density, volume, speed, temperature, potential (evitational, magnetic and electric), work, energy, pressure, quantity of heat, specific hat, charge, electric power, frequency, angle etc., are the scalar quantities. Thus, we need the following two things to express a scalar quantity completely (@ Unit in which the quantity is being measured, and (ii) The numerical value of the quantity. Remember that if the s F m will have no unit tn? Scalar is a pure number (like m, e”, etc.) with no dimensions, it Scalar quantities can be - Gtr atithmetic methods added, subtracted, multiplied and divided by the simple cally written by its En; lis! R : time by “and speed by v, iglish letter. For example, mass is Fie ae rection” ? Obvioush ying ement Piel on i incompe But if'we say that dl the aa oe y sets following tes 42 8Y ter direction, ithas acgy rT Wace ace Unit, i) Name 2 S*PTESS a vector quantity cone ee : ao lumerical value of the quantity, x (iii) ne ae According to Modern a fern clas ‘st Pili ecfeatin {och physical quantity ig i sr ett" gar SO ole "soe aon Ms ae the tensor of seconde omen Of inertia g ey are called the tensor of first “Ore expressed by 9(~33) numbers A TI of that quantit E (mome! angular etc., ar qT rithm 5 metr will be if thes 5 metr angle t new al F Englis veloci magni two ve magniPS it Ahmedabaq ee Centre. He him. Bessey ater. ima Bhushan wo classes re expressed kg, it has a », potential at, specific etely nensions, it the simple le, mass is magnitude plete. For estion that acement at point by we require 1 order. The Fzero order. sor of first 2) numbers. Historical Background and Mathematical Physics Sa The numerical value of a vector quanti of that quantity. It is always positive and scalar I isco ale ae pa ee quantity. Its the absolute value of the vector quantity. | Ne Matus ofthe vector Examples—Velocity, acceleration, force, (moment of force), magnetic field, electric field angular displacement, impulse, fetc., are the vector quantities. The vector quantities cannot be added, subtracted and SoS cine ie tence ant raped by he on ‘5 metre respectively, their sum need not be 15 metre. We shall see ahead hat ete = will be 15 metre only when both of these displacements are in the same deena c= if these displacements are in different directions, their sum can have any value betwee 5 metre (their difference) and 15 metre (their sum). Their resultant actially depends fea ts angle between them. Thus, to add, subtract and multiply the vector quantities, we need a new algebra which is called the vector algebra. K Representation of a vector—A vector quantity is symbolically written either by its English bold letter or by the English simple letter bearing an arrow over it. For example, velocity is represented either by the symbol v or by ¥ , force as F or as F and so on. The ‘magnitude of the vector quantity is written either by an italic letter or by a letter within the two vertical bars. For example, the magnitude of velocity is written either as vor | y |. The ‘magnitude of force as F or | | and so on. Graphical representation of a vector—A vector is graphically represented by a straight line bearing an arrow. The length of the line measures the magnitude of the vector ‘ona convenient scale and the arrow on it gives the direction. The starting point of the line is called the origin or tail and the end pointis called the head or terminus. In the vector notation momentum, displacement, area, torque gravitational field, weight, at de esas l, current density, perature gradient, velocity gradient, magnetic moment Z = PO, the first letter P represents the NORTH HEAD origin and the second letter Q, the terminus. Obviously, if the origin and terminus of a vector are interchanged, we getanew vector west. Pcalvhncacc QP =B whose magnitude is same as that eS of the vector A =PQ, but the direction is reversed. hai PoRIGN For example, ithe velocity of a body Fig: 11 Vector representation is25 ms" towards north-east. To represent it graphically first we choose a convenient scale, say 5m line PQ of 5 em length in north-east direction (ie., at an angle 4: as shown in Fig. 1.3 and then put an arrow on the head. ide is called a unit vector. A unit vector is (1) Unit yector—A vector of unit magnitu it vee represented by a letter with a caret over it, For example, a unit vector inthe direction of A gives the direction. vector A is represented as A.. Thus, a unit vector wecion, | Ifthe magnitude of vetor A is Z| andthe unt vector inthe destionof A is A» then K=|ALA 1 cm. Then we draw a straight 5° from north towards east)yy j and K which are the unit veeigy nit vectors in) and Z-direction (or Vertically ye (or nort 3 past), Y-direction all Genera ted the zero vector ie airection ( magnitude is call the rapectively _The vector of zero ni can have any direction. Its reprega, tit rere) Zero vector—The cide, It ca te ns of the ze andthe termi the symbol bo B | = 0 (zero). oI rector : (i) On multipl 0 veotot Col ector A with scalar 2.=0, ying a vector A ‘WE Betang Seed afr sar (9. On if = Disa ser osite vectors is a zero vector, ie. ei 8 pte et B R-A+B=0 if A fa zero vector : (i) On adding or subtracting zero vector from a yg Properties of a zero vector ‘ ting 20 ve h 1 vect K+G-=K andsimilarly A-0 =A 1 the original vector ie (ii) Multiplying a scalar with a zero vector, we get a zero vector, ie., 2x0 =§ ae aa Ce en fo ee veetor tells the distance of the body at that instant from the refer "point and its direction is the direction of position of the body ag eer the reference point. It is denoted by the symbol 7 . Forexangil in Fig, 14, the sition of the body P at any instant with repel 14.Position the reference point O is represented by the vector OB. Henge ae position vector of the body P relative (4) Displacement veetor—The vector wh cto the point O willbe 7 =08 h tells us the magnitude of disp given time interval and also the displaced vector. It is denoted by the symbol called the displacem S. Obvioush Y, this vector is obtained by joini Position of the me ing the initial oving body to its final position, % Suppose in Fig, 1 “oh the position ofa moving is P and at other Vector of the body at an instant ¢ is Q. The displ y in time inter PQ with displacement vector a) instant lacement, rae , will then be Ns origin at P and head at Q, i¢ Fig. 1.5. Displacement 3-79 ofa body at 23Y¢ Mill see that ifthe position Vector OB = 7” (4) ang yb an instant t, is representedy at the inst hora by the vector OG = PQ=06 oF tt Vector is F(t), then displace ©! called ap represent " ©)! of rotatios velocity, 1.6. Ae Tw @ ® (1) Law Ac by the b directior Su B=a ther re Fig. 1 I Kan vector vector (2) Li the ty is the inters draw B=from a vector eerie at any instant le of Position the reference he body from For example, ith respect to Hence, the er = OP. fisplacement displaced, is Pit) : meee anal a Bee . {roe seta corte calle polar vector. For example, displacement, force etc. are the: represent them, their starting point is required. — (6) Axial vector—, —A vector showing the rotation effect and in direction along the of rotation given by the right hand screw rule, is called the axial vector. For example, angular velocity, torque, angular momentum are the axial vectors, Two vectors in a plane can be added by the following two laws : (1) Law of triangle of addition of vectors, and (2) Law of parallelogram of vectors addition, (1) Law of triangle of addition of vectors According to this law, if rwo vectors can be represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a triangle in order, their resultant vector, in magnitude and direction is then represented by the third side of the triangle in reverse order. ‘Suppose we are to add two vectors A and B as shown in Fig. 1.6. For this, first we draw a vector X= PQ.. Then at its head Q, keeping the origin of other vector, the vector B=QE (same both in magnitude and direction) is drawn, Then a veotor © =PR is drawn joining the origin P of the first vector to the head R of the other vector. This vector © = PR, then represents the sum of the two vectors A and B which is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1.6. Thus PO+QR = PRorA+B=C Fig. 1.6. Addition of vectors Itmay be mentioned here that the vector Cis also called the resultant vector of vectors X and B because the effect of vector C alone is the same as the combined effect of the vectors A and B. The vectors A and B are, therefore, also called the components of vector © (2) Law of parallelogram of vectors addition According to this law, iftwo vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, its resultant vector in magnitude and direction is then represented by the diagonal of that parallelogram, passing through the point of intersection of those sides. Suppose we are to add the two vectors K and B shown in Fig, 1.7. For this, first we a javector A= PO . Now keeping the origin of other vector at its origin P, the vector = PS (equal both in magnitude and direction) is drawn. Then complete the parallelogramID vanes race: rn recon Pan Now PORT RLEI FO and RS oe i RS, which wl be the vector the direction, ie., through the point of intersection and ° resultant of vectors A and B, both in magnitude Sacer PO +PS = PRor A+B 1 I o angled = * - . Fig. 1.7. Addition of vectors by the law of par a lelogram law of vector addition valence of triangle law with par = In Fig 1.7, PRS is a parallelogram with sides PQ and PS representing the vector Kand B respectively. By the law of parallelogram of addition, PQ+PS=PR —__4jy But by the law of triangle of addition, PQ +QR= PR _@) : ‘ Since, the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal and parallel, so they represent the equal vectors. Hence, QR._= PS aa Thus, from eqns. (i) and (ii), it is clear that both the laws (triangle law and ete parallelogram law) of addition of vectors are equivalent. {ele Magnitude and cretion of resultant vector by the law of parallelogram of addition | Sher InFig. 8, PQRS isa parallelogram with ts two adjacent sides PQ and PS representing ae the vectors A and B respectively. The he diagonal PR represents the resultant vector both in magnitude and direction. To find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector C , the side R aM iBicos Fig. 1.8. To know resultant by law of Parallelogram of addition PQ is produced ahead and then a normal RM is drawn onit from the ‘Point R. Let the angle between the vectors K and B be 6, ie, ZSPQ = ZRQM = 0. angled triangle RMP, PR? = PM? + M PR? = (PQ + Qmy? : MR? Ba + QM? + 2PQ.QM + MR? But in right-angled triangle RMQ, rene aaa QM? + MR? = Q) £08 8 = QM/QR or QM = QR cos 6 Now in right or andere iRPolst oat Bln ie lel = viz) +IBP+2]R |B |e00 3) The above expression (1 3) gives the magnitude of the resultant vector © is Ifthe resultant vector C makes an angle a. with the vector A, then from the right- angled triangle RMP, MR ___MR tana. = BM ~ PQ + OM But in right-angled triangle RMQ, sin@ = YR or MR=QR sin@ eat cos 0 = Be oF OM = QR eos 6 R sin @ (i) tan = BQ +OR cos} (ii) . tad oe lig (Ld) eos: |X|+|Blcos 6 This expression (1 4), gives the direction of the resultant vector cr Thus, knowing the magnitudes |A | and|B | of the two vectors and the angle 0 between them, the magnitude a [Gland direction, i.e., angle a of the resultant vector can be calculated with the help of equations (1.3) and (1.4). idition Special cases senting (Ifthe two vectors A and B are in the same directions (i.e., © = 0°), then al > >P Pe. lilo é = VRP +1BP + 21a [IB cos 0° oth in “sg — nitude = viAT +/BI +2/AllBl (08 0°= 1) ne side = V(Kl+lBI) =|KI+IBI (maximum value) RM is and tana =0 or a=0° Thus, the sum of two like vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitudes and is stween in the same direction (ii) Ifthe two vectors A and B are perpendicular to each other, (ie., 0 =90°), then > > > 2, al 11> ene lé| = vVIAT +B +2] IIB |cos 90° or (él = vixP+iBF (cos 90° = 0) bere (ait = lal (iit) Ifthe two vectors A and B are in the opposite directions (ie, @ = 180°), then 2 _ APPsl2Pe eel = VRP +1BP+2/X||B eos 180°e ar +x 421A iA leme8 . ; = /2|KP (+0080) “(Kl y2 i 2008? =1)=2 loos $ A | sind sind me Elvana 1? rf asin 9 cos 9 _ sing Lise hen 1+2e08*$—1 cosy : ‘Thus, if two vectors of same magnitude are {inclined at an angle 0, d magnitude of their resultant vector is 2} |eos-$ and direction is which bis the angle between them. Ieboth the vectors A and B are equal in magnitudes, (ie., |RI=IBL) ana they are at an angle 0 = 120°, then (el = VAP +IAP + 211A loos 120° 5 errr 1 = RP HRP 21K IRI(—4) €- 008 120°=— 3) = ViaP-lal |A|sin 120° v3/2 5 eel = =3 [Kl+[Rleosi20e 1-2) or a = 60° Thus, the resultant vector of two vectors equal in magnitudes and inclined at an angle of 120° to each other, is equal to the magnitude of either vector and it bisects the angle between those vectors, (3) Polygon law of addition of more than two vectors ‘To add more than two vectors, one method is that first we add two vectors to find theit resultant vector, then we add the third vector to this resultant vector to obtain their results vector and so on. and tan a____ Historica Background and Mathematical Physics \ For example, suppose we are to add four vectors A, B,C and D as shown in Fig. 1.9. First we place the origin of vector B at the head of the vector A and draw their resultant vector E by joining the origin of vector A to the head of vector # . Now we place the origin of vector © on the head of vector F and draw thei resultant vector F by joining the origin of vector E to the head of vector © . Then we place the origin of D on the head of F and finally draw the resultant vector & by joining the origin of vector F. to the head of vector D_ which then represents the sum of vectors A,B, and D, ie, R=A+B+C+D. Fig. 1.9. Addition of more than two vectors by polygon law 1.9 carefully, we find that for adding the vectors A, B, C and B,, itis not necessary to draw the vectors E and T*. Indeed to add more than two vectors, the origin of second vector is placed at the head of first vector, the origin of third vector at the head of second vector and so on; and then the resultant vector is obtained by joining the origin of first vector to the head of the last vector. This method of addition of more than two vectors is called the polygon method of addition. Thus, according to the polygon law of addition, the resultant vector of more than two vectors is represented by the vector which is drawn to complete the polygon represented by the vectors to be added. Itmay be mentioned here that if a closed figure is obtained on representing the vectors ‘acting at a point by the arrow lines in order such that the origin of a vector is at the head of its previous vector, the resultant of all vectors is a zero vector. Properties of vector addition The following are the properties of addition of two or more than two vectors (1) Vector addition obeys the commutative law—According to the commutative lav if the order of addition of two vectors is reversed, their resultant vector remains the same, i.e., A+B=BtA ‘Now if we look at ji a Inother words, ifwe add the vector B to the vector > os = A orthe vector A tothe vector B ,theresultant vector : z i? is the same. 8 Proof : In Fig. 1.10, PORS is a parallelogram with its side PQ representing the vector A and the side eo P QR representing the vector B . In triangle PQR, by = ‘a Fig. 1.10. Commutative law of the triangle law of addition vector addition"4 Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) PO+OR = PRorA+B=PR i) But in parallelogram PQRS, a PO = SR=A and PS = QR=B ‘Therefore in triangle PSR, by triangle law of addition, P+SR = PRorB+A=PR Ci) Now from eqns. (iJand (ii), A+B =B+A wn(1.5) This is the commutative law of vector addition, 2) Addition of vectors obeys the associative Inw—According to the associative Jaw, the addition of three or more than three vectors is not affected, howsoever the group ER ER bob ih of component vectors is made, ie, (A+B)+C=A+(B +C) 5 Thus, whether we add the vector C to the sum of vector A and vector B or we add = = = “ the sum of vector B and vector © to the vector A, the resultant vector remains the same, Proof : Fig. 1.11 shows the addition of three vectors A, B and C, in which the vectors A, B and @ are respectively represented by the lines PQ, QR and RS. s a Fig. 1.11. Associative law of vector addition Itis clear that in triangle PQR, PR = PO+QR-A+B. and in triangle PRS, PS =PR+RS=(K+B)+C i) Similarly, in triangle QRS, OS = M+RS-B+e and in triangle PQS, PS = 79+ S-K+ BH) Hence, from eqns. (i) and (i), (A+B)+@ -K+@+0) This is the associative law of vector addition. Consider two vectors A and B for which we are to find A ~¥ vector B from vector A is same as the addition of vector— B to tis K-B-A+(-B) Now to obtain the vector~ B , the direction of Bis reverse to obtain the vector A - B.Historical Background and Mathematical Physics ey & x z 5 <» Fig. 1.12. Subtraction of vectors B, first we draw the ver Pane na) a ctor A and then we obtain the vector ie, the vector A — B. fis the angle between A and B , then magnitude of K— Bis IRISVIKP+IBE 212 [IB ooso and the resultant vector R = X B will make an angle a with the vector A , where ‘Vector resolution is a reverse process of addition of vectors. To resolve a vector in two or ‘more than two such vectors that their resultant is equivalent to the given vector, is called the vector resolution. These resolved vectors are said to be the components of the given vector. (1) Resolution of a two-dimensional vector In Fig. 1.13, A is a two-dimensional vector which is to be resolved in two mutually perpendicular ‘components. For this, assuming the vector A to be the diagonal, we construct a rectangle OPRQ with its sides OP and OQ along X and Y-axes respectively. If A, and A, be the length of sides OP and OQ Tespectively, then the X-component of vector A x is OP i sinc, ° =——* P is OP = iA, and Y- nent of vector A is Rata Bikes car. 5 Fig. 1.13. Resolution of a OQ = jA,, where i and j are the unit vectors itwo-dimensiouiiaeiael along X and Y-axes. Thus ies Raia, +ja, raat at uty Ifthe vector A makes an angle 0 with the X-axis, then in right-angled triangle OPR, 4 A, =A.cos 61, ther mensional, then n of a three-dimensional vector N If the vector K is three-' the diagonal OP, a vag the given vector a assuring | 5 ADCFPEB is considered 28 shown OB and OC of parallelopiped Y and Z-axes 1.14, If the edges OA, the parallelopi ee re hey are of lets Ay Ay and Ax iped are along the Xs respectively , respectively, then the components of vector A will i fA, and OC = kA,. where be OK = [Ap OB = ij and kc are respectively X-¥ and Z-Axes, es ie ZK =0K+0B +0 ZK a tay day t Az o Magnitude of vector Kis af (REFAR+ AE a 1.9) r A is the unit vectors along and unit yector in te direction of veeto gtk Tay thas TAL, VARPASTAE | srvecor X makes angles cP andy respetively withthe axes-X, Y and Zs hes oe pnd. -cosy ar called the drcion cosines ofthe vector K slog X.¥ and Z-axes respectively. They are given below : A I-cosa= AE, m= cos B Api and n = cos y= = fal Al LAV > ‘Hence, sum of square of direction cosines is 2 A? a2, AR+AR+AL Be m+n? son AP m0: or cos? + cos*B + cos*y = 1 and i Examples: () Ifthe position coordinates ofa point Pi + ‘apoint Pin. respect tothe origin O are (x,y, 2), then the position vector of th P= OP x ix+ jy the i = Obeix+]y and the distance of point P from the origin O is sb ; r=|Opl=Vety he \ three-dimensional space, Fr eat mma ie Displacement vector $= 00 - OP (110)| —_Hrorca Bockground ond Mathematica Physics“ RN where OP = ix, + Jy, +f, and OG © te, + fyy# hey 3 8 = (dng yy + hee) = Chey + iy hep) aie " f S = Gey =) +J02= 9) +k = 4) ay es | 18 |= Veq= 5)" + 0y— 9 +=) (ili) If three-dimensional space, the velocity of a moving particle at any instant is whose components along X, Y and Z-axes are respectively v,, vy and v then at that instant } | ; eink | ; Velocity of particle F = iv, + jy, + hv, | and speed of particle | |= fobs Fea? .. (iv) Ifin three-dimensional space, the acceleration of a moving particle at any instant is pga ‘whose components along X, Y and Z-axes are respectively a, a, and a,, then at that instant or of 1.12) oof) Acceleration of particle @ = fa, + ja, + ka, ea(1.14) magnitude of acceleration | @ | = a? tas +a? multiplied to a vector, the resultant is a vector of magnitude equal to ‘the product of magnitude of scalar and magnitude of vector, in direction of the given vector. “For example, multiplication of vector called momentum vector p . The : inc nitper) on to the scalar product of two scalar product of vector A with Haw, ie Uae of vector B with vector Z, ie. ALT) BR roa cen abel a Cs wef. ae (Bc) A K-B+Ace (1.18) nhogonal (ies perpendicular 1 each other) 0-99 Gi Irvectors K and B “oe aah : “gar fj co, ike oand ki =0 (1.19) Similarly, a K ant B lel, 0 = 0° and cos 0° ifvectors A and B are par =|Aj |B) =AB 2 ZX =Ial[Alcos 0° = [ANAL =A Thus, scalar) eee re oe shot =. Similarly, ' : co Raia, +i8y* + By + KB, bea + iAy +hA): (i, + iB, + kB) or KB =A.B,+A,B, +AB, itch («) K-B=| X || component of B on A] Dn rs hun ope (NEB) ‘Vector component of B along A = Sl = IAI Ik “es vector compos z ee nTACD ol Similarly, nent of A slong B - AGB BO B Physical examples of dot product oO Work done by a force is defined as the product of fo displacement in the direction of force, Ifthe displacem an angle @ with the force F , then work done W = FS (i) Power spent by a force F in moving a body with velocity (b) Cross or vector product The cross product of two vectors A and B is expressed quantity of magnitude equal to the product of magnitudes of | ‘he angle by which B is inclined on K. The direction is norm K and B . itis given by the right hand screw rule, according toHistorical round and Mathematical Physics ay is in which a right hand screw if rotated from he first vector to the second vector through the smaller angle between them, advances. Th A.dslBiees¥ »,(whargeiy ia By n-|RxB la 3.23) Here,| K x B | = |A) [Bj sin (A, B) isthe magnitude of vector V and n is the unit fpcocnortnal to Plane containing A and B . In Fig. 1.16 (a), the angle measured between the vectors A and 1 in anticlockwise direction is, the magnitude ofthe vector V obtained from ‘Beir vector product is|V|= lal [Bj sin @ and its direction is perpendicularif K=iA, + HAy A . Z xB willbe 2010 0° $75, Br eh i neo feed kxk=o similarly 1x i= 0.5% a ayaicr? oid B! jicular to each other, /-¢, ? (¢)itvectors A and B are perpendicular Xx B =1AlBIn tor Aefie Deke ba kale) (1.27) = a KA ee a a oa jxi-- kxjo-h ixk=-J eam =ia, ia, thy and B= 1B 1By +H s ‘iB o Then, AxB chataypy + fdas, #ikasBetd 1RyBs 417A), a }xkayp, tix iA,By +h>jA.By + kx KALB, = fA, —JA.B, -RA,B, +1A,B. + JA2Bx—14.B, on §(AyB,-A:B,) + }AzBx~ AyB) +KA;By —Ay,By) ijk =|AL Ay Ar (1.28) B, By B, Physical examples of cross product © The moment of foree F about a point whose position vector is 7, which is expressed as T=7 xF. (i) The angular momentum of a rotating particle which is expr (iii) The force on a charge g moving with velocity Vin a magn is expressed as F = qv xB. (iv) The angular velocity @ of a particle revolving in a cir | with linear velocity ¥ i 8 i “ity v isnormal to the plane containing. velocity vector ¥ ie,\ Historical Background and Mathematical Physics X i\ (i) Scalar triple product which is represented by (A * B)-C_and Gi) Vector triple product which is represented by ( x B)xC. Remember that the triple product (AB ) € will be a vector which is directed in direction of vector © since A B will be a scalar quantity. (i Scalar triple product The salar ipl product of tree vectors R Band Tis represented by (A « B- é. since, Axi = ¥ isavectoshence(A xB): = VC willbe ascala hence (A *B)- js known as the scalar triple product. The scalar triple product of three vectors A ,B and Gia equal to the volame ofthat paralclopiped whose three edges are represented by the vectors A , B and C respectively. Proof : Fig. 1.17. represents a parllelopiped whose vectors along the three edges OX,OY and OZare A, Band C respectively. Clearly thedirection of vector AxB. = Visperpendiulrtothe "plane containing the Vectors A and B and its magnitude ‘equate he are ofthe shaded paalelogrammade by ‘the vectors Rand B shown in Fig 117, Now (A*B)- c= v- Cy =| ¥ | component of € along V | = (area of the parallelogram made by the vectors ee Parallelopiped made of Zand B) x ON edges A.Band © (1.29) its base, but its volumeEO. Unified Physics : First Year (second Pape) i Ay Ay A - ZBx8) & [Be ByoBe Cy Cy Cc, or then the volume of parallelopiped will (ea ire coplanar, pe and © to be coplanar is iy Note: Ifvectors A,B and C volun three vectors A, B ‘hence, the necessary condition for RBqHRExO =0 A Ay Ar B, By By IC, Cy Cx =0 (if) Vector triple product i aaa hbase 80) = ‘The vector triple product of three vectors A, B and C can be represented as A x (B x C). Itis clear from Fig. 1.18 that B_x C =V iga vector which is directed normal to the plane containing the vectors B and C. Now. A x(B xC)=A,x V will be a vector which is directed normal to the plane containing both the vectors A and V,, ie., this vector will be aera containing the vectors B and C. Vector triple product can be represented as 5 Ax@xO = 8E--CA-B) 32) PLANE OF B AND C Ov. PLANE) oa er AND Ex) Fig. 1.18. Vector triple directed product cag lone Xcaxis and Y-axis be perper and C,, then Z-axis will be direc Pea AIA + IA, + ka, 2 AxB,C, +14, DC, +1C,)=A,0, =A,B, = GAL + Ja, tha, Phy ma = (iA, + th, +ha)in,Hr bodgrand ond Matera res Now adding and subtracting A,B, C, on the righthand side of eqn. (1-33), we Bet Ax(BxC) = {(A,8,0,+A,B,C,)- 1A,B,Ce— IAcBxCy = fb,tayc,+A,C,) (iC, HC) A.Be Substituting the values of A+C and A+B from eqns. (1.34), we get RxGxd) -BRG-CKB as) Obviously the vector ‘x (B «@) te inthe plane containing the veetors B and C. Tote (1) On changing the order of the product in vector triple product, the resultant vector changes, since AxByxd = 6x RB) -- KEB-BEA =BR-0)-XE-B) 136) Chery the vector (K xB) «E will be inthe plan containing the vectors K and B. Thus, A (Bx C) is not equal to (A x B)* C. Gly Kiand Dice trove nat ete coping jh come > _ &BB BP” Now, if Azis the vector component of A normal to Bas shown in Fig. 1.19, them K+ Ag=& +. Vector component of A normal to B is KR -K-A > DB ( Z-B)B] Fe: 149. Component of vector A IBP along and perpeadicelar to B IBP Four vectors A,B, and D can be multiplied in the following (1) &*B)-E «B) which is a scalar, and @) KxB)xE xB) or K «(BE «B)] which will be a (1) Scalar product (4 « B)-(€ «D) (K«B)-(@ «D) can be considered as the scalar product of @«B). Nowif C xB =V, then feUnified Physics nr By EB) = ABV (1.38) Obviously itis a scalar. ca) ctr rat EB) iecne oF then A xB) CE «B= Vx(ExD) < a gs " 2 a at 1 + Sy ar Uy (1.39) Obviously it is a vector. (i Vector product KeBx xD) Ref x «Dy = A x(B-D)C -B-C)D] Ee the = &x0)B-D)-AxD)B-C) (0.40) ‘This is a vector. Ife physical quantity has different values at different points in space, ie., the value of the physica quantity depends on the coordinates of the point, the physical quantity is expressed ss. continuous funtion of position of point in that region. Such a physical quantity is said to be a point function (or a function of position). The region in which the function sepresents the physical quantity is called the field of that physical quantity. Depending upon the two types of physical quantities—scalar and vector, there are two types of fields : (@) scalar field and (ii) vector field. (i) Scalar field If a scalar quantity such as temperature, potential ete, is express function of position in a region, a scalar field is then said to exist. Suc has a unique value at each point of the region, Ifa scalar quantity 6 d (,y, 2) ofa point in space, the scalar field is expressed as $= Yay.2) : The function 4,» can be used to find the value ofthe scalar q of that region. The examples of scalar ld are the distribution of temp electric field, the distribution of gravitational potential in a ‘geviationgHistorical Background and Mathematical Physics esp ‘Ascalar field is graphically represented by a number of surfaces such that the function He, 2 has a fixed and same value on each Kd point of a surface, but different values on Eifferent surfaces, Such a surface is called the equi-scalar surface. For example, in case of distribution of temperature in a metalic rod with its one end kept hot and other end kept cold, we can consider jsothermal surfaces normal to the direction Of flow of heat, in its steady state. Each ¥ surface corresponds to a definite temperature (Fig. 1.20), Similarly, in an electric field due to a point charge, the distribution of potential is represented by the equi-potential surfaces ¥ which are concentric spherical surfaces with the point charge Fig. 1.20. Isothermal surfaces A 1s centre. Each spherical surface corresponds to a fixed and <) same potential (Fig. 1.21). (ii) Vector field | Ifa vector quantity F such as velocity, electric field, = magnetic field etc,, is expressed as a continuous function of Fig. 1.21, Equi-potential | position (x,; 2) in a region, such as F = F cy, 2)» the vector field is said to exist in that region. At each point in this field, the magnitude and direction of the vector function is well defined and it changes from point to point. The examples of vector field are the velocity distribution in fluid, the variation of electric field, the variation of magnetic field te. "A vector field is graphically represented by a curve joining the vector direction from point to point in that vector field. The tangent drawn at any point on this curve gives the Tirection of vector at that point. This curve is called the vector line or the line of flow or the ‘ua line. The magnitude of vector at any point of the flux line is represented by considering ‘surface of unit area normal tothe flux line and taking points on it such that the number of points is numerically equal to the magnitude of the vector at that point. Now we can draw parallel flux lines through each ofthese poins. Ths, the direction of fx line represents the direction of vector function F (ey, 2) at that point and the number of ux lines through tit area of cross-section normal to the flux lines represents the magnitude of the vector function Fey 2) tthat point, Fig 1.22 represent the flux lines ofa uniform electric field between the iro charged conductors and Fig, 1.23 represents the flux ines ofa non-uniform velocity distribution in different layers ofa liquid while flowing through a c ° surfaces in stream line condition. i - eTerenae | ieee | i saree Fig. 1.22. Flux lines of auniform Fig, 1,23, Flux lines of electric field a capillary in st Remember that there exists a single value of point function $c, y, Point in a scalar or vector field.ee co Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) Ifa vector isa function of a variable scalar quantity, then we can differentiate the vector ‘with respect to that scalar and the quantity so obtained will also be a vector. For example, let the position vector of a moving particle at any instant rbe 7” and the postion vector at instant r+ 5¢be 7 +87 (Fig 1.24), Y 10. then the differentiation of position vector F with respect to time am 1 is called the velocity vector v and it can be represented as ee . follows : Fig. 1.24. Position | Sorcteanavenn eds tribe ti, | of time ¢ “a * dim ern (141) Now if # is the unit vector in direction of vector 7 , then 7 =f rn The, re ae Geny= fe + ae (1.42) Now, if the velocity ¥ of the parti also a function of time 1, ie, the motion of Particle is accelerated, then the differentiation of velocity ¥ with respect to time is called the acceleration vector of the particle and it can be represented as follows : a (1.43) itis clear thatif 7 = and = ihe My dey mee Naa tae ie ioe ies Dif of sme ingore vectors with ese ni puc eo OGD G Oia in ite jr pte‘operator which is given as > Historical Background and Ma "nue: The space rate variation is expressed by the del =ig+ iz thd (in cartesian edordinates) wh Dee napyae ; "er +0555 +b raiaay {in spherical polar coordinates) aid ee rp 6335 +d (in cylindrical coordinates) Itis a vector operator which when operates on a scalar, results a vector. 445. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals, 0) (1) Line integral Consider a function f (x) of variable x at each point of a line ‘AB in Fig. 1.25. If line AB is divided in n parts of lengths dx, _yuyp/2x dxyeondty Tespectively, then summation of product of function (2) wit length dx along the entire length of lie AB is represented by the line integral of f(x) from A to B as Wi fix)de. > Co) Example : If electric field E is a function of variable x, then Fig. 1.25. Line n> > integral ® . dx represents the potential difference between the points Aand B. , (2) Surtace integral ¥ InFig 1.26, let be a limited region in X-Y plane in which the function of two variables x and y at each point is f (xy). ‘Now if the region A is divided in n parts whose areas are 3A, BAg, ony BA, ns BA Tespectively and let a point (x, y,) ies within a small area 8A, then sum of function f(x, y) in area ‘Acan be expressed as D for, BA, =f Ce 1) BAi + G2, 92) BA x ° ca osu +f Cp Yp) Bp + sos +S Cm Yn) 5An Fig. 1.26. Limited region ‘Now if we go on increasing the number of divisions of eae ae, the region A and make it infinite, then the area of each part 5A, will approach to zero and then the above summation is termed as the surface integral of f(s) on the region A and it can be expressed as || /tx,)) dA. x Example : If charge is distributed over a surface in X-Y plane with surface density of charge o on a infinite small area element dA, then total charge distributed over the surface willbe Q= [fo da. a earl (3) Volume integral Let a function f(x, y, 2) of three independent variables x, y, z be defined for a closed three-dimensional volume V. Now if the volume V is divided in n infinitesimal AV, AV >.uy AV p...AV, and the point (x, YZ) lies within the r™ small volume AV,, then sum of the function f (x, y, 2) over the volume V is expressed as 8 leks: Y Moen Yn AV, =S Ci Y40 2) AV) +L Cas Y25 22) AV2 + oe +S Cin Yn BD AV, eo tant fC Im Zn) AVnMO wre roasts cvsnteotsnacooen a Now if the number of divisions of volume V is increased and it is made infinite so. ‘ ‘ach small volume AV, approaches to zero, then the sum of f(x, y,2) over the volumne i termed as the triple integral and itis denoted as. {ff f(x, ,2)aV. | Mi i Example itr i ume V and volume densi * fa change is distributed non-uniformly over a volume V n of charge on an infinite sell volume element dV is p, then total charge in the entire Volume o> fon Vv @ Fig. 127. Evaluation of surface integral as Tepeated integrals owt ifwe assume plane perpendicular ode =x, which i A.at the points P and Q whose coordinates meets puiface == (s,)) onthe curve SR at whieh Pounded by the planes, willbe PORS why Y= Gy) fiat SRY) dy (1.44), Itis Sait this area depends only on, ( se pate atx = x) Hence, we ean ay i Cuts, will be a function of 5) Fay =? 5 ne) 7 Hence, the entre area of region A bound ony ee rete i, Thus, the surface integral {f x,y) can # integral as follows : , : | Srna = Clg : | _ £9). Then the volume element can be written as. Perpendicular to the X-axig aHistorical Background and Mathematical Physics a) Clearly, in the above integration, first we have integral within the square pracket, thereafter its solution is tobe integrated yal tapes i om r= a tox. THUS, the eqn. (1.47) expresses a surface integral in terms of two line integrals. This is called the repeated integral. Remember that in the repeated integral, it is not essential to put square brackets and therefore they are generally omitted: Then a surface integral can be written as: a) fe, yaa =f? [7° de (1.48) f PSO es nae ‘To cvaluate it, first the function /(x, ») is integrated with respect to y between the limits ‘y, and y, assuming x to be constant. This ‘linsinaten y from he function fand the function ‘now remains only the function of x. Then it is integrated with respect to x between the {imits of from a to b. It should be remembered here that if we take a plane perpendicular to Y-axis instead of taking it perpendicular to X-axis, then also the solution of the above integral is possible. ‘Then only the order of integration of the repeated integral changes and it can be ex as follows : apne) Sls, yd. = ae (1.49) f dan = fe fe sday The above method can also be used to deduce the volume integral in the form of repeated, integration. Then [lf rexaav- f° | fal oe” fe yz dy (0.50) : ne) Paes) It means that first of all, the function f(x, y, 2) is integrated with respect to z between the limits z, and zp assuming x and y as constant. The result so obtained will depend only on.x and y. This is now integrated with respect to y between the limits y, and y2 assuming ‘vas constant. Now the result obtained will depend only on x and it is now integrated with respect to x between the limits a and b. "Note : Sometimes, itis easier to use the polar coordinates instead of the cartesian coordinates for solving some problems in physics like motion in a plane. The transformation ‘equations of two dimensional cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, ) are: x =e0s0 a pee ey Re 1s) Then ff rey)adedy = {fr eos0, sin) ro dr or [freon - IIe peor dean= [Poa ff 0)r dr ie Inabove equation, the limits ofr and 0 can be obtained from the transformation equations. Similarly, the transformation equations of cartesian coordinates and spherical coordinates (8, 6) forsolving the three dimensional problems like Baa? spherically symmetric central force are as follows : : x =rsin Q cos > li rhbuys ai bow y =rsin O sind - z =rcos 0 tie Ct iy)) or Poe +y +2, ond 2 and tn 0 = a iniearsa ial CeGay Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) [J re n2av oi Sff-70, 0,0)? ar sin 0.40.4 v v - tn 97e) ona Here, the limits of r, 8, 4 can be obtained from the transformation equations. We'-averead above that in a two-dimensional motion (or motion in a plane) like circular motion, it is convenient to express the position of a particle in plane polar coordinates (0). Then position vector of the particle at any instant ¢ is é OX Peictly or = 7 = ircosd+jrsind (1.53) In polar coordinate system as shown in Fig. 1.28, assuming the unit vector tr along the radius vector r is called X the unit radial vector and unit vector 6 in increasing direction of angle 0 (i.e., perpendicular to position vector 7 ), is called a” a the tangential or normal unit vector. From eqn, (1.53), they are given as nS Radial unit vector t = --=jcos 0+ jsin 1.54) and from Fig. 1.28, Tangential or normal unit vector 6 = Pa(~i)+Pbq | ~-ios{ f-0}+ina( 0 = ~isin0+jcos@ (1.55) l] Itis clear from eqns, (1.54) and (1.55) that unit vectors * and 6 both are the functions of 8. We have read that the del operator ¥ space rate variation of a scalar field. In dif follows : In cartesian coordinates : Y= In polar spherical coordinates: Y= and in cylindrical coordinates: ¥ = Now ¥-¥=V? isa scalar operator whieh es Incartesian coordinates: V-+¥ =algebra, we use main} i in vecto 7 ly the following three integrals : (i) line integral, (ii) surface integral and (iii) ie algal (i) Line integral We have read oe @ vector field is represented by the flux lines. Consider a flux line PQinavector field A (Fig. 1.29) Let the vector K ata point 4 Bon the flux line makes an angle 0 with the length df Ifthe | | | In vector ; | | { I | iagnitude and direcion of A varies from point to point on the ales] line PQ, the line integral of A along the path PQ is [Rd = [Pa 8 29. Lin b P cos Fig. 1.29. Line integral Incartesian coordinates, K=iA,+)A,+KA, and df =i de+j dy+kde Red? =A,de+Aydy+A, dz Then fra = fPacd+ aa +a, a) (0.60) For example, ifa force Facts on a moving particle, then [rar gives the work done by the force in moving the particle from P to Q. Similarly the ine integral of electric field E between the points P and Q along a path PQ is fea ‘whieh represeats the work done by the electric field in moving a unit charge from the point Qie, the Potential difference between the points P and Q. a aR PSN Wee “ae Note: Ifthe line integral of a vector field A between jhe pons Pd the path between the points, but it only depends on the coordinates of the point Pan the point Q, the vector field is said to be a conservative field. In - x integral of a conservative field along a closed path is zero, ie, fRedi=o"3a Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) (ii) Surface integral Consider a small element of area da on a surface Sin a vector field (Fig. 1.30), The direction of area vector da is along the outward normal on the surface. Let the value of the vector field at the centre ofelemen, (4 + teA.Thefhuxof vector through the element of rea dais cou to the product of area of the element and component Of Vector A along the area vector da (i.e, along the normal to the Fig. 1.30. Surface integral surface) = Asda =|Z| da |cos 0. Thus surface integral Avda = JJ A-cosOda gives the total ux of X ove, 3 3 the surface S, For example, if ¥" is the velocity vector of a flowing liquid, then the surface integra of ¥ is [J ¥-da’ which represents the rate of flow of liquid (ce, volume of liquid flowing ait per sec) through the surface S. (iii) Volume integral Let the value of vector field be A in a small element dV of volume V, The volume integral of vector A is [[fRav. v Incartesian coordinates, Ania, +]A, +A, and av =dedy de Sff&ev = [fia,+ia, ka jaca ae (1.61) v v Let a scalar function at a point (x, scalar field], the cartesian components of Perpendicular axes X, Y, Z are respectively 3 * and 20 The gradient of scalar function %,y,2 is then defined as 2 2) be represented by $4.» [ies dy a2) ise 'ts space rate of variations along the three mutually 10) 20 96 ara 6 = 158 4 28 | a Vector V4 is known as the gradient of scalat es but V¢ is'a vector quantity /e., gradient of a scale Geometrical meaning of gradient We have read that if the value of a scalar potential, gravitational potential etc.) differs fron definite value at each point, then the scalar quat 4¢.5, » find we say that a scalar field is present att the equi-scalar surfaces, at each surface of which and at each point of a surface, ¢ has the same vah V6 can be determined by the following methodHistorical Background and Mathematical Phi Sore Consider two close equi-scalar surfaces S; and Sy (Fig. 1.31): Let the value of sealar funtion be 0044 chon the puneee’ StS, reget Consider pints Pand Q on the surfaces S, and S, respectively at postion yeetors 7 and 7 it dr froma point O taken as origin, ie, OB= y and OG = 7 + dr as Hence, PQ= OO-OB=(F 4dr) dF Let the perpendicular distance ofthe surface S from the point P on the surface S; be PP’ = di and unit vector inthe direction of PP’ be n. From Fig. (1.31), PP'=PQ cos A 1. Gradient of a iS dn'= dr cos 0's dr (1,63) Flee 1 34 Greene Since the perpendicular distance between the two surfaces is the minimum distance between them, therefore the rate of increase of scalar function @ at the point P is maximum along PP’, which is equal toy, Thus ay = ay Bnd? (1.64) But > =o@y2) db = Sac ey Rae - (130528 +3) aes jay ha) = Vo dF Hence, from eqns. (1.64) and (1.68), Vo-dr = Spm dr a ¥g— ae or gd = Sha Thus, gradient ofa scalar field is a vector quantity whose magnitude gives the maximum space rate variation of that scalar quantity at that point and its direction is that int which the space rate variation is maximum, i.e,, in direction normal to the equiscalar surface at that point. op ks If both the points P and Q are on the surface S; (i., the vector surface S) the value of scalar function $ is same at both points, ie But d= V+ dr , therefore Vo: dr =0 or Vo is normal to dr’. vector ¥p (or grad 4) isin direction normal to the surface 4 = constant, If the points P and Q are on the separate surfaces S, and i feoeh Reh Variation of @ between these points is dp = Vo-dr = |Vo| d} to be maximum, the value of cos 6 must be equal to. 1, ie, 0 other words, 04 and dr must be in same direction. Thus, the (or grad 4) is the direction in which the space rate vaia Unified Physics : First Year (Second Paper) Physical significance of gradient The gradient of a scalar field finds its great significance in physics. The negatiy, gradient of electric potential at « point represents the electric field at that point. Thy, E =~ grad V = — VV. Thus electric field at a point is a vector whose magnitude is equ to the maximum space rate variation of electric potential and direction is that of maximn, decrease in potential [ie., normal to the equi-potential surface at that point (Fig. 1.21} jy other words, the electric potential is a scalar quantity whose negative gradient gives thy clectric field. If a constant potential difference is maintained across the ends of wire ‘means of a battery (as is done in the experiment on potentiometer), the potential decre from the end connected to the positive terminal towards the end connected to the negatiyg terminal of the battery and a potential gradient is said to exist across the wire. The flow of current in the wire is opposite to the direction of potential gradient. ‘Similarly, in conduction of heat through a metallic rod, in the steady state, with iy cone end kept hot and the other end kept cold, the temperature decreases from the hot end ip the cold end. If, and 02 be the temperatures of isothermal surfaces A and B at distances eH iis ade x and x + de from the hot end (Fig. 1.20), then temperature gradient is (if ; = @and 6, = 0 — d®). The temperature gradient represents the direction of flow heat. Heat flows in a direction in which the rate of variation of temperature is maxis ie, normal to the isothermal surface from the high temperature to the low temperature. Similarly, the gravitational field is represented as F =~ grad 6, where 6 is gravitational potential The divergence of a vector field at a point is a scalar quantity of magnitude equal the fcc of that vector field diverging out per unit volume through that point. In z = form, the dot product of del operator Vand the vector field Rox.y.2) gives the di of the vector field A, ie.,ie “Storical Background and Mathematical Physics ey the vector field & j in terms of its nents "To, Bad the Gajncnee its cartesian compone ‘ divergence of the vector field A i f its cartesian ents in terms of ay aah aan: ® Parallelopiped ABCDEFGH with its edges along X, Y, Z-axes, of ed be Pa ively (Fig. 1.32). Let the value of vector field at the centre of parallelopiped be A whose components along X, Y, Z-axes are Ay, A. A a, respectively. Let the value of vectos fed A increases along the Positive axis. The rate of increase of A, along X-axis ig Divergence of “ax > the ate of increase of A, along Y-axis is oe and the rate of increase of A, along Z-axis is S* | The decrease in the value of A, on the face ADHE at distance 4 ; > along the negative X-axis from the centre of 7 parallelopiped = on (¥) Fig. 1.32. Divergence of a vector field ® X-component of vector & at the face ADHE = A, (2A) 4 (This can be assumed to be uniform on the centre face since the face is infinitesimally small.) Similarly, X-component of vector A at the face BCGF “aye Since, the flux through a small elementary area is equal to the product of area and component of vector field along the vector area (i.e., along the normal to the surface), s therefore, the flux of vector field A entering the face ADHE = vector field normal to face ADHE ~ area of face OAy de s ( ngs 2) ay de OA, and the fiux leaving the face BCGF = (oe \dy cz +, Exess of flux in X-direction from the parallelopiped = Geaay ae The above expression gives the net flux coming out of the | & dy dz in X-direction. pk Similarly, the net flux coming out in Y-direction = a ‘ e+. A, and the net flux coming out in Z-direction = 9," dx dy dified First Year (Second Paper) ‘Thus, the total flux diverging out of the parallel aA, , 2A; As) = (eee tee = (WA) de dy de = (div A) de dy de [from eqn. (1.67) But _dedy dz = volume of parallelopiped ABCDEFGH. Hence, total flux diverging out per unit volume aAy aA, divA = he Pat aes int is a scalar quantity. ‘Thus, divergence of vector field at a poi Physical significance of divergence The divergence ofa vector field ata point is a measure of lux of that vector field at thay point. Ifthe vectorfeld A represents the velocity ¥_ ofa flowing liquid, div v_ (or Vv ) measures the rate of flow of liquid at that point, Similarly, if the vector field A represents the electric feld F, then div E (or VE ) measures the electric field lines diverging from The divergence of a vector field can be positive, negative or zero. _, (1) If the divergence of a vector field at a point is positive (ie., div A =+ ve), it means thatthe flux entering through the surface is less than the flux coming out through that surface. In other words, there is a source of that vector field in the region. @) If the divergence of a vector field at a point i ive (ie, div A = it SS ei ere ee that surface. In other words, there is sink of that vector field in that region. 2 G) Ifthe divergence of a vector field is zero at a point, it implies that the flux enterin, the surfaces equa othe fix leaving that surface In other words, thereis nether the source ‘nor the sink in that region. In this ease, the flux lines it asses pein the sommes, of an electric iC Re SGN Teen ‘due to the flow of current). Such ves (as in case of a magnetic field produced ke ). Such a vector field is called 5 Feld for which divergence is zero, is called th ep fe ae Se Fora il ids if div Y. pis the ‘compressible fluid, if div y with time, then Similarly, if T is the Loker ro current density at a poi oad give the ate of flow of charge ven i? ema it the charge density pis decreasing with is~ dp/dt. By conservation of charge, hy Ae div = -P oeaiy 7 + is called the equation of continuity of changHistorical Background and Mathematical Physics ea) according to this theorem, the volume integral of divengence ofa vector field K over sp encloses a nok of that vector field A taken over the surface S shi lume V. i.e [fea Aw = [kaa 71) ‘Thus, this theorem is used to convert the volume integral into the surface integral or sp convert the Surface integral into the volume integral. 2 In eqn. (1.71), the quantities on both sides represent the flux of vector field A. ‘The tity on the left side represents the total diverging flux through the volume V, while the quantity onthe right side represents the total lux of vector field through the closed surface S- Proof : In cartesian coordinates, dv K-VK = (i +4 Z +e2)-da,+ia, read and while - According to Gauss’ theorem, anys es 2a.) = [[(azayae + Ay de de + A, de dy) [eo alae fi dy e+ Ay dy dz along the X-axis between the points To prove it, consider a strip of area P,(xj.y,2) and P> (x2, y,2) as shown in Fig, 1.33. Along this strip } aA, ut Py ii Gracey d= [Oona v = [fia.en-a@nla ! AG. Gh se boitsonio 3H ig. 1.34, Gauss’ divergence"36 cs : First Year (Second Paper) ified Physics: ir ( aoe vom of 2, and the direction of daz are opposite t0 each but at the face Py, the direction OF “" other, therefore at Pi, BeAr aa: AG 2 2) dy de is € f volume dV (= Rat qual to the net flux diverging i J) Oe ie enclosed between th es tne small element of ds dy dz) 3 surfaces at Py and P2 reese = [fom rgawe: foe ‘Similarly, ‘ i [Jaeaean mae Adding all, (eee Ja cy a = Soe os [fee Rav = ee This is the Gauss’ divergence theorem. ‘Alternative method : Consider a volume V enclosed by a surface S (Fig. 1.35). This volume can be divided into small elements of volumes Vj,'Vo, ...... which are enclosed by the elementary surfaces Sj, S2, .... respectively. By definition, the flux of a vector field A diverging out of the i element is given as : af [Rede Z : (vA), = Sy — [val [val [val S or divA),¥, Vs|_[Vel_[¥7| v Fig. 1.35. Gauss’ divergence If we add the qu theorem above eqn. for each el Lew A,y, = [fai Similarly, if we add the quantity f f de 5) the elementary surfaces $1, So, nu. We get the ten ame the value of Ada for each of the inner surfaceel ‘ Historical Background and os | gerbe bred wT im tt faa [rea Thus [fra Aya = f[Reae 8 isis the Gauss’ divergence theorem cording to Green's theorem, ifa vector field A is equal tothe product of the scalar apr and the gradient of a scala fnetion then [over VeFnav = asorde Y 8 wi {ff rv*.-evenav = f[OiF—sVorede hs Ss Thus, there are above two transformation forms of Green’s theorem which have the important use in electrodynamics and hydrodynamics, "op Let R= obs = (FBR 52 422) Then W-A = G24 5243 : = 41(0-Vo) + F-Wos = V+ Vb Vb, Now from Gauss’ divergence theorem, ; Sf F-Rav = A 1) Nat Substituting the value of +A from eqn. (1.72) and i If .v24, + Vy: Wanyav. = J aycond Paper) ; i GRO 7 ni physics: Fist Yer eer peorem, interchanging #1 04 6 in | een’ ) isthe first form of Gi The eqn. (1.73) 7. “al ceqn. (1.73), we Bet 5 + eed 7 “Vo)dV = 2 {[foama+ Fee 7% f | ¥ .73), pe i from eqn. (1 i eal Subtracting eqn. (1.74) Se densi od 2g yav = [foi %e2- 9 [erste J | y | ince Oy" = Voz Vor ‘ a | rai eqn. (1,75) is the ‘second form of Green's theore! ES i ity whose magnitude is equal 10 the 1.a point is.a vector quantity Gurl of Sie a a agra of that vector per unit area along the boundary ofa Taal doen ‘ground that point. The direction is along the area vecior: \ ral womerwpoce Te 41 bythe right hand screw rule according to which to the surface. The direction i a ee along the boundary to find the line integra, ia right hand screw is rol Curl of that vector field. ie, the direction in which the screw advances is the direction of Sars = Red Cunt = im, —gq—B (1.76) Here, iis the unit vector normal to the surface and f represents the line integral along the boundary which encloses that surface. Curl of the vector field A in terms of cartesian coordinates If is »,2) isa vector field, the cross product of V operator with the vector field A is equal to the Curl of the vector field A’ i.e., Curl A= ¥ x A In cartesian coordinates, cea piled pe atau url A =VXA=la/ax a/ay diaz den ADeeAY aay) 4 ey a a2) +i To prove it, consider a small rectangle PQRS in the along the X and ‘Y-axes components of vector field. be A, and A, along o Fig. 1.36. Curl of a vector fieldHistorical Background and Mathematical Ph long the boundary PQRSP (i.e., anti- ach point of the side of the rectangle ponent at the mid-point of that side, since the side of rectangle Now to calculate the line integral of vector X al sovse), We CaM aSSUMe the Vector component ate ‘equal to the vector comy fe nitesimally small is cod The decrease in the value of A, in travelling a distance ¥ along the negative y-direction from the centre of rectangle to the mid-point of the side PQ= (2A ) o yy The X-component of vector field A at the mid-point of side PO dA, \ dy no 4 ( a) (along PO) Similarly, the X-component of vector field A on the side RS. clcamea (A ak i Ape (OAx) (along SR) The Y-component of vector field A onthe side OR 1A 6 eA, +>) s (along OR) and the Y-component of vector field A on the side SP A, Ee ~a,- (2x) (along PS) ‘Now the line integral of the vector field’at a point is equal to the product of the elementary length at that point and the component of vector field along that element. ic., e [Real = [xarcose aah Therefore, the line integral of vector field A along the closed boundary PQRSP of the element PQRS will be is , r rs =r =a OS cine Res heSamrees C5), (p>. —> § Kedl = [OKed? + [PRs CRa + [Red = (PQ) (component of vector along PQ) + (QR) (component of veotor along QR) + (RS) component of vectar along RS) + (SP) (component of vector along SP) lots Fe) € ale) 4 It should be noted that the last two terms in the above expres: the direction of vector field in these terms is opposite toGBD > nies physics: First Year (Second Paper) (curt X), Similarly, itwe consider the small elements in Y-Z. plane and in Z-X plane and fing similarly, if we conse the line integral of A petal re eet i (a 2 (Curl A), = (she tes) and (Curt K)y= (4 - Se ‘Thus the maximum value of fine integral of A per unit area = curt R= i(Curt A), + j(Cutl A), + k(Curl A), (f%-a7), —y 4, a(aAy 9A aa, AA, aA, aA,’ ( y ) ook = Ree) il Se) GP-S Tee ae [tee or Curl A = |a/ax aay afaz|=V , i.e, fReal = fred fRedi é 4 G If we divide the area enclosed by the curve C in small elements of area dé da, day, carves Cy, Co, Cy, 8s shown in Fig 1.37 (¢), then the sum of lin inp Ggaatieuhay crmaee Ci, Cay laken anti-clockwise) will be equal tothe line integral along the boundary C, i.e., fied? => fh é G Buty the dfnition of Curl, wehave Curl A-dday= f-K- ct” G fR-a? — Dow R- da, = {f cun da | é 3 This is the Stokes" theorem. It may boundary or the surface enclosed by it should be Ex. L. Two forces P and ot magnitudes respectively 3 N and 5 N act at point orang An angle 6 with each other. Calculate the maguitudeand inet - of resultant force at that point, : > Sol. Given, |P| =3N, 1Q| =5 Nand @ = 60° Magnitude ofthe resultant force [| = Ex2. Mvector A=2i +3} sk, aad is magattuay, Sol. Given, = K=2i +3) — sk Ar=2Ay=3and A, 5 * Magnitude of A is 1A) = JAS ATER =¥Q)°+8)P C52 =Historical Background — nd the oni vector a gic teeatcal Physics pod Find Simi Vector In direction of a gol. Given, A=1 +4] +8% Vector A=i+4)+8k. th BIN a eid nit vector |Aj=-A__it4j+sk Ia) vor Tay+ @? = o(i+ 4 + 8k). pn. (@) If K=i+2j- —3kand § B= 25437 it direction of resultant tof the two nna tt, mene (b) Ifthe above vectors K and represent two sides ear uleetae we 10 sides of a triangle, find the gol. (a) Resultant vectors of A Aand Bis R -A+B- ad v2j— 3k) +21 +3] — skp =Citsj—aiy Now unit vector of R is R = -R__ ~i+5j—sk R} ¥C1"+6)+C8* SIN ie Git5j—8k) (b) If C isthe vector along the third side of the triangle, then A+B+C=0 “ é =-G+B)--R-i_sjrate. Ex.5. If Kosiv jerk, calculate : (@ magnitude of A, Pha Sires contncs of A, (lit) projection of & in X-Y plane, (iv) unit vector in direction of A. Sol. Given : K =3i+j+2k () Magnitude of A is |A|= /A2+A3+A2 = ¥@?+()?+@)?=Vi4. (i Direction cosines of X are Ag 30 ya AP de and ne Ae = aa ial ve" TAL Vo Ad (Wy Projection of A in X-Y plane = 3i+2k [Rel- 1@7+@?= V3 ey 3i+jt a7 va 1, 0) mto( Ex. 6, A moving pare pat om pt 0 Sol. Initial position of particle = (2, 1, 0)m an “ tial position vector 4 - 2h + dm a =1,5,6)m Final position of particle (iv) Unit vector in direction of K is A="a8 Unified First Year (Second Final position vector 7 = (-1 +5) +6k)m Displacement vector of particle © = - m= C1+5)+6k)-(2t+j) =( 3) + 4j + 6k)m z Tscay's 6p Distance travelled by the body | $ | = v(- 3)" + (4)" + (6) = (9416436 = Y61 =7:81m Ifthe magnitude of two unequal vectors A and B are equal, show that vectoy (X +B) and vector (A - B) are mutually perpendicular. Sol. Given :|A|=|B] ie, A?=B* Now (A+B)(A-B) Hence, vectors (A +B) and (A ~ B) are mutually perpendicular. Ex.8& If[X+B|=|A—B], then prove that A and B are perpendicular to exch Sol. Given |X+B| =|X-Bl Hence, [X+BP -1K-3P aia pe (K+B)-(A+B) = &-B)-A-B) or 2 > > te ee > or A-A+A*B+B-A+B-B = A:A—A-B-B:A+B-B or Ce or Ex.9. Provethat A=2i+3j+k and B=2i- 4) Sk arerntually perpeeiienal Sol. The dot product of two perpendicular vectors shouldbe equal to zero. Hence, KB = Q5+3)+b- Ex.10. fA+B=C andA?+B?=C}, to each other. comes Sol. Given : BoB = Hence (A+B) (A+B) = or A-K+K-B+B-A+B-B = or A?+2K-B +B? = C? ButA?+B’=C? Hence, 2K-B =0 >> or A‘B=sat. Work done by the force Wag 1Ot=4 + 9h). Gi sj sty sree ep. Pape ore Co. clement of area (i + j — iy m?, Msn he ect ax tru + oma sal Blectric flux = Bede mais 3) syd sj iy pepe i ry 24.3422) (-1)=24342=7 yok mew. pik Ami -j+2k ana B~3i+2)-, ented, © A°B, @ angle between A and Bin X x a. rer he Nance s. » = n A = 1-J+2k and B=3i+2j-k SOT coe °: A’B = (1-j+-28)-Gi +2) iy = 30-426.) -@in 36-24-56. + 6(k-f) + 4(ke-j)—2¢k-i =3-2-2=-1. @ |Al = V+ Cay +@? =viF isa = Ve IB] = ¥@)*+@?+ Cn? = Vorari = ia K-B =|A||Bleose ro Rep ret) t=] ono Tg” veda dee or p-+e 0~ cos" Fh): iy RB = d-j+2)xGi+2)-b ba] = adixips adda) —Gxiy ads + xk) + 6¢exi) + 4 = 0+2k-C)-3- hori ak+jrsk+ivoj-si=-aieee ee s : es a riage dp AxB = Sol. (a) eb Bam = §¢10+9)+j6+5)+kG+4) =—f+1j+7k [RxBl = VE? +0? +0? = i KB a ray (b) The unit vector in direction of AxB is ae . = ier CES IT rym 19 oem ; Thus, magnitude of area of the parallelogram = vit Square unit and it is in ) direction of unit veotor i i " t 1 tig Ex. 15. ASHE =o, then show that ABBE =e xk, aA Sol. Given, A+B+e ey Taking its cross product with A, we ee ee AKA+AxB+Ax@ <9 Bw Sere Since AXA=Oand Ax@=_@x2 EME, a AXB-CxA=0 or AxB=OxF Now taking the cross product with B, 4 ~) Eee tes to BKA+BxB+Bx@ <9 But BxB=0 ang Bxt— AB tae her From cans. () and (i, X AxBaBx ee Ex. 16, It K=4j- ~5j+3k, B= ie ~10j- 7k ana O BBE wna ay xB) xe, Sol. Given X= 4f_ ~ +34, 8 =2f igh ot and ALAA; B, B, B,|= CrCy CO. 9 AxB).e - ~396+ 135 + 192 0 AxByS = GQ. “ORG.