MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 1

1. Measuring instruments

Rulers
1. Metre rulers are used as vertical or horizontal scales in experiments.
2. To set a metre rule in a vertical position: use a plumb line and align the ruler parallel to it, or
use a set square perpendicular to the ruler and bench if the bench is known to be horizontal.
3. Look perpendicularly towards the scale and object you are measuring to avoid making a
parallax error. This is an error in reading an instrument due to the relative movement between the
object and scale marking when the object is viewed from different positions against the scale
markings.

Vernier callipers

http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/General/Vernier/Vernier.html

1. Readings can be made to within 0.1 mm.

2. Reading a vernier:
 Read the main scale up to the zero on the vernier scale.
 Read the vernier scale where a vernier division matches up with a main scale division.

Micrometers
1. Micrometers give reading to within 0.01 mm.
2. Reading a micrometer:
 Read the main scale including half divisions.
 Add the thimble scale reading.
3. Precautions
 make sure that the faces between the anvil and spindle are clean,
 Do not over tighten, use the ratchet.
 Check the zero error and account for it when taking a reading.
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http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Micrometer/Flash/MicSimulation.html

Zero error

(a) zero error -0.03 mm

(b) zero error +0.03 mm

(a) The reading is low by 0.03mm. We have to add 0.03 mm to the reading we take with this micrometer.
 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 3
(b) The reading is too high by 0.03 mm. We have to subtract 0.03 mm to the reading we take with this
micrometer.

Timers
1. When using a stopwatch, the reaction time, about 0.2 s, is variable for any individual. The
precision of a single timing is unlikely to be better than 0.1 s
2. When timing oscillations, the timings should be repeated several times to get an average value.
3. Use a fiducial mark for accurate timings.
4. When measuring the time period of a pendulum, use the countdown method to start the
timings: 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, and at zero, start the stopwatch when the bob passes the fiducial mark
moving in the same direction.

An oscilloscope
1. Check that the variable control is fully clockwise.
2. Check that the oscilloscope input is for d.c. measurements or for a.c. measurements.
3. When measuring an a.c. waveform, ensure
(i) the y-gain is adjusted so that the vertical height of the waveform is as large as possible from
top to bottom on the screen,
(ii) several cycles are displayed across the screen, and measure across as many cycles as
possible to reduce experimental uncertainty.

Example: Using a CRO to measure alternating voltage

R to Y input
of CRO

1 cm

The wave shown is obtained when the time base is 10 ms cm-1 and Y sensitivity is
0.5 V cm-1.
What is the frequency and peak voltage?

Answer
The time taken for one cycle T
= 2 cm x 10 ms cm-1
= 20 ms = 0.02 s
1 1
f= = =50 Hz
T 0.02

Peak voltage = 1 cm x 0.5 V cm-1

= 0.5 V

A travelling microscope
1. The microscope can be aligned vertically or horizontally to measure a vertical or horizontal
distance. The platform has a vernier scale to measure distances to within ±0.1 mm
 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 4
2. Before use, the platform should be levelled horizontally using a spirit level, otherwise there
could be a systematic error in the measurements.

Using digital and analogue scales

1. Voltmeters, ammeters and stopwatches may be analogue or digital.
2. Many ammeters and voltmeters have more than one scale, e.g. a 0-5 scale and a 0-10 scale.
The correct scale should be used when taking a reading.
Light gates
1. These are used with a data logger, computer or timer.
2. The effect of using a light gate is to reduce the range of the readings for a given measurement,
e.g. when timing an object moving through a certain distance.

2. Errors and uncertainties

Uncertainty in a scale reading

1. When a measurement is made with an instrument there is some uncertainty in the result. The
uncertainty is generally referred to as an error.
2. In a single measurement with a scale instrument, the maximum error is taken to be half the
distance between adjacent scale markings, and the maximum possible error in is equal to the
distance between adjacent scale markings. This is the precision with which the scale can be read.

10 mm 20 mm

For example, with a rule graduated in mm, there is an error of ½ mm in judging the position of
each end of the body against the rule, so the maximum possible error is
2 x ½ mm = ± 1 mm.
The precision is ±1 mm.

A micrometer with a precision of 0.01 mm gives readings that each have a precision of 0.01 mm
3. For a reading of say (208 ± 1) mm:
 the absolute error is 1 mm
(this has units)

1
 the fractional error is
208
(this has no units)

1
 the percentage error is x 100
208
¿ 0.48 % = 0.5 %
(this has no units)

The error is an estimate only and is usually required to one significant figure.
Combining errors
Consider two quantities:
a = (5.1± 0.1) cm, and
b = (3.2 ± 0.1) cm.
Q = the quantity required.
 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 5
1. Adding or subtracting
When two quantities are to be added or subtracted, add the absolute error.

Q = a + b = (8.3 ± 0.2) cm

Q = a – b = (1.9 ± 0.2) cm

Uncertainties always increase when adding or subtracting quantities.

If both quantities read high,

Q = 5.2 + 3.3 = 8.5 cm,

If both quantities read low,

Q = 5.0 + 3.1 = 8.3 cm

If both quantities read high,

Q = 5.2 – 3.3 = 1.9 cm

If both quantities read low,

Q = 5.0 – 3.1 = 1.9 cm.

2. Multiplying or dividing
When two quantities are to be multiplied or divided, add the % errors.
First the % errors for a and b are found:

% error in a = 0.1/5.1 x 100 = 1.96%

% error in b = 0.1/3.2 x 100 = 3.13%

Q = a x b = (5.1 x 3.2) (1.96% + 3.13%)

= (16.32 ± 5.09%) cm2
= (16.32 ± 5%) cm2

5% x 16.32 = 0.816 = 0.8 (1 s.f.)

Q = (16.3 ± 0.8) cm2

Q = a / b = (5.1 / 3.2) (1.96% + 3.13%)

= (1.59375 ± 5%)
5% x 1.59375
= 0.0796875 = 0.08 (1 s.f.)
Q = (1.59 ± 0.08)

Note: The answer is quoted with the same number of decimal places as the probable error.
3. Powers
For a quantity raised to a power:-
multiply the % error by the power.

Q = a2 = 5.12 (2 x 1.96%)

= 26.01 (± 3.92%) cm2

= 26.01 (± 4%) cm2

4% x 26.01
= 1.0404 = ± 1 cm2
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Q = (26 ± 1) cm2

Q = √b = b½
= √3.2 (½ x 3.13%)
= 1.78885 (± 1.565%)
= 1.78885 (± 2%)

2% x 1.78885
= 0.035777 = 0.04
Q = (1.78 ± 0.04) cm½

Example
If A = 10 ±1,
B = 12 ± 2,
C = 20 ± 1, calculate

1. (a) B – A,
(b) 2A + 3B
2. (a) A.B
(b) 3A.B
(c) A2 B
AB
3. A2B + 2
C

Answer
1. (a) B – A = 2 ± 3
(b) 2A + 3B = (20 ± 2) + (36 ± 6)
= 56 ± 8.
Note % error in A is the same as in 2A.

2. % error in A = 1/10 x 100 = 10%

% error in B = 2/12 x 100 = 16.7% = 17%
% error in C = 1/20 x100 = 5%

(a) A.B = 10 x 12 (10% + 17%)

= 120 ± 27% = 120 ± 30
= (120 ± 30)
(b) 3A.B = 30 x 12 (± 27%)
= 360 ± 30%
= (360 ± 100)
(c) A2 B = 1200 (± 20% + 17%)
= 1200 (±37%)
= 1200 ± 40%
= (1200 ± 400)
AB
3. A2B + 2
C
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 10% + 17% + 2x5%)
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 37%)
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 0.11)
= (1200 ± 500)

Example
The density of a ball is (300 ± 8) kg m-3.
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The ball is placed on a metre rule to find its diameter.
One end of a diameter is opposite the 35 cm mark and the other end is at 78 cm and the error in
each of these measurements is
± 1 cm.
Find the mass of the ball.

Answer (12 ± 2) kg

Systematic and Random Errors

Errors can be of two types: (a) systematic and (b) random.

true value random error

systematic error

(a) Systematic errors

1. A systematic error is a reading consistently shifted in one direction.

2. Systematic errors are usually due to:

(a) Apparatus or instrument fault,
e.g. a zero error.
The pointer on an ammeter or voltmeter should be adjusted to read zero before use, or the zero
error is recorded, and added or subtracted as appropriate from all readings to correct the
systematic error.

(b) Poor experimental technique,

e.g. a parallax error, misreading a scale.
When reading the position of a pointer on a scale, the eye should be placed directly over the
pointer to get a correct reading.
Many ammeters and voltmeters have more than one scale, e.g. a 0-5 scale and a 0-10 scale.
The correct scale should be used when taking a reading.

(c) Inherent errors,

e.g. heat losses, air resistance, background count, and background field.

To account for heat losses in heat experiments, the experiment can be repeated with a different
rate of heating or a cooling correction may be applied.

Draught shields may be used to minimize air resistance.

In radioactivity experiments, the background count rate is measured and subtracted from all
measurements to get a count rate due to the source alone.

When measuring the magnetic field inside a solenoid due to a current, the background field is first
measured without the current.

3. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking repeated measurements or by averaging.

They can be eliminated or corrected by:
 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 8
(i) changing the equipment or instruments used, or by using a different experimental procedure.
(ii) using good experimental technique,
(iii) adjusting the readings to compensate for the systematic error.

(b) Random errors.

1. Random errors result in a scatter of readings about a mean value.
2. Random errors are due to the experimenter taking readings incorrectly or random fluctuations
in the environment affecting the experiment. Some of the causes include:

(a) Inability of the observer to repeat his actions precisely.

In timing the period of a pendulum, the reaction time on the clock might vary slightly, and the same
starting amplitude may not be used each time.
(b) A particular measurement not being reproducible, e.g. when measuring the temperature for
plotting a cooling curve.

(c) Lack of sensitivity of the instrument.

Using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a wire gives a smaller % error than using vernier
slide callipers.

3. Random errors are reduced by repeating the measurements several times and taking the
average value, and by statistical methods.

Example
Suppose the readings of the diameter of a wire, using a micrometer screw gauge were:

0.83 mm, 0.83 mm, 0.85 mm, 0.83 mm,

0.85 mm, 0.86 mm, 0.85 mm

Calculate the diameter and state the uncertainty in the measurement.

Answer
The mean value = 5.9/7 mm
= 0.843 mm
The average of the differences between each reading and the mean, neglecting the sign, is:

(0.013 + 0.013 + 0.007 + 0.013 + 0.007 + 0.017 + 0.007) / 7

= 0.077/7 = 0.011 mm
The diameter = (0.84 ± 0.01) mm
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Accuracy and Precision

1. It is possible to have readings which are accurate but not very precise, or readings which are
taken with great precision which are not accurate.
2. An accurate experiment is one which has a relatively small systematic error.
A precise experiment has a small random error.

(a) accurate experiment of low precision

true value measured value

repeat readings
small systematic error large random error

(b) precise experiment but less accurate

repeat readings
large systematic error small random error

3. A precise reading is a measure of the smallest measurement that can be made with an
instrument, e.g.
± 0.01 mm with a micrometer,
± 0.1 mm with a vernier callipers,
± 1 mm with a metre rule,
± 1° for a protactor.

4. All measurements should reflect the precision of the instrument used,

e.g. 3.30 mm with a micrometer, not 3.3 mm.
25.5 cm (or 0.255 m) with a metre rule.