FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
TOPIC OUTLINE
I. Site Investigation
II. Geological Methods
III. Exploration Techniques
IV. Geophysical Methods
V. Seismic and Electrical Methods
VI. Direct Penetration
VII. Core Boring
VIII. Logging of Cores
I. SITE INVESTIGATION
Site Investigation (SI) – is the exploration
or discovery of the ground conditions to
enable engineers to make informed design
decisions.
Purpose/Importance
1) Suitability – to assess the general
suitability of a site and its environs for the
proposed work
2) Design – to enable and adequate and
economic design, including for temporary
works
3) Construction – to plan the best method
of construction and, for some projects,
identify sources of suitable materials such
as concrete aggregate and fill and to
locate sites for disposal of waste.
4) Effect of changes – to consider ground
and environmental changes on the works
(e.g. intense rainfall and earthquakes) to
assess the impact of the works on adjacent
properties and on the environment.
5) Choice of site – where appropriate, to
identify alternative sites or to allow
optimal planning of the works
Parameters to be determined in a SI
1) Geological structure of the area.
- Determined by conducting extensive and
intensive geological surveys
- These surveys would reveal the entire
topographic details, occurrence of folds,
faults and major unconformities and joint
systems and geomorphic details of water
bodies
2) Lithology of the area.
- Lithological details include the type of
rocks that make up different parts of the
area, on the surface and also up to and
even beyond a desired depth, their
textures, major structures and physical
and engineering properties like hardness,
strength, modulus of elasticity, rigidity,
porosity and permeability.
3) Ground water conditions in the
region.
- The relative position of water table with
respect to the project must be thoroughly
established and all variations in it during
different periods in a year should be fully
ascertained. Whether a proposed project
would be much above the local and
regional water table, or below it or would
intercept it in some areas shall determine
to a great extent, the ultimate design and
stability of the structure and hence its
cost.
4) Seismicity of the region.
- Many cities, towns and villages in
different countries of the world have
been devastated by earthquakes. In some
cases, areas hitherto declared seismically
safe, witnessed serious seismic activity
resulting in catastrophes.
Stages of a SI
1) Desk Study
- A desk study is the collation and review
of information already available about a
site, and is carried out at an early stage of
site appraisal to inform and guide the
remainder of the site investigation.
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
- Sources of information are maps,
drawings; details of existing or historic
development, local authority information,
newspapers; geological books & journals,
memoirs, mining records; details of utilities,
services, restrictions, right-of way,
ownership of adjacent property; aerial
photograph.
2) Site Reconnaisance
- The initial document search should be
followed by a walk-over survey of the site
and its surroundings. This should be a visual
examination of the site which complements
the desk study and typically provides
valuable information on matters such as
topography, geology, surface and ground
water, vegetation, ecology, contamination,
and structures.
3) Preliminary Site Exploration
- This is carried out for small projects, light
structures, highways, airfields, etc. The main
objective of preliminary exploration is to
obtain an approximate picture of sub-soil
conditions at low cost. It is also called
general site exploration.
- The soil sample is collected from
experimental borings and shallow test pits
and simple laboratory tests such as
moisture content test, density, unconfined
compressive strength test, etc. are
conducted. Simple field tests such as
penetration methods, sounding methods,
geophysical methods are performed to get
the relative density of soils, strength
properties, etc.
4) Detailed Exploration
- Preferred for complex projects, major
engineering works, heavy structures like
dams, bridges, high rise buildings, etc. A
huge amount of capital is required for a
detailed site exploration hence, it is not
recommended for minor engineering
works where the budget is limited.
- In this stage, numerous field tests such
as in-situ vane shear test, plate load test,
etc. and laboratory tests such as
permeability tests, compressive strength
test on undistracted soil samples are
conducted to get exact values of soil
properties.
5) Preparation of soil investigation
report
A sub-soil investigation or exploration
report generally has the following
sections:
(a) Introduction
(b) Scope of site investigation
(c) Description of the proposed
structure, purpose of site
investigation
(d) Site reconnaissance details
(e) Site exploration details such as
number, location and depth of
boreholes, sampling details etc.
(f) Methods performed in site
exploration and their results.
(g) Laboratory tests performed and their
results.
(h) Details of Groundwater table level
and position.
(i) Recommended improvement
methods if needed.
(j) Recommended types of foundations,
structural details, etc.
(k) Conclusion
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
Depth of Site Investigation
The site investigation should be carried to
such a depth that the entire zone of soil or
rock affected by the changes caused by the
building or the construction will be
adequately explored.
Guidelines:
1) It is good to have at least one boring
carried to bedrock, or to well below the
anticipated level of influence of the building.
2) For light structures, insensitive to the
settlement, the boring should be to a depth
equal to four times the probable footing
width or to a depth of 6m below the lowest
part of the foundation, whichever is deeper.
3) For more heavily loaded structures, such
as multistory structures and for framed
structures, at least 50% of the borings
should be extended to a depth equal to 1.5
times the width of the building below the
lowest part of the foundation.
4) Bedrock should be proved by coring into
it to a minimum depth of 3m.
II. GEOLOGICAL METHODS
1) Surface Explorations
- These include preparation of topographic
maps (if these are not already available)
using the normal mapping techniques. In
fact all field surveys begin with the
preparation (or availability) of topographic
maps showing elevation contours relative to
some datum.
(a) Aerial Surveys. The entire area involving
an engineering study is photographed using
sophisticated cameras and controls from
low flying aero planes.
(b) Photogeology. Its scope is enlarged by
mapping of vast areas of the globe through
satellites.
(c) Hydrogeological Surveys. To obtain
hydrogeological details of the area are
also conducted partly on the surface with
a view of recording drainage pattern of
the area and discharge; location and
discharge details of springs and other
leakage points; location of wells and
measurements of water levels after
intervals to note aberrations in behaviour
with time; precipitation and evaporation
details.
2) Subsurface Explorations
These are accomplished by following two
broad methods: direct and indirect.
(a) Direct Method. Involve examination
of rocks or materials of the underground
by digging of drill holes, trial pits, adits,
shafts, galleries and exploratory tunnels.
(b) Indirect Method. Used extensively
and involve application of geophysical
techniques for obtaining fairly accurate
idea of subsurface geology.
III. EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
1) Open Excavations
- Trial pits are the cheapest method of
exploration in shallow deposits (up to
3m), since these can be used in all types
of soils. In this method, pits are excavated
at the site, exposing the sub-soil surface
thoroughly.
- The biggest advantage of this method is
that soil strata can be inspected in their
natural condition and samples (disturbed
or undisturbed) can be conveniently
taken.
- The cost of open excavation increases
rapidly with depth.
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
2) Borings
(a) Auger boring
- Augers are used in cohesive and other soft
soils above water table.
- Samples recovered from the soil brought
up by the augers are badly disturbed and
are useful for identification purposes only.
(b) Auger and shell boring
- Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting
edge or teeth at Iower end can be used for
making deep borings.
- Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays,
shells for very stiff and hard clays, and shells
or sand pumps for sandy soils.
(c) Wash boring
- A fast and simple method for advancing
holes in all types of soils. Boulders and rock
cannot be penetrated by this method.
- The samples recovered from the wash
water are almost valueless for interpreting
the correct geo-technical properties of soil.
(d) Percussion boring
- In this method, soil and rock formations
are broken by repeated blows of heavy
chiesel or bit suspended by a cable or drill
rod. The method is suitable for advancing a
hole in all types of soils, boulders and rock.
The formations, however, get disturbed by
the impact.
(e) Rotary boring
- Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very
fast method of advancing hole in both rocks
and soils.
- Rotary core barrels, provided with
commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel
bit with shots, are also used for rotary
drilling and simultaneously obtaining the
rock cores or samples. The method is
them also known as core boring or core
drilling.
3) Sub-surface sounding
- The sounding methods consist of
measuring the resistance of the soil with
depth by means of penetrometer under
static or dynamic loading.
- These tests are useful for general
exploration of erratic soil profiles, for
finding depth to bed rock or stratum, and
to have an approximate induction of the
strength and other properties of soils,
particularly for cohesionless soils, from
which it is difficult to obtain undisturbed
samples.
4) Geophysical Methods
- Used when the depth of exploration is
very large, and also when the speed of
investigation is of primary importance.
- Geophysical investigations involve the
detection of significant differences in the
physical properties of geological
formations.
- Seismic refraction method and electrical
resistivity methods are the most
commonly used for Civil Engineering
purposes.
IV. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Geophysical methods are generally
non-invasive or nondestructive
methods long used in the construction
industry for investigation of the
subsurface. Principally, these are used for
the detection of geologic anomalies such
as cavities and voids, detection of
buried pipes and other utilities,
detection of water bearing aquifers for
well development, exploitation of
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
quarries and in determining soil
stratification or layering. In addition, the
methods provide a means for verifying as
constructed pavement thicknesses in a
continuous unbroken image of the
pavement structural configuration or
determining rebar embedment and layout
nondestructively.
The use of Geophysical methods
confers advantages as they generally speed
up the process of investigation, provide
continuous streams of information not
otherwise available in discrete sampling or
invasive procedures and give advance
information on what to expect for a given
locality before a more detailed and costly
soil exploration is even planned. Thus,
Geophysical methods are a force multiplier
for the engineer and allow the user to
identify potential problem areas or target
areas even before the start of a detailed Soil
Exploration program.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
- GPR uses high-frequency pulsed
electromagnetic waves to map subsurface
information. It has transmitting antenna
that radiates short pulses of high-frequency
radio waves into the ground.
Parts of a GPR
1) Control Unit
2) Antenna
3) Roller
Process
Frequency
Applications
• Used for detection of Cavities and
Geologic Anomalies
• Used for detection of Buried objects
such as pipes, Improvised Explosive
Devices (IED’s) mines, subsurface
disturbances and Archeological
artifacts
• Used for environmental scanning to
determine waste landfills 4 Internet
download
• Used For determination of structural
thickness of Roadways and
pavements
• Used for detection of Rebars and
other embedded Objects in Concrete
Fig. The GPR equipment being used
scanning for Buried Pipes and
aqueducts.
Limitations
• Moist, clayey soils, electrical
conductivity
• Plastic
• Sand
• Noise
• Water
V. SEISMIC AND ELECTRICAL METHODS
Seismic Refraction Method
- Seismic refraction consists of sending
shock waves into the soil either by use of
hammer striking a steel plate or with
the use of explosives. The vibrations
induced are picked up by a Seismograph
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE

through an array of geophones which pick Advantages/ Disadvantages

up the refracted and reflected signals.
Seismic refraction is a geophysical method
used for investigating subsurface ground
conditions by utilizing surface-sourced
seismic waves. Data acquired on site is
computer processed and interpreted to
produce models of the seismic velocity and
layer thickness of the subsurface ground
structure. The method is commonly used for
measuring the thickness of overburden in
areas where bedrock is at depth, and
assessing seismic rippability parameters.
Georesistivity Method
- fall into the category of Vertical Electrical
Applications
Surveys which sends electrical current
• Measures Bedrock Depth & Overburden
into the subsurface. The resulting
Thickness
electrical resistivities are then measured
• Determines Seismic Rippability
and correlated and compared with
Parameters
various soil types and water bearing
• Investigates Pipeline Routes
aquifers to yield layering or stratification
• Locates Geological Structures
information as well as identify other layer
• Evaluates Sand & Gravel Deposits
properties. Two commonly used methods
Process are the Schlumberger Electrode array
(Shown below) and the Wenner Electrode
array. The former method is more
popular for use in well or aquifer surveys.

Gravitational Method
- The gravity method works because
different earth materials have different
densities (mass) and hence produce
different gravitational fields. Gravitational
field variations can be interpreted to
determine a source's depth, geometry
and density.
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
Magnetic Method
- A geophysical prospecting method that
maps variations in the magnetic field of the
Earth that are attributable to changes of
structure or magnetic susceptibility in
certain near-surface rocks. Sedimentary
rocks generally have a very small
susceptibility compared with igneous or
metamorphic rocks, and most magnetic
surveys are designed to map structure on or
within the basement, or to detect magnetic
minerals directly. Most magnetic
prospecting is now carried on with airborne
instruments.
VI. DIRECT PENETRATION
- The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a
common in site testing method used to
determine the geotechnical engineering
properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple
and inexpensive test to estimate the relative
density of soils and approximate shear
strength parameters.
- It is the most common and widely used in
geotechnical investigations for various
projects. It is used to determine the in-situ
density and angle of shearing resistance of
cohesionless soils and also the strength of
cohesive soils.
- It is found to be of great use in cases
where it is difficult to obtain undisturbed
samples for testing, for example, in gravelly,
sandy, silty, sandy clay, or weak rock
formations.
VII. CORE BORING
Core Drill
- A hollow, cylindrical drill that is used to
make holes through a surface. It is made of
metal, and the drill tips are usually coated
with either diamond or carbide.
Core Drilling
- Core drilling is the best method for
testing concrete, but it is very expensive.
If the quality of concrete in a structure is
suspected to be weakened with general
inspections.
- Scaling, leaching, or pattern cracking
can be signs of the need for core drilling.
Drilling
- Drilling is a cutting process that uses a
drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular
cross-section in solid material.
How deep does core drilling go?
It depends on the structure. For example,
a massive structure may require core
sampling to be done at a depth of up to 2
feet. The diameter of a core sample
should be at least three times the
nominal maximum size of aggregate.
When there is little mortar bonding the
concrete across the diameter of the core,
you are likely to wind up with rubble
rather than a solid sample. Core samples
must be properly labeled, oriented, and
stored for future observation. Written
records are also required to maintain
consistency in the historical data.
Four Methods of Drilling
1) Percussion drilling
2) Churn drilling
3) Diamond core
4) Rotary, jet and auger drilling
1) Percussion Drilling
- It consists basically of a hammer unit
which is driven by compressed air. This
hammer unit imparts a series of short,
rapid, blows to the drill steel or rods and
at the same time slowly rotates them.
Mainly used for water well drilling and
not commonly used in mineral expo
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE
2) Churn Drilling
- It is a drilling technique in which a
sharpened steel bit attached to rope or
cable is repeatedly raised and lowered at the
rate of 30-60 strokes/min and crushing the
rock and making the hole deeper.
- Useful in exploration work for sampling
soft formations up to a depth of 100-150 m.
3) Diamond Core
- Designed specifically for mineral
exploration and is the most important type
of drilling.
- Recovery of the core drill enables details of
the geology, ground conditions and
mineralogy to be obtained that is not
possible with any other method.
Two Types of Diamond Drilling:
- Conventional and wire line. In
conventional drilling the rods have to be
removed from the hole each time. It is
necessary to recover core from the Core
barrel. In wire line drilling the core can be
removed from the hole without withdrawing
the rods.
4.1) Jet Drilling: It is a placer sampling
method where a casing and chisel-pointed
bit are advanced by percussion while water
is forced ahead to loosen the material and
to flush out and bring the sample to the
surface. It is replacing churn drilling in many
placer mining districts where minerals other
than gold are involved.
4.2) Auger drills: They are important in soil
sampling, beach placer sampling, and in
evaluating clay deposits. In any event, auger
drilling stops at the first boulder.
4.3) Rotary Drills: is mostly used to drill big
holes in large quarries, open pit mines,
petroleum extraction, and other fields.
PD. 1096 National Building Code of the
Philippines
Section 08.01 Article 2 Paragraph B.
(1) Excavation or fills for any building
structure and excavations or fills
accessory thereto shall be so constructed or
protected that they do not endanger life
and property.
(2) Whenever or wherever the depth of
any excavation for a new construction is
such that the lateral and subjacent
support of the adjoining property or
existing structure thereon would be
affected in a manner that the stability of
safety of the same is in endanger, the
person undertaking or causing the
excavation to be undertaking or causing
the excavation to be undertaken shall be
responsible for the expense of
underpinning or extending the foundation
or footings of the aforementioned
property or structure only when such
underpinning is necessary for the safety
of the same during excavation.
VIII. LOGGING OF CORES
Core Logging
- the systematic recording and measuring
of as much information as
possible/required to determine the
lithology (rock types), mineralogy,
potential geological history, structure and
alteration zones through a tiny piece of
cylindrical rock drilled and removed from
a potential mineral deposit.
- considered the primary method of
determining grade, size and mine-ability
of a potential mineral deposit drill cores
are relied on by exploration and mining
companies around the world
 FINALS | GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CE

Core – A cylindrical section of rock, or

fragment thereof, taken as a sample of the
interval penetrated by a core barrel and
brought to the surface for examination and
for analysis.

WHY IS CORE LOGGING IMPORTANT?

Core logging forms an important aspect of
an exploration geologist job and Important
stage in the follow up work to an exploration
target. At some stage in your engineering
geological career, you are going to have to
log core. Without good core logging any
foundation design is worthless and the onus
is on the engineering geologist to produce
high quality logs on which the engineer can
base his design.